Korea's Three Kingdoms PDF

◤ Korea’s Three Kingdoms ◤ Go-Choson’s Founding Dangun Myth Dangun, the offspring of a heavenly prince and a bear-woman, founded Gojoseon in 2333 BC ▪ Hwanin, the Lord of Heaven, had a son named Hwanung, who descended to Baekdu Mountain and founded the cit...

◤ Korea’s Three Kingdoms ◤ Go-Choson’s Founding Dangun Myth Dangun, the offspring of a heavenly prince and a bear-woman, founded Gojoseon in 2333 BC ▪ Hwanin, the Lord of Heaven, had a son named Hwanung, who descended to Baekdu Mountain and founded the city of Shinsi ▪ A bear and a tiger came to Hwanung and wanted to become people ▪ Hwanung told them to live in a cave for 100 days while only eating mugwort and garlic ▪ Then he would change them into humans ▪ After 50 days, the tiger gave up and ran away ▪ The bear was successful; she became a beautiful woman called Ungnyeo ▪ Hwanung later married Ungnyeo, and she gave birth to Dangun  ◤ ◤ Heaven Lake of Baekdu Mountain: Where Dangun's father descended from heaven Go-Choson◤ Dangun story is a mythical synthesis of a series of historical events relating to the founding of Go-Choson ▪ Some anthropologists believe Dangun myth likely based on joining of an invading sky-worshipping Bronze Age tribe and native bear-worshipping Neolithic tribe ▪ This union led to the foundation of Go-Choson ▪ “Dangun-wanggeom” was a title borne by Go-Choson’s leaders ▪ Dangun is said to have founded Go-Choson around 2333 BC ◤ China and Choson Central Asian nomads constant thorn in China’s side ▪ Qin and Han China: Siberian and Manchurian tribes moved into peninsula ▪ Brought knowledge of bronze and iron ▪ Chinese influence expanded, bringing new agricultural techniques and the use of metal ▪ Amid these influences, ancient Choson emerged The ◤Four Commanderies ∙ 109 BCE: Han Emperor crushed nomadic threat by outflanking nomads and conquering ancient Choson o 108 BCE (the next year): he destroyed Choson and replaced it with 4 military commands o Commands in charge of much of southern Manchuria and northern half of Korean peninsula ▪ Han found it very difficult to maintain their hold on such large, distant lands o After a single generation, only one commanderie remained o Known as Nangnang with its capital at Pyongyang ◤ Nangnang Nangnang endured for 4 centuries ▪ Outlasted the Han by 100 years ▪ Ruling class was Chinese ▪ Culture a replica of that of the Chinese capital ▪ Finest remains of Han dynasty culture have been discovered in and around Pyongyang 313 AD: Resurgent Koreans overwhelmed Nangnang and retook the region ▪ But Nangnang had already established a permanent place for Chinese influence on the peninsula  ◤ Nangnang Capital: Pyongyang A scene of historic paragons of filial piety, Chinese artwork on a lacquered basketwork box, excavated from an Eastern-Han tomb in Nangnang (Lelang) Commandery  The ◤ Three Kingdoms Outside of Chinese commanderies, Koreans gradually came together into three kingdoms: ▪ Koguryo (Goguryeo) ▪ Silla ▪ Paekche (Baekje) Process of Korean consolidation owes debt to example of Nangnang 7th century Tang painting of envoys from the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla ◤ Koguryo Koguryo people: A hunting tribe in the mountainous regions of Manchuria and northern Korea o As China relinquished its authority, Koguryo asserted their own o Koguryo conquered Nangnang, completing its control of the northern peninsula  Southern ◤ Peninsula Southern part of the peninsula a different story o Conditions more favorable in south for settled agriculture o This slowed state-building o Tribal people in southeast called themselves the Han o Belonged to three broad groups with no centralized authority o Mahan, Chinhan, & Pyonhan ∙ By middle of 4th century, two states had emerged in south  ◤ Silla to the East; Paekche to the West Paekche most likely settled by people coming from the Yenisei River area in Siberia ▪ Fluctuating division between Koguryo in the north and Silla and Paekche in the south in the general vicinity of the 38th parallel Yeniseian Fisher Folk, 1913 ◤ Three Kingdoms Period, 0 to 668 AD Characterized in early phase by Koguryo ascendancy ▪ Repeated wars between militant Koguryo and less warlike southern neighbors  ◤ Paekche 4th C. Paekche: Prosperous and cultured state o Capital located in modern-day Kwangju o Traded frequently with China and Japan o Used Japan as ally against Koguryo o Extensively influenced by Chinese culture ◤ Buddhism Paekche first encountered Buddhism in 384 (after Koguryo) ▪ But Paekche first transmitted Buddhism and other Chinese scholarship to embryonic Japan ▪ Organized administration along Chinese lines ▪ Bureaucratic rank determined by color of robes: ▪ Top ranks wore purple robes and caps with embroidered silver flowers ▪ Next tier wore dark red robes ▪ Bottom ranks wore green ◤ Silla Silla isolated geographically o Less affected by Chinese culture or outside conquest o At first weak and backward compared to other two states ▪ Confederation rather than central autocracy o Consisted of 6 major constituent tribes ruled by an elite leadership o Leadership divided into strict hereditary classes known as “bone ranks”  ◤ A hereditary caste system based on birth ∙ Bone rank determined highest official grade you could obtain; luxury of Bone Rank your personal dress; size of your residence; decorations on your saddles System and chariot ∙ Anyone could fill lower ranks but bone ranks acted as glass ceiling ∙ Prevented rise beyond a certain prescribed degree Bone Rank System Silla Hwarang ◤ Silla also had groups of young warriors known as hwarang, ▪ Group’s training and esprit de corps still legendary Increasing Chinese influence a factor in Silla’s growing power and increasing political organization ▪ Early position of Silla as tributary state to Koguryo accelerated Silla’s adoption of Chinese culture ▪ Eventually led to establishment of direct ties between Silla and China  ◤ Demise of Kaya 6th century: Silla and Paekche together crushed a smaller confederation of Han tribes known as the Kaya o Then Silla extended its territory at Paekche’s expense o 553: Paekche’s King Song so furious at betrayal that he personally led an expedition against Silla o King Song died in confusion of night battle, ending Paekche’s hopes for return of status As in previous ◤ periods of Chinese strength, Sui emperors undertook Involvement of Sui campaigns to control the northern barbarians Dynasty o Campaigns instigated against Koguryo came after Koguryo raids on Sui territory and o Koguryo apologized and were forgiven o But in 607, China discovered Koguryo emissary in court of Turkish khan who was harassing Sui along northern border o Sui invaded Koguryo repeatedly, but Korea resisted Chinese invasions ◤ Ulchi Mundok Expense of second Sui emperor’s Koguryo invasions contributed to his overthrow by the Tang dynasty ▪ Hero of Koguryo’s campaign was General Ulchi Mundok, still acclaimed as Korean national hero today ∙ 612: Caught the Sui Emperor off-guard ∙ Tricked Chinese emperor into splitting his army ∙ Lured them into trap at Anju and destroyed them But◤ Chinese interference not so easily shrugged off… ∙ China frequently tried to take advantage of rivalries and competition between three kingdoms ∙ Kingdoms often fought among themselves o Since land was plentiful and manpower scarce, people often became currency of politics o 1st Century: When Koguryo captured Paekche’s capital, the ransom for its return was 1000 households ▪ Dearth of people led to rise of slavery ▪ Slavery forced captive people to remain in service positions ▪ Also reinforced status of elite ◤ 660: Silla allied with China Chinese naval assault crushed Paekche o 668: Silla and China turned on Koguryo, destroying it as well o Took a few years to push Chinese out of territory they had conquered and intended to hold o End of 7th century: Silla alone ruled a united Korea Silla Consolidation, 668-935 KOREAN UNIFICATION, TAKE 1  Silla Consolidation End of 7th century: Most of Korean peninsula brought under single government ► First time in history when Korean peninsula unified under indigenous Korean leadership ► Remained unified (more or less) until after WWII King Muyol’s Tomb and Memorial Stele Leaders in reunification effort were Silla’s King Muyeol and his brother-in-law , General Kim Yusin General Kim Yusin Largely responsible for the defeats of Paekche and Korguryo Later ensured that Tang allies returned to China After consolidation, Silla brought many Koguryo and Paekche leaders into their ruling elite With China gone, Silla accepted a tributary relationship By 676, Tang emperor had decided to leave Silla alone ❖ Tang troops fully engaged in fighting in Tibet ❖ Tibetan kerfluffle threatened China’s western trade routes ❖ Disruption made Tang postpone war with Silla indefinitely ❖ Respite from war proved essential to Silla government ❖ Allowed them to lay the groundwork for the independent historical development of the Korean people Bureaucratic Reorganization ► After unification, Silla reorganized along Chinese bureaucratic model ► Complex system of ministries and bureaus created ► Peninsula divided into nine provinces, which were each divided into prefectures and subprefectures ► Military garrisons established across country Despite Chinese influence on Silla, distinctive Korean characteristics remained ❑ Bureaucratic class based on merit never firmly established ❑ Instead of merit examinations, Silla retained bone-rank system ❑ Rigid class distinctions with virtual serfdom among peasants and the existence of slaves ❑ Old aristocracy remained firmly in control Sokkuram Grotto, Kyongju Buddhism more influential than Confucianism o Great Buddhist temples and shrine erected under official state patronage ▪ Artificial stone grotto on mountaintop near Silla capital of Kyongju  Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism most successful in Korea ▪ Pure Land theology said salvation came through calling on the name of Amida Buddha ▪ Salvation led to rebirth in the Western Paradise where Buddha dwelled ▪ As in China and Japan, the simplicity of Pure Land theology attracted people in lands ravaged by war  Silla: The Middle Period Politically, Silla's middle period is characterized by the rising power of the monarchy at the expense of the jingol (True Bone) nobility ∙ Increasing royal power made possible by new wealth and prestige garnered as a result of Silla's unification of the peninsula o Monarchy's successful suppression of several aristocratic revolts also strengthened royal power King Sinmun 681: King Sinmun used attempted coup as excuse to eliminate several of the most powerful aristocratic families, rivals to central authority ► Late 7th-late 8th centuries: Monarchy tried to divest aristocratic officialdom of landed base by instituting system of salary payments ► This was in lieu of former system whereby aristocratic officials were given grants of land to exploit as salary ► Also sought unsuccessfully to move capital to Daegu, far from base of aristocratic power Silla: King v. Aristocracy But Silla kings eventually proved unable to upstage or suppress the entire bone-rank hierarchy o Leading provincial families sent representatives to serve as officials in Kyongju ▪ But exposure to capital only made bone-rankers aspire to greater power ▪ King couldn’t promote anyone without alienating the other factions ▪ Most of these low-level officials were only hostages guaranteeing the good behavior of their kinsmen anyway Bone-rank System No matter how powerful the king, the bone-ranks could still make a concerted effort to usurp royal authority o Rebellions by high officials shattered the peace of the countryside in 768, 770, & 775 Silla Disintegrates 780: bone-rankers depose King Hyegong, the last blood descendent of the dynasty’s founder King Muyol ∙ Forces of a rebelling high official stormed the palace and slew the king and queen ∙ Internal decay began to devour Silla ∙ Cohesiveness of ruling group broke down as various factions battled for supremacy o Killing of a king caused members of collateral lines of royal family to ascend throne in rapid succession as various factions sought ascendancy through force or guile o Peasantry rose in revolt or retreated into banditry King Hyegong Historical records suggest he was homosexual ► Behavior was described as girlish ► Historians described him as “a man by appearance but a wman by nature” ► His death – or, at least, his subordinates’ unwillingness to support him – is often attributed to his sexuality Stands in stark contrast to the Hwarang of the early Silla ► Translates as “Flower Boys” ► Widely believed to have oarticipated in same-sex relationships within warrior groups  Wang Kon For the last 100 years of the Silla, no central government exercised general control over the peninsula ∙ Rival leaders arose o Carved out domains for themselves known as “latter Koguryo” and “latter Paekche” ∙ 936: latter Paekche general named Wang Kon overthrew the Silla dynasty o Proclaimed the establishment of the Koryo dynasty o Moved capital to modern-day Kaesong ▪ But treated the fallen ruling class of the Silla kindly ∙ Days of the Silla empire were over  Silla-Tang-Yamato: A Concurrent Golden Age Silla era a brilliant period for East Asia at large, with China flourishing under the Tang dynasty and Japan beginning to emerge as a state ∙ Much of the flowering of culture in all three lands is attributable to the rise and success of Buddhism at that time o In Korean peninsula, stone and brick pagodas arose, along with fine wooden buildings modeled on the Chinese style o Bas-reliefs carved in man-made caves like Sokkuram near Kyongju Bronze Bells Magnificent bronze statues and bells were cast ▪ Largest surviving Korean bell cast in 771 measures 2.27m in diameter and 3.3m high Silla Calligraphy ∙ Silla legend recalls the existence of a scholar – Kim Saeng (b. 711) – whose calligraphy was so powerful that when it was hung a temple, the whole building listed to one side o The calligraphy was hastily rewritten in smaller characters and the building righted itself  Established the dominant central authority of the Impact of Silla Korean peninsula as a unique and independent polity, separate from the Chinese commanderies Consolidation? which had begun Korean centralization some 8 centuries before… Koryo Korea  Shifting Power By blocking all opportunities for political advancement to provincial families, the Silla kings forced provincial nobility to look elsewhere for opportunities ∙ Many provincial noble families looked beyond the Korean peninsula to China and Japan ∙ Result was an increase in private enterprise that shifted wealth and power away from the capital at Kyongju and into the commercial centers of outlying provinces Kaesong One of these new commercial centers was Kaesong, the home of the grandfather of Wang Kon, the man who founded the Koryo dynasty Castle Lords of the late Silla Loosening ties between the provinces and the capital allowed local leaders to gather forces and construct fortified homes ∙ Regional lords became known as “castle lords” ∙ They controlled much of the countryside and made it almost impossible for government officials to collect taxes Peasant Rebellion Peasants mercilessly squeezed between exactions of extravagant court aristocracy and the castle lords ▪ How did the peasants respond? By rebelling o Initial peasant uprisings went uncontained by Silla troops ▪ Insurgent bands soon combed countryside and combined into forces large enough to hold wide swaths of territory  Kyonhwon One such rebel was Kyonhwon, a peasant soldier from the mountainous interior who endeavored to restore the lost state of Paekche o Kyonhwon sacked Kyongju in 927 ▪ Executed the Silla king and carried off the royal treasury o Kyonhwon might have emerged as the leader of a unified Korea except his despotic nature and lack of ruling experience caused northern part of peninsula to resist him  Wang Kon Alternative was Wang Kon: o He was familiar with international commerce and had experience as a general o Offered the country the best chance for unity o Determined and devoted to Korean state o 918: named his dynasty Koryo, an abbreviation of Koguryo and the source of our western name “Korea”  Kaesong 936: Wang Kon finally overthrew the Silla, proclaiming the establishment of the Koryo dynasty and moving the capital to Kaesong ∙ New dynasty again drew on Chinese model in organizing its political institutions o Modeled new capital Kaesong after Chinese capital Chang’an  Aristocratic Reforms Abolished old bone-rank system ∙ Chose Silla princess as his queen ∙ Appointed Silla nobles to Koryo posts ∙ Refused to inherit any institutions that had caused such aristocratic difficulties for the Silla  Buddhism was still state religion Status of women appears to have been higher in Korea than it was in China at the same time Koryo differed Retained its hereditary aristocratic distinctions Chinese examination system for admittance from Chinese into bureaucracy did exist but only sons of aristocrats were allowed to take it example in Extended family (or clan) system even stronger than that of China several ways: As time went on, aristocracy gained more and more independent control over their own holdings, thus strengthening themselves at the expense of the central state No Peace for Koryo Unification of the whole peninsula not enough to bring lasting peace to Koryo ∙ Age-old tendency to fragment into separate states was stopped but the influence of the castle lords remained significant o Rebellion broke out within 2 years of Wang Kon’s death Shifting Capitals Next emperor suppressed the rebellions ❑ Moved capital to Pyongyang, farther from troubled political environment of Kaesong ❑ 3rd emperor, Kwangjong, finally brought castle lords under control King Kwangjong Kwangjong struck directly at the manpower of provincial gentry o 958: Introduced civil service exams to appoint scholars unconnected to powerful families to official posts o Regularized grants of land made to officials as salary to ensure lands reverted to the crown upon official's death Reform at Swordpoint Decreed that former commoners enslaved through war or poverty should be freed When old aristocrats showed displeasure at these edicts, Kwangjong had them killed immediately, even if they were descended from the original cohort that had supported the dynasty King versus Aristocracy ▪ But Kwangjong still required an administration to run his kingdom ▪ He still required aristocratic class able to prepare themselves as exam candidates and fill official posts in Koryo ▪ So once again, Koryo gradually converted into an educated aristocratic state with a deep respect for lineage and with the king as a supervisor of a centralized administration  During its first century (the 10th century), Koryo successfully withstood invasion by Tungusic Khitan tribes from the north ∙ Used opportunity provided by invasion to push northern Khitan Tribes border north to its current location along Yalu and Tumen rivers ∙ Resultant peace led to era of thriving commercial, intellectual, and artistic activity Late 10th century: Confucian scholars dispatched to take charge of local government in 12 newly established provinces o By this time, Kaesong had become a large city o 1029: 10,000 laborers built wall around Kaesong, crowning its gates with tiles roofs in the Chinese style o Urban culture with emphasis on secondary and post-secondary education emerged Buddhism and Shamanism in ancient Koryo ▪ Nearly 10,000 monks fed together at seasonal vegetarian feasts in Kaesong ▪ 1016 and 1087: Entire Buddhist canon cut onto wood blocks ▪ Koryo certainly represents the height of Buddhism in Korean Peninsula  Rivalry Royal among Koryo’s weakness court factions Decay Growth of Indifference tax-exempt to the aristocratic problems of landholdings the peasants  Emerging Warlords 1170: Due in part to Confucian influence, pay of military officers dipped increasingly beneath that of civil service officials, causing resentment in military o Koryo military officials, perceiving themselves discriminated against by civil officials, seize power o Three decades of civil war and revolt ensue o Finally, single warlord emerges to consolidate rule in a system reminiscent of the Japanese shogunate o His name was Ch’oe Ch’ung-hon  Ch’oe Ch’ung-hon 1169: Ch’oe Ch’ung-hon took direct command of palace guard and stationed military units loyal to him personally around Kaesong o In 16 years, Ch’oe Ch’ung-hon deposed two kings and set 4 others on the throne ▪ He dismissed all civilian ministers from the government ▪ When several thousand Buddhist monks took up arms to oppose military rule, Ch’oe Ch’ung-hon let his soldiers drive them forcibly from the capital  Army versus Aristocrats Power of Ch’oe Ch’ung-hon rested on the loyalty and courage of his own soldiers ▪ A mixed group including many impoverished peasants and slaves ▪ 1219: After Ch’oe’s death, accommodation reached between army and civil government ▪ Family ruled for 60 years with increasingly incompetent kings ∙ BUT…eventually some civil officials allowed to return to government  The Arrival of the Mongols ▪ Sudden compromise was forced by the Mongols ▪ Persistent attacks between 1225-1259 left Koryo little choice but to band together for national salvation Koryo Korea: Political Resurgence and Life under Mongol Rule Khitan Meddling Koryo state greatly weakened by despotic regime of Ch’oe Ch’unghon Ch’oe’s inept successors further destabilized troubled realm But dynasty also constantly under attack from the outside by northern tribes 1011: Khitan actually captured Koryo capital before being expelled o Burned Kaesong to ground on way out of town First Interactions… Koryo’s initial contacts with the Mongols were friendly Khitans had wreaked havoc in northern Koryo for two years so Koryo cooperated with Mongols to defeat them After Khitan surrendered to combined Mongol-Koryo force, Mongols forced tributary relationship on Goryeo Mongols demanded huge annual tribute in 1219 but King Gojong (r. 1213-1259) refused to pay 1225: Koreans killed the Mongol envoy while he was traveling back to China 1231: Mongols Invade Using the killing of their envoy as justification, Ögedei Khan ordered the invasion of Korea Mongol forces marched on capital city Kaeseong Innumerable tales of courage and treachery from this time 26 August 1231: Mongols cross the Yalu… Mongol force surrounded Hamsin-chin (modern-day Uiju) Koryo officials surrendered city to the Mongols Mixed Responses to Invasion Hong Pok-wŏn defected and submitted the area and 1,500 households Hong given the title “Commander of 10,000 families of Koryo Warriors” Hong family later acted as guides for Mongols during campaigns Hamgyong Province(right): men slit their throats and burned the granary Killed all the women and children rather than submit to the Mongols Mobilizing the State… Mongols continued south Bypassed the Western Capital (Pyongyang) where they encountered stiff resistance Slave army led by Ji Gwang-su fought to the death Resistance resulted in shocking civilian toll Mongols eventually reached Chabi Pass, the gateway to Kaesong Koryo forced to sue for peace Koryo’s surrender did not stop localized conflict Mongols returned to sack cities previously taken At the Siege of Kuju, forces gathered from surrounding cities to defend against the Mongols Surrounding the city, Mongol forces attacked the west, south, and north gates repeatedly. Used carts of grass and wood as well as towers to try to scale the walls Defenders countered with molten iron, setting fire to the siege machines Mongols also tried to mine the city walls but the tunnel collapsed Mongols attacked south wall with 15 large catapults Korean defenders used their own catapults to drive off the attackers Used mud and water to put out fires by inflammatory projectiles Mongols withdrew for a time after 40 days of besieging the city but returned later with reinforcements. Cities finally submitted after multiple orders from the Koryo court Korean leaders of anti-Mongol resistance almost executed but Mongols ultimately spared them, impressed by their immense courage  Catapult Catapults were used to launch various things over enemy walls. The catapult would also launch rocks against walls to try to knock them down.  Trebuchet The trebuchet was a more high-tech catapult. It could launch heavier projectiles farther than the regular catapult could. It was also more accurate and was typically used to destroy walls rather than to throw things over them. It could launch rocks of up to 1,500 kg.  Mangonel A mangonel also hurled items like rocks at enemy walls. It was less accurate than a trebuchet but could hurl projectiles with much more force. The mangonel was typically used for knocking down walls. Mongol Siege Equipment and Pontoon Bridges Court in Exile 1231: Under Mongol attack, Kaesong abandoned as court took refuge offshore on island of Kanghwa Began constructing significant defenses to prepare for Mongol attack Move to Kanghwa Island exploited Mongols weakness: attacking over water Mongols immediately launched second attack While aristocracy hid, peasantry ordered to gather in mountain strongholds and prosecute guerilla war against invading Mongol forces  Invasion of 1254 particularly grim Mongols took away 200,000 captives, left behind countless piles of severed heads When in 1258, the last of Ch’oe’s line was killed by the Mongol invaders, Koryo court seized opportunity to sue for peace After 25 years of warfare, Korea submitted to Mongols Korean kings, with titles and privileges reduced, married off to Mongol princesses Sons held captive at the Mongol court in Beijing King Gongmin (1330–1374) and Queen No  Peace with Mongols Price of peace with the Mongols was as follows: 1. Cession of northern part of Korean peninsula 2. Elimination of anti-Mongol faction among Koryo’s military leadership 3. Assistance with two Mongol assaults on Japan Mongol officials closely watched Korean administration and Mongol culture strongly influenced ruling classes Evidence of Mongol influence apparent in Korean cuisine and Korean military costumes Invasions of Japan Koreans mobilized to support Mongols’ unsuccessful attempts to invade Japan Results for Korea were devastating Resources of peninsula recklessly consumed Famine stalked land Only presence of Mongol soldiers held starving peasants in check Everyone knew Koryo dynasty little more than puppet and yet Mongols propped up Koryo court for a century Rise of Provincial Nobility Without Mongol support, Koryo dynasty could not have endured During this period, provincial nobles formed great estates for their own benefit without contributing to royal treasury 1360s: Eventual collapse of Mongol power left a void that aristocracy was eager to fill Contest between noble factions lasted until 1362 Height of Buddhist influence But Koryo saw the growth of Confucian influence as well Buddhism still effectively the state religion Buddhist temples and clergy were powerful and often wealthy Some temples had large landholdings and private armies Oldest remaining wooden temple buildings date from 13th century Many stone pagodas also survive from Koryo period Tripitaka Koreana Entire Buddhist scripture codified and carved onto wooden blocks during Koryo’s early years Blocks destroyed by invading Mongols Second set of 80,000 blocks prepared as penance in early period of Mongol struggle These still exist today in Haeinsa, a temple in southeastern Korea Literary Life Graphic art and poetry flourished, especially among emerging Confucian literati who expressed themselves in Chinese language Two important historical works date from Koryo era: Samguk Sagi, or History of the Three Kingdoms Samguk Yusa, or Records of the Three Kingdoms  The peasantry had changga (long poems) with accompanying songs The Turkish Bakery I go to the Turkish shop, buy a bun, An old Turk grasps me by the hand. If this story is spread abroad, You alone are to blame, little actor. I will go, yes, go to his bower: A narrow place, sultry and dark. I go to the Samjang Temple, light the lantern, A chief priest grasps me by the hand. If this story is spread abroad, You alone are to blame, little altar boy. I will go, yes, go to his bower: A narrow place, sultry and dark. Koryo Ceramics (celadon, or “greenware”) Celadon first introduced from China Achieved native style by 12th century Celadon bowls and vases first appeared in Koryo era Famous for inlay techniques using black and white clay to create images and patterns  Koryo Printing 1240: Korean sources claim to have invented moveable metal type Paris museum houses sample of Koryo printing dating to 1377 which considerably predates Gutenberg But with political and economic problems, Koryo dynasty could not survive mid-14th century collapse of Mongol empire Death knell came in battle against China 1391: Koryo court sent general out to Death of face advancing armies of China’s new Ming dynasty Koryo General realized futility of task and made peace with Ming instead In other words, the general marched on his own court Yi Song-gye General Yi Song-gye turned on the Koryo court and seized control of it 1392: Yi Song-gye declared a new dynasty Moved the capital to its present location in Seoul Readopted ancient name Choson for dynasty and country Koryo era had come to a close Choson Dynasty The Last Chinese Dynasty  Ming Dynasty Ming was the last Chinese dynasty to rule China ∙ Ming demonstrate the continued vitality of Chinese tradition and its potential for growth and transformation o Government stable until near the end o People generally prosperous o In fact, the final dynasty, the Qing, owe much of their success to the firm foundation provided them by the Ming  Zheng He Vigor of the Ming most spectacularly demonstrated by 7 maritime voyages commissioned by the emperor and led by eunuch Zheng He (1371-1433) o 1st voyage consisted of 27,800 men, 63 large ships and 255 smaller ones o Destinations included various areas of Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, Arabia, the east coast of Africa  Ming Expeditions Expedition can be viewed as aspect of early Ming military and political assertiveness o Effectively demonstrated Ming power and brought new tribute envoys to the Ming court o Trade also a motivating factor in the Ming expeditions ▪ Exotic items came from across the world ∙ Ming emperor reportedly most delighted by receipt of a giraffe ∙ But abandonment of expeditions signifies a shift in emphasis for the dynasty as a whole o They trimmed back their ambitions for global involvement o Maintenance of ocean-going vessels made superfluous by an adjustment on the Grand Canal that allowed grain barges to use it year-round o Mongol troubles also made land expeditions a necessity ▪ Ocean expeditions just a luxury  Eunuchs As Ming progressed, increasing eunuch power signaled a rise in tensions between eunuchs and Confucian literate ∙ By the end of the 16th century, eunuch power had increased dramatically at the expense of the emperor’s authority ∙ This phenomenon of decay and eunuch dominance really signaled the beginning of the end for the Ming dynasty  Increasingly annoyed by life in Forbidden City Emperor Quarrelling of Wanli advisers Jockeying for favors (1572-1620) and bickering among high officials and advisors Overprotective courtiers  Life as Son of Heaven couldn’t be that fun, in many ways… Forbidden So he gave up Stopped reading historical and philosophical texts that were basis of City rule Stopped reading state papers, stopped holding official audiences, stopped filling high level vacancies in bureaucracy  Does this mean it didn’t get done? So who did it? Eunuchs What’s a eunuch and why did they have them? Eunuchs existed in court for thousands of years but Ming used them everywhere More than 10,000 in Beijing by Wanli’s time Since Wanli wouldn’t ever come out, eunuchs became his intermediaries The Emperor and his Gave them incredible power Eunuchs and distanced the emperor from the state  Eunuch Corruption By 1590, eunuchs hopelessly corrupt and tyrannical – Required bribes to deliver messages in Gugong – Tyrannized and extorted money from rural gentry – Imprisoned, tortured, and killed political enemies – Discontent spread across country, especially among urban and local elites Concerned scholars forced to examine causes of social problems Blame pinned on breakdown in ethical standards, flaws in educational system, and rampant individualism Philosophical societies emerged to combat these dangerous trends  Donglin Academy Founded in 1604 Used all their influence to remove corrupt officials from posts Death of Emperor Wanli resulted in meteoric rise in their stature But they threatened the power of the eunuchs  Wei Zhongxian 1624: Donglin leader criticized most notoriously corrupt eunuch, Wei Zhongxian Wei had senior court official beaten to death in retaliation Emperor didn’t criticize Wei for his actions Wei believed the emperor supported his actions 1624 – 1626: Wei and eunuchs led active campaign of terror against Donglin members The cost? The disgrace of the state, severe and perhaps irreparable 1627: Wei Zhongxian eventually condemned, took his own life, but it was too late  Wei Zhongxian enduring the torments of Hell  But things already weren’t going well for the Ming Nomadic Mongols raided China from north and northwest Mongol Raids Once captured a Ming emperor campaigning against them, once road nearly to the gates of Beijing By late Ming, had to bribe Mongols to keep them in check Southern Pirates Pirates raided from southern coasts Looted cities at will, seized women and children for personal use or for ransom Mainly Chinese fugitives, but also Japanese and escaped black slaves from Macao as well Japanese Invasion of Korea 1590’s: Japanese army invaded Korea ▪ Terrible grinding war that involved Chinese troops who were sent to protect Korea ▪ Only internal turmoil in Japan ended conflict Spanish Silver Dollars Portuguese (from Macao) became middlemen in silk trade with Japan Portuguese silver became lynchpin of Chinese economy Spanish/Mexican silver became universal currency in China Great wealth for some, but inflation and erratic economic growth disrupted natural economic patterns, leaving some cities in chaos  Rampant Inflation Early 1600s: European conflicts – namely struggle between Protestant Dutch and British and Catholic Spaniards and Portuguese – resulted in a drop in available specie Inflation skyrocketed, which was disaster for peasants Peasant used copper for daily transactions – 1630s: 1000 coppers = 1oz silver – 1640: 1000 coppers = ½oz silver – 1643: 1000 coppers = 1/3oz silver But peasants forced to pay taxes in silver! Famines rampant, worsened by tiny Ice Age of 1700’s – Heaven was expressing its displeasure  Li Zicheng Court pressed for funds, pressured by Jurchen tribesmen in North ▪ Increased taxes, laid off Northwestern employees, included a rural Westerner named Li Zicheng ▪ Li and other soldiers mutinied at his army post in Shaanxi ▪ Skirmishes between Li and Ming forces continued for years ▪ Even looting Ming ancestral tombs By early 1640’s Li and another rebel, Zhang Xianzhong, had each carved out major holdings in China ∙ 1642: plague struck, killing half the inhabitants of many towns and villages China in 1644  Emperor Chongzhen Chongzhen, the last Ming emperor, tried to revive the dynasty, but he was distracted by Jurchen tribesmen in Manchuria  Yuan Chonghuan Many Ming generals fought bravely, including general Yuan Chonghuan, who repelled Nurhaci and the Manchus at the Liao river But then Yuan was tried and executed by political enemies on trumped up charges of colluding with Manchus Most terrible death possible – cut to pieces in Beijing market Fake charges became true in earnest as Yuan’s fate became known  The Hanging Tree In atmosphere of chaos, Li Zicheng sacked towns around Peking, mounted successful anti-Ming propaganda campaign, and incorporated surrounding soldiers into his army ∙ 1644: with Li at the gates of Beijing, Chongzhen rang bell to summon his advisers ∙ None came, so he walked to coal hill and hung himself ∙ Thus died the last Chinese emperor  “When the rebels led by Li Zicheng Account of the Death of the stormed Beijing in 1644, the Chongzhen emperor of the Ming dynasty knew there was no point Ming Imperial Family in fighting. After hiding his sons with relatives, in the hope that they would be able to flee the besieged capital, the 33-year-old emperor proceeded to kill his womenfolk. He forced his wife, Empress Zhou, to kill herself, before attacking with his sword the imperial consort Yuan, 15-year-old Princess Kunxing and six-year-old Princess Zhaoren... Kunxing, however, survived; her father had cut off her left arm and left her for dead. She was treated with courtesy by the succeeding Qing dynasty but died two years later, when she was with child. The Qing court conferred on her the posthumous title of Princess Changping.” https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/article/1860427/filicide-last-ming-emperors-fatal-final-escape-plan WARRIORS, PIRATES, The Rise of the PEASANTS, & PRIESTS Ashikaga  Ashikaga Japan The initial period (1336-68) comprising imperial resurgence and The Sengoku (Warring States) Period establishment of Ashikaga (1467-1573): changed political map dominance of Japan forever 1336–1368 1467–1573 1368–1467 The Muromachi Century (1368-1467): the shogunate reached its greatest power before starting to decline  Go-Daigo ► Remember: In the instability and decline between Heian and Kamakura periods, emperor used chaos to attempt to reassert authority ► 1333: Emperor Go-Daigo capitalized upon faltering Hojo regency to attempt to reassert prerogatives of throne  Reassertion of imperial control known as the Kemmu Restoration Kemmu ∙ Origins of restoration go back to mid-13th century when two branches of imperial family disputed succession to throne ∙ Conflict threatened to destabilize government until bakafu Restoration intervened with plan for two branches to alternate occupation of throne Go-Daigo escapes burning castle  Go-Daigo Defies Shogunate 1331: Go-Daigo refuses to abdicate and defies Kamakura shogunate o Go-Daigo captured and exiled to Oki Islands in Sea of Japan ∙ But exile fails to quell forces who rise in support of exiled emperor  Ashikaga Takauji 1332: Ashikaga Takauji named commander of force sent to kill Go-Daigo ∙ Force heads to island but Takauji changes sides, instead escorting Go-Daigo back to Kyoto in triumph ∙ Takauji, like Yoritomo, the Kamakura founder, belonged to Minamoto lineage  Nitta Yoshisada ► While Takauji was escorting Go-Daigo back to capitol, Nitta Yoshisada seized control of Kamakura in name of emperor ► Ended power of Hojo family and destroyed Kamakura bakafu Imperial Power Once he returned to power, Go-Daigo continued policy of reassertion of imperial power ► But genuine imperial restoration necessarily leads to reduction of warrior power o Merged civil and military power in provinces and placed it on hands of civil governors o Imperial justice no more satisfying to warriors than Hojo justice o Emperor failed to give warriors what they considered their just rewards for their services restoring him to throne  While all this is going on with Go-Daigo, Takauji and Nitta Yoshisada are also struggling for power and dominance The Betrayal o Finally, Go-Daigo appointed his own of Takauji son “Shogun” ∙ Takauji gravely disappointed ∙ Go-Daigo disappointed Takauji without any compensatory increase in new regime’s military strength 1336: Nitta Yoshisada awaits the hosts of Ashikaga Takauji prior to the Battle of Minatogawa Ashikaga Takauji 1338: Takauji has had enough ► Defeats Nitta Yoshisada ► Dethrones Go-Daigo ► installs a new, hand-picked emperor ► Receives coveted title of shogun from him, thus inaugurating Ashikaga shogunate  Nanboku-chō (Southern & Northern Courts Period) Takauji’s success didn’t bring peace to the capital o 1338-1361: Kyoto captured four times by the southern court o Most warrior families participated in conflict for political or territorial gain o Many aided both sides of conflict to make sure they came out winners! o 139: Southern court agreed to recognize Ashikaga authority if Ashikaga resumed system of alternating emperors ∙ Shogun agreed, reestablished firm control, then declined to  Legacy of Kemmu Restoration: Later Japanese historians viewed Go-Daigo’s southern court as legitimate inheritors of throne o Go Daigo and Nitta Yoshisada became heroes o Ashikaga Takauji became historical villain ∙ An ungenerous view, because he did try to protect the status of the throne ∙ Based on stories of the time, the court needed a defender In or Inu? Drunken warrior refused to dismount when he encountered the procession of the cloistered emperor. He said, “Did you say ‘cloistered emperor’ (in) or ‘dog’(inu)? If it’s a dog, perhaps I’d better shoot it.” He shot the emperor’s carriage with an arrow, the carriage overturned, and the In tumbled out into the street. Takauji promptly had the warrior beheaded. The Ashikaga Shogunate Unlike predecessors, Ashikaga shoguns chose to rule from Kyoto o Established deputies to rule for them in other regions of Japan o Ashikaga shoguns assigned “military governors” to rule in the provinces, relying upon the “military protectors” office used by the Kamakura (retained title of shugo) o Ashikaga needed support of shugo families How do you get support? ▪ Appointed them to important positions within bakafu ▪ Bakafu and shugo engaged in complicated balance of power which both sides tried to manipulate to their own advantage  Systems of Inheritance For many years, power remained in Kyoto ► Prominent provincial families lived in Kyoto and assigned deputies to run their estates ► Traditional Japanese system of inheritance had divided estates equally among heirs ▪ System worked well in peace but in war, it was hard to defend family estate ▪ To secure family assets, Japanese abandoned traditional system in favor or leaving everything to one designated heir ▪ Not always eldest son, but always a son ▪ New system led to frequent, violent clashes within families, further destabilizing provinces But despite fatal flaws and inherently unstable government, system functioned relatively well during the reign of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, allowing both economic growth and impressive artistic achievements 1368: Yoshimitsu becomes third shogun ∙ Increased state revenue by initiating taxes on sake breweries and pawnshops ∙ Successfully met several military challenges, including the 1392 reunification of the southern and northern imperial courts ∙ Toured prominent religious sites across the country, accompanied by impressive retinue o This allowed him to inspect local conditions himself ∙ Lavishly patronized major temples, garnering considerable support in those quarters as well Warrior Values with Courtly Aesthetics Unlike father and grandfather, Yoshimitsu born and raised in Kyoto o He sought to combine warrior values with values long prized in the capital o Politically, he assumed dual titles of Shogun and Chancellor o Aesthetically, he spared no expense in creating lavish gardens and beautiful architecture ∙ He once entertained the emperor with 20 days of banqueting, musical, and theatrical performances ∙ Among the entertainment were Noh dramas, which were based typically on classic works of literature or traditional legends ∙ This partying occurred on his estate just north of Kyoto, where the Golden Pavilion still stands The Golden Pavilion ASHIKAGA YOSHIMITSU’S PERSONAL RETIREMENT RESIDENCE (KINKAKUJI) The Decline of the Ashikaga 1408: Yoshimitsu dies and sets stage for (slow) downfall of Ashikaga ► No major discontinuity with Yoshimitsu’s son (4th Shogun), although the 5th Shogun’s reign revealed increasing fiscal and political weakness ► 6th Shogun, Yoshinori, tried to combat this decay by strengthening the bakafu at the expense of the daimyo ► Lured to a mansion for a dinner party and assassinated by military governor ► Yoshinori the last of the strong Ashikaga shoguns ► His son inherited the office at 8 years old and was dead by 10 ► The next shogun, Yoshimasa, ascended as a child and ruled 30 years (1443-1473), but under him, the Ashikaga collapsed completely  Early Ashikaga Timeline 1. Takauji (r. 1338-1358): 5. Yoshikazu founded the dynasty 6. Yoshinori (r. 1429-1441): 2. Yoshiakira Assassinated by military governor 3. Yoshimitsu (r. 1368-1394): 7. Yoshikatsu Powerful patron of Shogun authority, 8. Yoshimasa (r. 1443-1473): arts & culture incompetent military leader who presided over collapse 4. Yoshimochi of early Ashikaga shogunate How did the Ashikaga stay in power for so many decades without powerful leadership or control? What was going in with the provincial families? ▪ The provincial families, shattered by the new phenomenon of succession disputes, were in disarray as well ▪ Ashikaga stayed in power so long because there was no viable alternative ▪ Ashikaga downfall came not at the hands of a more powerful family or coalition, but as a result of disputes within its own ranks… From Culture to Conflict: The Muromachi Century & Sengoku Periods, 1330-1600  Economic Prosperity One of the ironies of the early Ashikaga period is that while political stability deteriorating on all fronts, Japan prospered economically Economic growth steady during Kamakura era but spectacular during Ashikaga Economy was largely agriculturally based Growth came in form of increased production Greater agricultural production positively impacted commerce and manufacturing Agricultural Advances ❑ Improvements in farm technology ❑ Invention of new devices ❑ New crops and new strains of rice ❑ Greater use of draft animals  New Manufacturing Technologies Technical progress in non-agricultural fields also strengthened economy Specifically, mining, paper-making, sake-brewing Trade with China and Korea also important Japanese imports included Korean cotton and from China: copper coins, porcelain, paintings, medicine, & books Most treasured Japanese export was fine swords, but exports also included copper, sulphur, decorative screens, and folding fans (Japanese invention) During this time, Japanese economy increasingly reliant upon mone  International Trade Imports Exports From Korea: Fine Swords Cotton Raw Copper From China: Sulphur Books Decorative Screens Copper Coins Folding Fans Porcelain Paintings Medicine Tally Ships returning to Japan Japanese Pirate Raids But a large disenfranchised class existed during this time as well Pirates Bandits Untouchables Raid by Wako on the Chinese Coast  Bandits Legend: Bandit Ishikawa Goemon was sentenced to death by being boiled alive in an iron cauldron along with his very young son, but he was able to save his son by holding him above his head. For Goemon’s bravery, his son was forgiven.  Kawaramono Kawaramono lived on untaxed land that nobody else wanted. They included people whose occupations brought them into contact with polluting things, especially death: paupers, the infirm, tanners, butchers, policemen, undertakers… Medieval Guilds With growth in commerce, markets, and skilled craftsmen came growth in guilds as well ▪ Guilds enforce monopolies over production and exchange of certain commodities ▪ To safeguard interests, guilds sought protection from major religious institutions or powerful families ▪ Guilds welcomed into fold by bakafu, great families, and temples because of revenue boost they provided The Muromachi Century 14th-15th Centuries: Early Ashikaga period bumped along until disaster befell the shogunate 1467-77: Onin War shattered the Ashikaga bakafu Also destroyed the governmental structure upon which it was based Onin War (1467-77): The shogun, unable even to control the area around Kyoto, became a mere symbol for the ideal of a unified state Last vestiges of centralized government were destroyed Japanese describe the Warring States Period as “Gekokujo” or “the lower defeats the upper” Vassals overthrew their lords Obscure provincial warriors emerged as powerful new lords Radical Fragmentation Japan prior to complete collapse of central government had been a decentralized state But after collapse, it disintegrated into “radical fragmentation” This fragmentation frequently referred to as the Sengoku, or “Warring States,” Period Each feudal lord carved what amounted to his own tiny kingdom out of his estates Estates became principalities dominated by feudal lords, who became known as daimyo Daimyo Armies Daimyo competed with one another to maintain territory and where possible, expand them Size of principalities varied widely Some no larger than a small castle town while others reached the size of one or more of the old provinces Family and lineage counted for nothing among the daimyo The only factors that mattered were power and prowess on field of battle  ero r Shogun p Em Daimyo Samurai Commoners Daimyo A daimyo’s success (or failure!) depended on ability to mobilize domain’s resources o To hold or claim vassals, daimyo granted landholdings in a style similar to European fiefs o Military service required in return for land grants o With this the new means for earning and keeping land, the old shoen system collapsed  Alliances and Spies Daimyo also confirmed landholdings o Succession was determined at sufferance of daimyo and was not a given o Significance of political and familial alliances meant that daimyo also involved themselves in personal lives of their vassals, such as marriage choices o Some daimyo asserted right of taxation upon land in their territory and also demanded right to govern and tax economic activities occurring there o Daimyos frequently employed spies to guard against betrayal by vassals and to keep lord informed of what each vassal was doing  Azuchi Castle Many social changes followed changes in warfare or war technology Massed foot soldiers armed with pikes and recruited from peasantry were a match for traditional mounted warriors Therefore armies grew larger and mounted warriors assumed role of officers commanding troops of commoners New armies made defense of territory harder so daimyo began to build castles Built on hills, crowned by tower, surrounded by high walls, and encircled by moat or other natural body of water Similar to European castles  1543: Portuguese traders landed at the southern tip of Kyushu and introduced European firearms to Japan Within ten years, imported and domestically manufactured muskets were Guns ubiquitous in armies of Western Japan Use of guns soon became more prevalent in Japan than in contemporary Europe 1575: winning side of one particular battle had 10,000 musket men in a force of 38,000 and used them in serried ranks to maintain continuous fire Necessity for more fortified castles Castles consisted of concentric circles of earth banked stone walls surrounded by moats to withstand the artillery of the day Now larger, wealthier daimyo had distinct advantage New weapons, new techniques, superior firepower, better fortifications, larger armies Defensive Earthworks of Himeji-jo Himeji-jo Today… Daimyo Castletowns Daimyo castles became centers of new warrior states Warriors gathered there, removed from direct contact with their own lands Peasants left to manage themselves as long as taxes paid and required services rendered Daimyo only cared about revenue, and frequent peasant revolts made micromanagement perilous Low ranking warriors often led peasants in revolt Making everybody stay at the castle ensured that troublemaking warriors weren’t allowed free rein far from daimyo supervision  Shifting Balance of Power Peasants and poor warriors frequently rebelled to force the bakafu to cancel their debts Especially common when times were hard: during periods of natural disaster or famine, or when economic conditions unfavorable Guilds and prominent merchants asserted their own authority Southern commercial half of Kyoto controlled and managed entirely by merchants  Religious sects also fostered rebellions and carved out occasional territories for themselves But in the end, the future of Japan rested in the power and traditions being developed by the daimyo The daimyo system itself flourished in a period of crisis and disunity, but the very autocracy it represented held the seeds of national unification. Each daimyo domain was a discrete, self-sufficient and self-protecting political unit. The task of unifying Japan could be achieved simply by getting all of the daimyo to form some sort of association or to accept some kind of common leadership ❖ A tall order, but not impossible ❖ As the 16th century began, the strongest of the daimyo began to imagine just such an eventuality Paths to Modernity Early East Asian History comes to a decisive end during the Imjin war. How does this conflict come about? Choson Korea Korea’s Choson Dynasty Introduction of Neo-Confucianism to Korea led to social and political reform and establishment of Choson dynasty ► One of the world's longest continuously ruling royal families (1392-1910) ► First 200 years were peaceful, enabling cultural flowering  Hangul Syllabary ► New forms of ceramics and painting emerged ► New alphabet for the Korean language was created (hangul), giving Koreans an indigenous means of writing other than Chinese  During Choson’s first few centuries, Korea successfully fought off invasions by its neighbors Japan (1592) and Manchuria (1627, 1636) ❖ New element appeared in the 1700s: European influence, first through traders and Christian missionaries, and then by military might ❖ Europeans attempted to colonize all nations in area, including Korea ❖ Japan withstood Western intervention most successfully and was quickest to adopt western military and industrial methods ❖ Thus, Japan became dominant local political power Where’s Korea? Confucian leaders of Choson Korea known as Yangban Yangban ostensibly responsible for maintaining Confucian standards and elevating the morality of society Yangban = two classes Munban = literary class Muban = martial class This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC  Civil Service Exams (Gwageo) Neo-Confucian philosophy promoted a system of imperial examinations open to all men ► Previously, Koryo Korea had civil service exams ► But exams open only to members of the aristocratic Yangban class ► By Choson era, things had changed  Official Positions Korean kings had adopted aspects of Chinese statecraft for centuries ► But for the first time in Korean history, Choson centralization and consolidation allowed magistrates to be appointed by the central government ► Anyone who passed exam could obtain government position ► BUT…even yangban class HAD to pass exam to earn government position ► Birth alone no longer enough ► Thus, government service became goal of elite During Koryo rule, Korea had TWO Civil Service Exams munkwa (civilian exam) mukwa (military exam) In Choson Era (1392-1910): Neo-Confucian influence codified ONE exam Made administrative posts the goal of every yangban family 15,547 people passed the exams. Between ages of 14 and 82 A few people became high ranking officials in their early 20s Passing the exam made you a yangban Test results determined placement in high-ranking civil positions ► But only the wealthy had means to support themselves while they studied ► As competition became more intensive, exams rigged to favor wealthy families ► New rules barred local administrators and clerks from taking higher offices ► Also barred sons of concubines from taking exams ► Yangban dominated Royal Court and military ► Yangban also often exempt from various laws, including those relating to taxes  Yangban Privileges Yangban expected to hold public office, follow Confucian tradition of study and self-cultivation, and help elevate the moral standards of Choson society ► Enjoyed many privileges as an elite class ► Sought to preserve their status and exclusivity ► For example, by marrying only other members of the yangban class. ► Numerous hierarchical distinctions strictly observed among the yangban  Choson Emissaries Travel to Ming Court Choson Confucians recognized Ming China as mature example of Confucian society ❖ But they did not believe Confucianism was a uniquely Chinese phenomenon ❖ Nor did they believe Chinese Confucianism superior to their own ❖ Yangban considered themselves custodians of Confucian morality ❖ Practiced rigorous observance of Confucian rites (weddings, funerals, and ancestor worship) ❖ Insisted that king heed their counsel, even if their interference diminished king’s authority  Competition between King and Aristocracy Power of yangban class prevented Choson Korea from becoming despotism like Ming China ► Many yangban families had longer, more distinguished histories than Choson’s Yi family ▪ Made it difficult for king to withstand obstruction and criticisms of yangban class 15th- and 16th-centuries: As the yangban became more powerful, the Choson government deteriorated ▪ Rich yangban landlords lent money to small landowners then foreclosed when they could not pay ▪ State failed to conduct regular cadastral surveys of land to properly record landownership, etc. ▪ Yangban and rich commoners bribed clerks to escape military service and military taxes Meanwhile… ACROSS THE STRAIT IN JAPAN Japanese Reunification Remember: In the chaos of the Warring States period, unifying Japan could be achieved simply by getting all of the daimyo to accept common leadership ∙ A tall order, but not impossible ∙ As the 16th century began, the strongest of the daimyo began to imagine just such an eventuality Process of Consolidation Began under Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) o Continued by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598) o Finished conclusively by Tokugawa Ieyasu Each of the three succeeded in increasing consolidation of Japan by building upon the work of his predecessors  Oda Nobunaga Oda Nobunaga inherited control of Owari o Strategically-important location in central Honshu, between Kanto plain and Kyoto o As young man, Nobunaga established control over all of central Japan o 1568: Nobunaga entered Kyoto and occupied capital o Kyoto base allowed Nobunaga to increase both military strength and political influence Oda’s Policy of Aggrandizement o Used military and political influence ruthlessly o Committed to new war technology (avant garde of firearm use) o A capable and daring tactician ▪ 1560: Became renowned and feared after defeating a 25,000-man army with his 2,000 men Nobunaga’s Forces Massacre the Monks of Mt. Hiei After seizing Kyoto, Nobunaga turned attention to other perceived “enemies” in Japan: the great Buddhist temples ▪ Temple armies would lend allegiance to powerless people, even if opposing military authority of the day ▪ First, he attacked the great Tendai Monastery on Mt. Hiei ▪ Destroyed the buildings, slaughtered the monks, and even eliminated the unfortunate inhabitants of nearby villages ▪ “The roar of the huge burning monastery, magnified by the cries of countless numbers of the old and young, sounded and resounded to the ends of heaven and earth.” ▪ 1600 people killed in this terrible slaughter, but this was nothing compared to his treatment of other sects Arrival of Christianity Nobunaga also attacked Ikko sect ▪ 30,000 to 40,000 Ikko adherents slaughtered (sect barely survived) ▪ Nobunaga’s extreme hostility to organized Buddhism is major factor in Christianity and Christian missionaries getting foothold in Japan ▪ He allowed first Jesuit missionaries to enter Japan Strategies of Power Nobunaga followed common path for retaining power o Forged valuable alliances through marriage o Kept enemies divided and warring among themselves o Retained existing followers and allies, but also continuously attracted new vassals  Nagoya Castle Nobunaga also fostered trade and economy in Japan ▪ Destroyed toll stations and opened new markets ▪ Broke up guild monopolies ▪ Encouraged road construction and shipbuilding Nobunaga’s Death At time of death, Nobunaga was reorganizing his lands, revamping taxation system, and conducting comprehensive land survey ▪ He was also attempting to disarm the peasantry ▪ Controlled 1/3 of Japan but was pursuing clear path toward total dominance ▪ Process well underway when he was murdered by one of his own generals, avenging a wrong Toyotomi Hideyoshi Nobunaga had a number of trusted generals (including the one who murdered him) One particularly important one was Toyotomi Hideyoshi Toyotomi Hideyoshi exemplified the reality of the Warring States period: anyone can succeed Born a peasant but rose to become one of Nobunaga’s most powerful generals Hideyoshi’s Consolidation After Nobunaga died, Hideyoshi defeated other contenders for succession ▪ Continued to increase his power according to model provided by Oda Nobunaga ▪ Success increasingly forced other daimyo to acknowledge his supremacy ▪ But he couldn’t subdue Tokugawa Ieyasu ▪ Hideyoshi gave Ieyasu his sister in marriage ▪ Also traded Ieyasu’s less valuable lands in central Japan for very valuable lands in Kanto region ▪ Ieyasu now both happy and far away…  Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s Kao By 1590: all daimyo had sworn oath of loyalty to Hideyoshi ▪ Hideyoshi had become, in effect, overlord of all Japan ▪ He could not become shogun Can anybody guess why? ▪ But he did have himself adopted into Fujiwara family and declared regent ▪ Association with imperial throne further strengthened his legitimacy The Great Sword Hunt Hideyoshi also continued some of Nobunaga’s other interrupted policies ▪ 1588: embarked upon the Great Sword Hunt, in which all peasants who had not already done so were forced to hand in their swords to be melted down and recast into a giant statue of the Buddha ▪ Why? To disarm the peasantry, but more importantly, to create an unbridgeable gulf between samurai and peasants ▪ From now on, there would be a sharp line between tillers of the soil and bearers of arms Toyotomi Hideyoshi Toyotomi Hideyoshi attempted to assert control over Japanese society, but he was concerned with more than just domestic affairs ∙ Took an active interest in international commerce and overseas trade ∙ Vigorously worked to suppress piracy ∙ Also thought in terms of expanding international empire o 1590’s: Hideyoshi demanded that the Spanish governor of the Philippines submit to Japanese dominance  Conquest of China He also made concrete plans to conquer China and divide it among his vassals in the same manner as he had conquered Japan ▪ Moral impact of conquering the middle kingdom ▪ But more importantly, Hideyoshi ruled by sufferance of his vassals who supported him b/c of the material gain that he provided them ∙ In terms of territory and wealth, China would have really satisfied a lot of vassals! ▪ Even if they didn’t succeed right away, the conquest would keep restive samurai too busy to conspire ▪ Hideyoshi was emboldened by past successes to the point of being a megalomaniac Back to Choson Korea… This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA King Sonjo Corruption and absconding from service increasingly left Choson undefended 1582: Some officials recommended recruiting new military force of 100,000 men to keep against need Others called for new naval bases on strategic islands around Korea  But King Sonjo ignored them, leaving only three walled towns as Choson’s defense against invasion Pusan Tongnae Kimhae  King Sonjo had his own problems… ► Yangban factionalism led to frequent purges ► King Sonjo made things worse by shifting favor between factions Old map of Seoul  RELATIONS WITH JAPAN ► 1591: King Sonjo sent delegation to Japan to determine intention of Toyotomi Hideyoshi ► Sonjo then ignored delegation and took no action to prepare country for war JAPANESE DEMAND.. 1592: Toyotomi Hideyoshi asked Sonjo for free passage through Korea to attack Ming China Sonjo refused Hideyoshi invaded Korea instead Hideyoshi occupied Seoul within three weeks Occupied Pyongyang within two months  Invasion of Korea Hideyoshi sent 150,000 troops to crush Korea ▪ Initial success faltered quickly ▪ Chinese intervened on Korean behalf so advancing north of Seoul nearly impossible ▪ Korean guerilla fighting took exhausting toll on Japanese ▪ 1593: Peace negotiations underway but unsuccessful Admiral Yi Sunsin Korean Admiral Yi Sunsin and his famous “turtle ships” dealt Japanese crushing defeats at sea ► Korean admiral famed for victories against Japanese navy during Imjin war ► Korean national hero ► Admiral Yi fought in 23 recorded naval engagements against Japan ► Always heavily outnumbered and short on supplies ► Battle of Myeongnyang: Outnumbered 333 to 13 ► Yi destroyed 31 Japanese warships without losing a single ship of his own  Tactical Use The turtle ship was a close-assault vessel, intended to ram enemy ships and sink them Rowed directly into enemy ship formations to disrupt lines After ramming, turtle ships unleashed broadside cannonball attacks Plating on the roof and protruding spikes, served as anti-boarding devices The iron plating meant that cannons, arquebus bullets, and arrows couldn’t damage turtle ships Ship designed to spearhead attacks or ambush Japanese ships in tight areas Oar propulsion, combined with sails and relatively light weight, made for a fast and agile craft, perfect for ramming TURTLE SHIP BLUEPRINTS Ming Dynasty Cavalry 1597: Hideyoshi attacked again, sending 140,000 troops into Korea ▪ Battle for Korean peninsula even more brutal now that Korea and China had more time to prepare ▪ 1598: Hideyoshi died and his vassals immediately returned home ▪ More disastrously, Hideyoshi’s two most powerful vassals had been seriously weakened by grueling campaign Who? ▪ Left him vulnerable to his most powerful rival ▪ Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had been waiting patiently and saw his opportunity at last  1593: Ming armies Ming Emperor Late 1593: 1597: Hideyoshi 1598: Hideyoshi defeated obligated by Negotiated truce infuriated by died and Japanese in terms of tributary with Japanese terms offered by Japanese Pyongyang relationship to commander in Chinese retreated from come to aid of But later that Korea Renewed fighting, but peninsula Korea month, Ming now Ming/Choson had 2 million Koreans dead suffered stunning Truce lasted until had years to prepare More than a century But Ming plagued by their loss just north of 1597 Japanese forced to passed before Korean own troubles retreat southby agriculture returned to 7 months after Japanese Seoul peasant-based guerilla pre-1592 levels invasion Ming troops resistance finally began to arrive Ming generals Korean navy led by Yi more cautious Sunsin an unstoppable after defeat juggernaut  Peace and War After invasion, Korea severed all relations with the Japanese ∙ But Tokugawa Ieyasu not at all interested in conquering Korea ∙ 1609 treaty reestablished diplomatic & trade relations Still, life not peaceful on Korean peninsula ∙ Koreans suddenly found themselves in the middle of conflict between Ming and Jurchen tribesmen in Manchuria ∙ Jurchen began waging war against the Ming in the 1590s as well Choson envoy and retinue at Edo, 1655  KING KWANGHAEGUN ► Choson King Kwanghaegun sought neutrality to prevent further damage to kingdom ► But vast majority of Korean nobles wanted to help the Ming who had valiantly saved Korea ► Next 20 years characterized by significant internal political strife ► Northern, Southern, & Western factions all wanted to depose Kwanghaegun ► 1623: Western faction finally succeeded in deposing king ► Reversed Kwanghaegun’s Ming policy and immediately sent troops to fight alongside the Ming against the Jurchen Kwanghaegun’s Diary  KING INJO 1627: Manchus invaded Korea with 30,000 men and tried to impose a peace treaty upon King Injo Injo refused Manchu demands Manchu responded by sending a force of 120,000 men to force compliance Choson Ambassadors travel to Ming China to seek confirmation of King Injo’s coronation Choson’s Defeat at Manchu Hands ► King Injo only had 2 days to prepare Seoul for the invasion ► Manchu troops arrived at Seoul and immediately captured the city King Injo Kowtows to Hong Taiji ► Injo forced to sever all relations with the Ming and submit to the Manchu as tributary state ► 7 years later, in 1644, the Manchus did what?  Samjeondo Monument ► As punishment for intransigence, Manchu imposed crushing tributary burden upon Choson state ► Essentially forced Choson to pay for conquest of China Monument erected in Korea in 1639 to extol the virtues of the Qing emperor who had successfully forced the Choson into submission Out of this great war at the end of the 16th century and the Manchu invasions of 1627 and 1636–1637, Koreans emerged with a discernible sense of themselves as... united by birth, language, and belief forged by this immense clash of the three great powers of East Asia... Korea arrived at the brink of the seventeenth century as a nation. FOREWORD BY WILLIAM HABOUSH, IN JAHYUN KIM HABOUSH (2016). THE GREAT EAST ASIAN WAR AND THE BIRTH OF THE KOREAN NATION. COLUMBIA UP. Back to Japan… THE RISE OF THE TOKUGAWA CLAN Tokugawa Ieyasu Tokugawa Japan typically dated from 1615 – 1867, but really must start a bit earlier with the scion of a minor daimyo family (ruling military elite) named Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616) ∙ In early life, benefited from association with daimyo rivals ∙ Gained immense military experience ∙ Avoided challenging his predecessor Toyotomi Hideyoshi ∙ But he was biding his time… ∙ Consolidating and adding to domains and wealth  Koku In 1598 at Hideyoshi’s death, Ieyasu most powerful member of Regent’s Council o Estates worth 2.5 million koku, more than twice the worth of any other council member o Koku was measure of wealth, equivalent to 5 bushels of rice, or the amount required to feed one man for one year Civil War With Hideyoshi dead, Japan descended into civil war with many major daimyos trying to achieve control over country, or at least maximize their own holdings o Ieyasu ‘s wealth and power made him natural object of envy and hatred o He himself had main goal of preserving unity of Japan ▪ Unity ensured his continuing dominance ▪ Then Ieyasu got his big chance…  1600: Battle of Sekigahara Tokugawa Makes his move… October 21, 1600: Both forces meet in Battle of Sekigahara ▪ Each side had @80,000 men, but Tokugawa’s opponent had early advantage ▪ Then one of the opposing commanders switched sides, attacking Tokugawa’s enemies instead ▪ Dreadful slaughter ensued but Ieyasu won overwhelming victory ∙ Confiscated fiefs of his enemies, and rewarded supporters generously ∙ Hesitant to attack Hideyoshi’s son b/c didn’t want to risk resumption of war with daimyo loyal to Toyotomi family o Instead, returned to Edo (Tokyo) to fortify caste there and build a second fortress for himself in Kyoto Battle of Sekigahara Structure of the Bakafu Continued consolidation of power in 1603, when he had the emperor revive the Shogun institution of the bakafu and had himself declared shogun ∙ Bakafu is the shogunate, the military government led by the most powerful Daimyo samurai (or daimyo) ∙ Shogun is the leader of the bakafu, the chief of the samurai But despite consolidation of power, Samurai Ieyasu was afraid to attack Toyotomi heir for fear of loyalist daimyo banding together against him Tokugawa Waits By 1611, old Toyotomi loyalists had mostly died, leaving Hideyoshi’s son vulnerable ▪ Despite oath to support Hideyoshi’s son (named Hideyori), in 1614, Ieyasu moved to destroy Toyotomi family ▪ No daimyo would support Toyotomi house, but masterless samurai (called Ronin) came to their aid ▪ With 90,000 men garrisoned at Osaka castle, Ieyasu’s forces could not breach walls  Checkmate! Winter 1614: Ieyasu convinced Toyotomi advisors to sign peace agreement allowing Hideyoshi’s son (Hideyori) to keep castle and domains ► In return, Ieyasu’s son (Hidetada) would demolish outer fortifications of Osaka castle ► Toyotomi agreed, but were betrayed ► After destroying outer walls, Hidetada attacked again ► Killed all remaining members of Toyotomi clan ► Including his own daughter, who had been married to Hideyoshi’s son ► Destruction of Toyotomi ensured that Ieyasu now unchallenged leader of Japan ► The new Japan that Tokugawa Ieyasu created bore the unmistakable imprint of his influence  ∙ If the cuckoo does not sing, kill it. (Nobunaga’s ruthlessness) Children’s ∙ If the cuckoo does not sing, coax it. (Hideyoshi’s resourcefulness) Senryu ∙ If the cuckoo does not sing, wait for it. (Ieyasu’s perseverance)