Kapferer (2008) Brand Identity and Positioning - PDF

171 7 Brand identity and positioning A brand is not the name of a product. It is the regionally or internationally, without jeopar- vision that drives the creation of products and dising brand congruence? All such decisions services under that name. That vision, the key po...

171 7 Brand identity and positioning A brand is not the name of a product. It is the regionally or internationally, without jeopar- vision that drives the creation of products and dising brand congruence? All such decisions services under that name. That vision, the key pose the problem of brand identity and defi- belief of the brands and its core values is called nition – which are essential prerequisites for identity. It drives vibrant brands able to create efficient brand management. advocates, a real cult and loyalty. Modern competition calls for two essential Brand identity: a necessary tools of brand management: ‘brand identity’, concept specifying the facets of brands’ uniqueness and value, and ‘brand positioning’, the main Like the ideas of brand vision and purpose, difference creating preference in a specific the concept of brand identity is recent. It market at a specific time for its products. started in Europe (Kapferer, 1986).The For existing brands, identity is the source of perception of its paramount importance has brand positioning. Brand positioning specifies slowly gained worldwide recognition; in the the angle used by the products of that brand most widely read American book on brand to attack a market in order to grow their equity (Aaker, 1991), the word ‘identity’ is in market share at the expense of competition. fact totally absent, as is the concept. Defining what a brand is made of helps Today, most advanced marketing answer many questions that are asked every companies have specified the identity of their day, such as: Can the brand sponsor such and brand through proprietary models such as such event or sport? Does the advertising ‘brand key’ (Unilever), ‘footprint’ (Johnson & campaign suit the brand? Is the opportunity Johnson), ‘bulls’ eyes’ and ‘brand stew- for launching a new product inside the ardship’, which organise in a specific form a brand’s boundaries or outside? How can the list of concepts related to brand identity. brand change its communication style, yet However, they are rather checklists. Is identity remain true to itself? How can decision a sheer linguistic novelty, or is it essential to making in communications be decentralised understanding what brands are? 172 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS What is identity? their membership of a specific cultural entity. Brand identity may be a recent notion, but To appreciate the meaning of this significant many researchers have already delved into the concept in brand management, we shall begin organisational identity of companies by considering the many ways in which the (Schwebig, 1988; Moingeon and Soenen, word is used today. 2003). There, the simplest verbal expression of For example, we speak of ‘identity cards’ – a identity often consists in saying: ‘Oh, yes, I personal, non-transferable document that see, but it’s not the same in our company!’ In tells in a few words who we are, what our other words, corporate identity is what helps name is and what distinguishable features we an organisation, or a part of it, feel that it truly have that can be instantly recognised. We also exists and that it is a coherent and unique hear of ‘identity of opinion’ between several being, with a history and a place of its own, people, meaning that they have an identical different from others. point of view. In terms of communication, From these various meanings, we can infer this second interpretation of the word that having an identity means being your true suggests brand identity is the common self, driven by a personal goal that is both element sending a single message amid the different from others’ and resistant to change. wide variety of its products, actions and Thus, brand identity will be clearly defined communications. This is important since the once the following questions are answered: more the brand expands and diversifies, the more customers are inclined to feel that they l What is the brand’s particular vision and are, in fact, dealing with several different aim? brands rather than a single one. If products and communication go their separate ways, l What makes it different? how can customers possibly perceive these l What need is the brand fulfilling? different routes as converging towards a common vision and brand? l What is its permanent nature? Speaking of identical points of view also l What are its value or values? raises the question of permanence and conti- nuity. As civil status and physical appearance l What is its field of competence? Of legitimacy? change, identity cards get updated, yet the fingerprint of their holders always remains l What are the signs which make the brand the same. The identity concept questions how recognisable? time will affect the unique and permanent quality of the sender, the brand or the retailer. These questions could indeed constitute the In this respect, psychologists speak of the brand’s charter. This type of official document ‘identity crisis’ which adolescents often go would help better brand management in the through. When their identity structure is still medium term, both in terms of form and weak, teenagers tend to move from one role content, and so better address future commu- model to another. These constant shifts create nication and extension issues. Com- a gap and force the basic question: ‘What is munication tools such as the copy strategy are the real me?’ essentially linked to advertising campaigns, Finally, in studies on social groups or and so are only committed to the short term. minorities, we often speak of ‘cultural There must be specific guidelines to ensure identity’. In seeking an identity, they are in that there is indeed only one brand forming a fact seeking a pivotal basis on which to hinge solid and coherent entity. not only their inherent difference but also  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 173 Brand identity and graphic identity that may not be the most suitable. Thus Nina charters Ricci’s identity did not necessarily relate to the company’s systematic adherence to English Many readers will make the point that their photographer David Hamilton’s style. firms already make use of graphic identity Knowing brand identity paradoxically gives ‘bibles’, either for corporate or specific brand extra freedom of expression, since it empha- purposes. We do indeed find many graphic sises the pre-eminence of substance over identity charters, books of standards and strictly formal features. Brand identity defines visual identity guides. Urged on by graphic what must stay and what is free to change. identity agencies, companies have rightly Brands are living systems. They must have sought to harmonise the messages conveyed degrees of freedom to match modern market by their brands. Such charters therefore define diversity. the norms for visual recognition of the brand, ie the brand’s colours, graphic design and type Identity: a contemporary concept of print. Although this may be a necessary first step, That a new concept – identity – has emerged in it isn’t the be all and end all. Moreover, it puts the field of management, already well versed in the cart before the horse. What really matters brand image and positioning, is really no great is the key message that we want to commu- surprise. Today’s problems are more complex nicate. Formal aspects, outward appearance than those of 10 or 20 years ago and so there is and overall looks result from the brand’s core now a need for more refined concepts that substance and intrinsic identity. Choosing allow a closer connection with reality. symbols requires a clear definition of what the First of all, we cannot overemphasise the brand means. However, while graphic fact that we are currently living in a society manuals are quite easy to find nowadays, saturated in communications. Everybody explicit definitions of brand identity per se are wants to communicate these days. If needed, still very rare. Yet, the essential questions proof is available: there have been huge above (ie the nature of the identity to be increases in advertising budgets, not only in conveyed) must be properly answered before the major media but also in the growing we begin discussing and defining what the number of professional magazines. It has communication means and what the codes of become very difficult to survive in the hurly- outward recognition should be. The brand’s burly thus created, let alone to thrive and deepest values must be reflected in the successfully convey one’s identity. For external signs of recognition, and these must communication means two things: sending be apparent at first glance. The family resem- out messages and making sure that they are blance between the various models of BMW received. Communicating nowadays is no conveys a strong identity, yet it is not the longer just a technique, it is a feat in itself. identity. This brand’s identity and essence can The second factor explaining the urgent actually be defined by addressing the issue of need to understand brand identity is the its difference, its permanence, its value and its pressure constantly put on brands. We have personal view on automobiles. now entered an age of marketing similarities. Many firms have unnecessarily constrained When a brand innovates, it creates a new their brand because they formulated a graphic standard. The other brands must then catch up charter before defining their identity. Not if they want to stay in the race, hence the knowing who they really are, they merely increasing number of ‘me-too’ products with perpetuate purely formal codes by, for similar attributes, not to mention the copies example, using a certain photographic style produced by distributors. Regulations also 174 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS cause similarities to spread. Bank operations, brand here and there, we are certainly unable for example, have become so much alike that to perceive its global and coherent identity. banks are now unable to fully express their individuality and identity. Market research Why speak of identity rather than also generates herdism within a given sector. As all companies base themselves on the same image? life-style studies, the conclusions they reach What does the notion of identity have to offer are bound to be similar as are the products and that the image of a brand or a company or a advertising campaigns they launch, in which retailer doesn’t have? After all, firms spend sometimes even the same words are used. large amounts of money measuring image. Finally, technology is responsible for Brand image is on the receiver’s side. Image growing similarity. Why do cars increasingly research focuses on the way in which certain look alike, in spite of their different makes? groups perceive a product, a brand, a Because car makers are all equally concerned politician, a company or a country. The image about fluidity, inner car space constraints, refers to the way in which these groups motorisation and economy, and these decode all of the signals emanating from the problems cannot be solved in all that many products, services and communication different ways. Moreover, when the models of covered by the brand. four car brands (Audi, Volkswagen, Seat and Identity is on the sender’s side. The Skoda) share many identical parts (eg chassis, purpose, in this case, is to specify the brand’s engine, gearbox), for either productivity or meaning, aim and self-image. Image is both competitiveness purposes, it is mainly brand the result and interpretation thereof. In terms identity, along with, to a lesser extent, what’s of brand management, identity precedes left of each car, which will distinguish the image. Before projecting an image to the makes from one another. public, we must know exactly what we want Diversification calls for knowing the to project. Before it is received, we must know brand’s identity. Brands launch new products, what to send and how to send it. As shown in penetrate new markets and reach new targets. Figure 7.1, an image is a synthesis made by the This may cause both fragmented communica- public of all the various brand messages, eg tions and patchwork images. Though we are brand name, visual symbols, products, adver- still able to discern bits and pieces of the tisements, sponsoring, patronage, articles. An Sender Messages Receiver Brand identity Signals transmitted Brand products image people Other sources of places inspiration communication mimicry opportunism Competition idealism and noise Figure 7.1 Identity and image  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 175 image results from decoding a message, Yet they also know when to stay out of other extracting meaning, interpreting signs. areas. We cannot expect a brand to be Where do all these signs come from? There anything other than itself. are two possible sources: brand identity of Obviously, brands should not curl up in a course, but also extraneous factors (‘noise’) shell and cut themselves off from the public that speak in the brand’s name and thus and from market evolutions. However, an produce meaning, however disconnected obsession with image can lead them to capi- they may actually be from it. What are these talise too much on appearance and not extraneous factors? enough on essence. First, there are companies that choose to imitate competitors, as they have no clear idea of what their own brand identity is. They Identity and positioning focus on their competitors and imitate their marketing communication. It is also common to distinguish brands Second, there are companies that are according to their positioning. Positioning a obsessed with the willingness to build an brand means emphasising the distinctive appealing image that will be favourably characteristics that make it different from its perceived by all. So they focus on meeting every competitors and appealing to the public. It one of the public’s expectations. That is how the results from an analytical process based on the brand gets caught in the game of always having four following questions: to please the consumer and ends up surfing on the changing waves of social and cultural fads. l A brand for what benefit? This refers to the Yesterday, brands were into glamour, today, brand promise and consumer benefit they are into ‘cocooning’; so what’s next? The aspect: Orangina has real orange pulp, The brand can appear opportunistic and popularity Body Shop is environment friendly, Twix seeking, and thus devoid of any meaningful gets rid of hunger, Volkswagen is reliable. substance. It becomes a mere façade, a mean- ingless cosmetic camouflage. l A brand for whom? This refers to the target The third source of ‘noise’ is that of fanta- aspect. For a long time, Schweppes was the sised identity: the brand as one would ideally drink of the refined, Snapple the soft drink like to see it, but not as it actually is. As a for adults, Tango or Yoohoo the drink for result, we notice, albeit too late, that the teenagers. advertisements do not help people remember l Reason? This refers to the elements, factual the brand because they are either too remotely or subjective, that support the claimed connected to it or so radically disconnected benefit. from it that they cause perplexity or rejection. Since brand identity has now been recognised l A brand against whom? In today’s compet- as the prevailing concept, these three potential itive context, this question defines the main communication glitches can be prevented. competitor(s), ie those whose clientele we The identity concept thus serves to think we can partly capture. Tuborg and emphasise the fact that, with time, brands do other expensive imported beers thus also eventually gain their independence and their compete against whisky, gin and vodka. own meaning, even though they may start out as mere product names. As living memories of Positioning is a crucial concept (Figure 7.2). It past products and advertisements, brands do reminds us that all consumer choices are not simply fade away: they define their own made on the basis of comparison. Thus, a area of competence, potential and legitimacy. product will only be considered if it is clearly 176 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS Why? For whom? When? Against whom? Figure 7.2 Positioning a brand part of a selection process. Hence the four Given these characteristics, the product questions that help position the new product could be positioned in several different ways, or brand and make its contribution immedi- for example by: ately obvious to the customer. Positioning is a two-stage process: l Attacking the canned pet food market by appealing to well-to-do dog owners. The l First, indicate to what ‘competitive set’ the gist of the message would then be ‘the can brand should be associated and compared. without the can’, in other words, the benefits of meat without its inconven- l Second, indicate what the brand’s essential iences (smell, freshness constraints, etc). difference and raison d’être is in comparison to the other products and brands of that l Attacking the dehydrated pet food segment set. (dried pellets) by offering a product that would help the owner not to feel guilty for Choosing the competitive set is essential. not giving meat to the dog on the basis that While this may be quite easy to do for a new it is just not practical. The fresh-ground, toothpaste, it is not so for very original and round look could justify this positioning. unique products. The Gaines burger launched by the Gaines company, for instance, was a l Targeting owners who feed leftovers to their dogs by presenting Gaines as a complete, new dog food, a semi-dehydrated product nutritious supplement (and no longer as a presented as red ground meat in a round main meal as in the two former strategies). shape like a hamburger. Unlike normal canned pet foods, moreover, it did not need to l Targeting all dog owners by presenting this be refrigerated, nor did it exude that normal product as a nutritious treat, a kind of open-can smell. doggy Mars bar.  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 177 The choice between these alternative singularity of the brand. strategies was made by assessing each one Worse still, positioning allows communi- against certain measurable criteria (Table 7.1). cation to be entirely dictated by creative whims The firm ended up choosing the first posi- and current fads. Positioning does not say a tioning and launched this product as the word about communication style, form or ‘Gaines burger’. spirit. This is a major deficiency since brands What does the identity concept add to that have the gift of speech: they state both the of positioning? Why do we even need another objective and subjective qualities of a given concept? product. The speech they deliver – in these days In the first place, because positioning of multimedia supremacy – is made of words, focuses more on the product itself. What then of course, but even more of pictures, sounds, does positioning mean in the case of a multi- colours, movement and style. Positioning product brand? How can these four questions controls the words only, leaving the rest up to on positioning be answered if we are not the unpredictable outcome of creative hunches focusing on one particular product category? and pretests. Yet brand language should never We know how to position the various Scotch- result from creativity only. It expresses the brite scrubbing pads as well as the Scotch brand’s personality and values. videotapes, but what does the positioning Creative hunches are only useful if they are concept mean for the Scotch brand as a consistent with the brand’s legitimate territory. whole, not to mention the 3M corporate Furthermore, though pretest evaluations are brand? This is precisely where the concept of needed to verify that the brand’s message is brand identity comes in handy. well received, the public should not be allowed Second, positioning does not reveal all the to dictate brand language: its style needs to be brand’s richness of meaning nor reflect all of found within itself. Brand uniqueness often its potential. The brand is restricted once tends to get eroded by consumer expectations reduced to four questions. Positioning does and thus starts regressing to a level at which it not help fully differentiate Coca-Cola from risks losing its identity. Pepsi-Cola. The four positioning questions A brand’s message is the outward expression thus fail to encapsulate such nuances. They do of the brand’s inner substance. Thus we can no not allow us to fully explore the identity and longer dissociate brand substance from brand Table 7.1 How to evaluate and choose a brand positioning l Are the product’s current looks and ingredients compatible with this positioning? l How strong is the assumed consumer motivation behind this positioning? (what insight?) l What size of market is involved by such a positioning? l Is this positioning credible? l Does it capitalise on a competitor’s actual or latent durable weakness? l What financial means are required by such a positioning? l Is this positioning specific and distinctive? l Is this a sustainable positioning which cannot be imitated by competitors? l Does this positioning leave any possibility for an alternative solution in case of failure? l Does this positioning justify a price premium? l Is there a growth potential under this positioning? 178 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS style, ie from its verbal, visual and musical way to attack competitors’ market share. It attributes. Brand identity provides the may change through time: one grows by framework for overall brand coherence. It is a expanding the field of competition. Identity is concept that serves to offset the limitations of more stable and long-lasting, for it is tied to positioning and to monitor the means of the brand roots and fixed parameters. Thus expression, the unity and durability of a brand. Coke’s positioning was ‘the original’ as long as it competed against other colas. To grow the business, it now competes against all soft Why brands need identity and drinks: its positioning is ‘the most refreshing positioning bond between people of the world’, whereas its identity remains ‘the symbol of America, A brand’s positioning is a key concept in its the essence of the American way of life’. management. It is based on one fundamental How is positioning achieved? The standard principle: all choices are comparative. positioning formula is as follows: Remember that identity expresses the brand’s tangible and intangible characteristics – every- For … (definition of target market) thing that makes the brand what it is, and Brand X is … (definition of frame of reference without which it would be something different. and subjective category) Identity draws upon the brand’s roots and Which gives the most … (promise or consumer heritage – everything that gives it its unique benefit) authority and legitimacy within a realm of Because of … (reason to believe). precise values and benefits. Positioning is competitive: when it comes to brands, Let us look at these points in detail. customers make a choice, but with products, The target specifies the nature and psycho- they make a comparison. This raises two ques- logical or sociological profile of the indi- tions. First, what do they compare it with? For viduals to be influenced, that is, buyers or this, we need to look at the field of competition: potential consumers. what area do we want to be considered as part The frame of reference is the subjective defi- of? Second, what are we offering the customer nition of the category, which will specify the as a key decision-making factor? nature of the competition. What other brands A brand that does not position itself leaves or products effectively serve the same these two questions unanswered. It is a mistake purpose? This is a strategic decision: it marks to suppose that customers will find answers out the ‘field of battle’. It must not under any themselves: there are too many choices circumstances be confused with the objective available today for customers to make the effort description of the product or category. For to work out what makes a particular brand example, there is no real rum market in the specific. Communicating this information is UK, yet Bacardi is very popular. This is because the responsibility of the brand. Remember, it is perfectly possible to drink Bacardi products increase customer choice; brands without realising that it is a rum: it is the party simplify it. This is why a brand that does not mixer par excellence. want to stand for something stands for nothing. Another example illustrates the strategic The aim of positioning is to identify, and importance of defining the frame of reference. take possession of, a strong purchasing Objectively speaking, Perrier is fizzy mineral rationale that gives us a real or perceived water. Subjectively, however, it is also a drink advantage. It implies a desire to take up a for adults. Seen in the light of this field of long-term position and defend it. Positioning reference, it acquires its strongest competitive is competition-oriented: it specifies the best advantage: a slight natural quirkiness. As we  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 179 can see, the choice of the field of competition and works perfectly for the l’Oréal Group should be informed by the strategic value of which, with its 2,500 researchers worldwide, that field: how big, how fast growing, how only ever launches new products if they are of profitable? But it also lends the brand a demonstrably superior performance. This fact competitive advantage through its identity is then promoted through advertising. and potential. Perceived as water for the table, There are cases where the brand makes no Perrier has no significant competitive promise, or where the benefit it brings could advantage over other fizzy mineral waters, sound trivial. For example, how would you even though this market is a very large one. define the positioning of a perfume such as However, when viewed in relation to a field of Obsession by Calvin Klein in a way that competition defined as ‘drinks for adults’, clearly represented its true nature and origi- Perrier becomes competitive again: it has nality? It would be wrong to claim that strong differentiating advantages. What are its Obsession makes any specific promise to its competitors? They include alcoholic drinks, customers, or that they will obtain any Diet Coke, Schweppes and tomato juice. particular benefit from the product apart from The third point specifies the aspect of feeling good (a property which is common to difference which creates the preference and all perfumes). In reality, Obsession’s attrac- the choice of a decisive competitive tiveness stems from its imagery, the imaginary advantage: it may be expressed in terms of a world of subversive androgyny which it promise (for instance, Volvo is the strongest of embodies. In the same way, Mugler appeals to all cars) or a benefit (such as, Volvo is the young people through its inherently neo- ‘safety’ brand). futuristic world, and Chanel stands for The fourth point reinforces the promise or timeless elegance. benefit, and is known as the ‘reason to What actually sells these perfumes is the believe’. For example, in the case of the Dove satisfaction derived from participating in the brand, which promises to be the most mois- symbolic world of the brand. The same is true turising, the reason is that all of its products of alcohol and spirits: Jack Daniel’s is selling a contain 25 per cent of moisturising cream. symbolic participation in an eternal, Positioning is a necessary concept, first authentic untamed America. To say that Jack because all choices are comparative, and so it Daniel’s is selling the satisfaction of being the makes sense to start off by stating the area in finest choice would be a mere commonplace, which we are strongest; and second because like the tired old cliché that customers are in marketing, perception is reality. satisfied at having made a choice that set Positioning is a concept which starts with them apart from the masses (a classic benefit customers, by putting ourselves in their stated by small brands attempting to place: faced with a plethora of brands, are emphasise their advantage over large ones). consumers able to identify the strong point of Faced with this conceptual dilemma, there each, the factor that distinguishes it from the are three possible approaches. The first of rest? This is why, ideally, a customer should these is to define positioning as the sum of be capable of paraphrasing a brand’s posi- every point that differentiates the brand. tioning: ‘Only Brand X will do this for me, This has been Unilever’s approach: the 60- because it has, or it is …’ page mini-opus known as the Brand Key, No instrument is entirely neutral. The which explains how to define a brand across above formula was created by companies such the entire world, starts with the phrase: as Kraft–General Foods, Procter & Gamble, ‘Brand Key builds on and replaces the brand and Unilever. It is designed for businesses that positioning statement …’. There are eight base competitive advantage on their products, headings to Brand Key: 180 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS 1. The competitive environment. uniqueness and singularity throughout the world and whatever the product. Brand 2. The target. identity has six facets, and is therefore larger 3. The consumer insight on which the brand than the mere positioning. It is represented by is based. the identity prism. At its centre one finds the 4. The benefits brought by the brand. brand essence, the central value it symbolises. Second, the brand platform comprises 5. Brand values and personality. ‘brand positioning’: choosing a market means 6. The reasons to believe. choosing a specific angle to attack it. Brand positioning must be based on a customer 7. The discriminator (single most compelling insight relevant to this market. Brand posi- reason to choose). tioning exploits one of the brand identity 8. The brand essence. facets. Positioning can be summed up in four key questions: for whom, why, when and Fundamentally, therefore, this collection forms against whom? It can be represented in the the positioning of a brand. However, the form of a diamond, the ‘positioning diamond’ concept that most closely resembles positioning (see Figure 7.2, page 176). in the strict sense of the word is referred to here In positioning, the brand/product makes a as the ‘discriminator’. McDonald’s also adopts a proposition, plus (necessarily) a promise. The similar reasoning (see Figure 7.3). Larry Light proposition may additionally be supported by defends the idea that positioning is defined a ‘reason to believe’, but this is not essential. when this chain of means–ends is completed Marlboro presents its smoker as a man – a real (this is a parallel concept to the ‘ladder’ – man, symbolised by the untamed cowboy of moving from the tangible to the intangible): the Wild West. No support is offered for this My position is that two tools are needed to proposition; no proof is necessary. It is true manage the brand. One defines the brand’s because the brand says so. And the more often identity, while the other is competitive and it is repeated, the more credible it becomes. specifies the competitive proposition made at In this way the brand’s proposition, which any given time in any given market. This is forms the basis of the chosen positioning at a the brand’s unique compelling competitive given moment in a particular market, may be proposition (UCCP). Thus the tool called fuelled by various ‘edges’ contained within ‘brand platform’ will comprise, first, the the brand’s identity: ‘brand identity’, that is to say, brand Personality Values Rewards Functions Features Figure 7.3 The McDonald’s positioning ladder Source: L Light  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 181 l a differentiating attribute (25 per cent and as a revitalising snack in Europe. moisturising cream in Dove, the It is this degree of freedom between smoothness and bite of Mars bars, the identity, essence and positioning that enables bubbles of Perrier); a brand to change over time while still remaining itself. Thus, over time (40 years), l an objective benefit: an iMac is user- Evian has changed its slogan and baseline on friendly, Dell offers unbeatable value for several occasions, symbolising a change in its money; angle of market attack: for indeed, the market l a subjective benefit: you feel secure with itself has changed. It has become increasingly IBM; saturated with competing brands, the original consumers have aged, and low-cost brands l an aspect of the brand’s personality: the have carved out a significant share. On each mystery of the Bacardi bat, Jack Daniel’s is occasion, these changes have led to a re-exam- macho, Axe/Lynx is cool; ination of the most compelling advantage, l the realm of the imaginary, of imagery and the angle of market attack. There has thus meaning (the American Wild West for been a shift from ‘water for babies’ to the Marlboro, Old New England for Ralph purest of waters, water from the Alps, well- Lauren); balanced water, and now the water of youth (this time round, the campaign is worldwide). l a reflection of a consumer type: successful However, each positioning has remained true people for Amex; to the essence of the Evian brand, which is l ‘deep’ values (Nike’s sports mentality, more than any other water distinguished by Nestlé’s maternal love), or even a mission its origins, its composition, its first campaign (The Body Shop, Virgin and so on). (babies) and so on. Evian is about life itself. What is the connection between the posi- A few introductory remarks should be made at tioning of the brand and the positioning of its this juncture. products? It is true that today’s brands are What is the connection between identity, increasingly based on multiple products: essence and positioning? Clearly, for existing Dove was born as a soap in the United States, brands, positioning derives from identity. But but now encompasses shampoos, shower gels, it exploits a specific aspect of identity at a moisturising cream, deodorants and so on. given point in time in a given market and The essence of Dove is ‘Femininity restored’. against a precise set of competitors. But Dove is being launched in a market via Consequently, at the level of global brands, a one or more products that have to fight for unified identity can generate various angles of their own space amid a host of competitors: attack for different markets. For example, hence when Dove soap was launched, its posi- Bacardi favours its Carta Blanca white rum tioning was: ‘Dove is a premium beauty bar product in Northern Europe – a market that for the mature women, worried about their consumes very little rum – and thus places its skin, which won’t dry your skin like soap confidence in the party spirit that surrounds because it contains one quarter moisturising the Cuba Libre cocktail drink. However, in its cream.’ Southern European market it chiefly This example is a good illustration of how the promotes its mature brown rums, with an product’s positioning promotes a consumer almost gastronomic promise. attribute or benefit, while the parent brand For 50 years, Mars was little more than a specifies the ‘terminal value’ that this attribute chocolate bar. The essence of Mars is energy; and benefit enables the consumer to reach. its positioning is as a meal substitute in the UK When a brand consists of multiple products, 182 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS care should be taken to ensure that their the addressee (recipient re-presentation), and respective positioning converges on attaining what specific relationship the communication the same core value (that of the parent brand). If builds between them. This is the construc- this is not the case, either the product requires tivist school of theorising about communica- repositioning, or the question should be asked tions. Since brands speak about the product, whether it is part of the right brand at all. and are perceived as sources of products, Table 7.2 illustrates the link between the services and satisfactions, communication essence of the l’Oréal Paris parent brand and theory is directly relevant. As such it reminds the positioning of its products such as Elsève us that brand identity has six facets. We call and Studio Line. this the ‘brand identity prism’. The identity prism The six facets of brand identity Brand identity should be represented by a In order to become ‘passion brands’, or ‘love hexagonal prism (see Figure 7.4): marks’, brands must not be hollow, but have a deep inner inspiration. They must also have 1. A brand, first of all, has physical speci- character, their own beliefs, and as a result ficities and qualities – its ‘physique’. It is help consumers in their life, and also in made of a combination of either salient discovering their own identity. objective features (which immediately What is brand identity made of? Many ad come to mind when the brand is quoted hoc lists have been proposed in the brand in a survey) or emerging ones. literature, with varying items. One of the Physique is both the brand’s backbone sources of this diversity is their lack of theo- and its tangible added value. If the brand retical basis. By being too analytical, some of is a flower, its physique is the stem. these tools get their users into a muddle. Without the stem, the flower dies: it is the In fact, leaving the classical stimulus– flower’s objective and tangible basis. This response paradigm, modern brand communi- is how branding traditionally works: cation theory reminds us that when one focusing on know-how and classic posi- communicates, one builds representations of tioning, relying on certain key product who speaks (source re-presentation), of who is and brand attributes and benefits. Physical Table 7.2 Sub-brand and master brand positioning Elsève Nutri-céramides Revitalift Studio Line l’Oréal Target Women with dry and Women aged Men and women All adults, market brittle hair over 45 under 35 men and women Market Shampoo Skin care Hair styling Beauty and segment products products hygiene products Positioning Nourishes and Reduces wrinkles Enables you to Enhances repairs damaged hair and firms the create the hairstyle consumers’ skin of your choice self image (consequence) (consequence) (consequence) (‘because you’re worth it’)  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 183 PICTURE OF SENDER Physique Personality EXTERNALISATION INTERNALISATION Relationship Culture Reflection Self-image PICTURE OF RECIPIENT Figure 7.4 Brand identity prism appearance is important but it is not all. There are several delicate issues Nevertheless, the first step in developing a regarding Coke’s physical facet. For brand is to define its physical aspect: What example, is the dark colour part of its is it concretely? What does it do? What identity? It is certainly a key contributor does it look like? The physical facet also to the mystery of the brand. If it belongs comprises the brand’s prototype: the to the brand’s kernel, key identity traits, flagship product that is representative of then there could never be any such thing the brand’s qualities. as colourless Crystal Coke, even though That is why the small round bottle is so there is such a thing as Crystal Pepsi. important each time Orangina is Likewise, would grapefruit Orangina in launched in a new country. The bottle the classic round bottle be possible? used today is the same as it has always Many brands have problems with their been. From the beginning, it has served to physical facet because their functional position Orangina, thanks to its unique added value is weak. Even an image-based shape and to the orange pulp that we can brand must deliver material benefits. actually see. Only later was it marketed in Brands are two-legged value-adding standard family-size PET bottles and in systems. cans. In this respect, it is also quite signif- 2. A brand has a personality. By communi- icant that there used to be a picture of the cating, it gradually builds up character. famous Coca-Cola bottle on all Coke cans. The way in which it speaks of its products It is true that modern packaging tends to or services shows what kind of person it standardise brands, making them all would be if it were human. clones of one another. Thus, in using the ‘Brand personality’ has been the main image of its traditional bottle, Coca-Cola focus of brand advertising since 1970. aims to remind us of its roots. 184 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS Numerous American agencies have made brand personality is inherited from the it a prerequisite for any type of communi- old habit of advertising agencies of cation. Ted Bates had to come up with a describing as ‘brand personality’ in their new USP (now, the unique selling person- creative briefing and copy strategy every- ality), while Grey had to define brand thing that was not related to the product’s personality. This explains why the idea of tangible benefits. having a famous character represent the 3. A brand is a culture. There is no cult brand brand has become so widespread. The without a brand culture. A brand should easiest way of creating instant personality have its own culture, from which every is to give the brand a spokesperson or a product derives. The product is not only a figurehead, whether real or symbolic. concrete representation of this culture, Pepsi-Cola often uses this method, as do but also a means of communication. Here all perfume or ready-to-wear brands. culture means the set of values feeding the In the prism, brand identity is the brand’s inspiration. It is the source of the personality facet of the source. It should brand’s aspirational power. The cultural not be confused with the customer facet refers to the basic principles reflected image, which is a portrayal of governing the brand in its outward signs the ideal receiver. (products and communication). This Thus, brand personality is described essential aspect is at the core of the brand. and measured by those human person- Apple was the product of Californian ality traits that are relevant for brands (see culture in the sense that this state will page 110 for an application). Since 1996, forever symbolise the new frontier. Apple academic research has focused on brand was not interested in expanding personality, after Aaker’s (1995) creation geographically but in changing society, of a so-called ‘brand personality scale’. unlike the brands of Boston and the East However, despite its wide diffusion Coast. Even in the absence of Apple’s among scholars, this scale does not founders, everything carried on as if Apple measure brand personality in the strict still had some revolutionary plan to offer sense, but a number of intangible and to companies and to humankind. This is a tangible dimensions that are more or less source of inspiration for Apple’s original related to it, and that correspond in fact to products and services. other facets of a brand’s identity (Azoulay Major brands are certainly driven by a and Kapferer, 2003). Recent empirical culture but, in turn, they also convey this research (Romaniuk and Ehrenberg, 2003) culture (eg Benetton, Coca-Cola, IBM, etc). has corroborated this. For instance, The cultural facet is the key to under- computers or electronic equipment were standing the difference between Adidas, the categories most associated with the Nike and Reebok or between American ‘up to date’ trait, as ice creams were asso- Express and Visa. In focusing too heavily ciated with the ‘sensuous’ trait, and ener- on brand personality, research and adver- giser drinks with ‘energising’. These data tising have neglected this essential facet demonstrate that this scale is not meas- (we will also notice this with retailers: the uring personality: a lot of its traits instead leading ones are those who not only have measure a physical facet of the brand, a personality, but also a culture). Mercedes while some others relate to the cultural embodies German values: order prevails. facet of the identity prism, thus creating Even at 260 km/h, a Mercedes has perfect conceptual confusion in the field. This is handling. Even though the surrounding because Aaker’s conceptualisation of  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 185 landscape may be whizzing by, the refers to their sources, to their funda- Mercedes remains stable and unperturbed. mental ideals and to their sets of values. Symmetry governs this brand: the three- Culture is also the basis for most bank box bodywork is a strong physical charac- brands: choosing a bank means choosing teristic of Mercedes. The brand symbol set the kind of relationship with money one at the nose-tip of every Mercedes further wishes to have. Even though their services epitomises this spirit of order. are identical (physical facet), the Visa Countries of origin are also great Premier and the American Express Gold cultural reservoirs for brands: Coca-Cola cards do not belong to the same cultural stands for America, as does IBM, Nike or system. The American Express Gold card Levi’s. In other cases, however, they are symbolises dynamic, triumphant capi- ignored: thus, Mars is a worldwide brand talism. Money is shown, or even flashed like Shell. Canon and Technics deny their about. Visa Premier, on the contrary, Japanese origin whereas Mitsubishi, represents another type of capitalism, Toyota and Nissan emphasise it. One of such as the German kind, making steady, the bonuses for Evian exports is that it quiet progress. Money is handled actually represents a part of French discreetly yet efficiently, neither gingerly culture. However, this is not the only nor flamboyantly. factor adding to their value. When 4. A brand is a relationship. Indeed, brands Americans buy Evian, they are not just are often at the crux of transactions and paying for the cultural facet but for all six exchanges between people. This is partic- aspects of these brands, starting with the ularly true of brands in the service sector basic consumer benefit: Evian quenches and also of retailers, as we shall see later. thirst and promotes health. American The Yves Saint Laurent brand functions style food is McCain’s cultural and with charm: the underlying idea of a love symbolic reference; for Jack Daniel’s, it is affair permeates both its products and its the authentic untamed America. advertising (even when no man is Culture is what links the brand to the shown). Dior’s symbolises another type of firm, especially when the two bear the relationship: one that is grandiose and same name. Because of its culture, Nestlé ostentatious (not in the negative sense), has not succeeded in conveying the image flaunting the desire to shine like gold. of a fun and enjoyable food brand. Nike bears a Greek name that relates it to Indeed, its image cannot be fully disso- specific cultural values, to the Olympic ciated from that of the corporation, Games and to the glorification of the which is overall perceived as austere and human body. Nike suggests also a peculiar puritan. The degree of freedom of a brand relationship, based on provocation: it is often reduced by the corporate culture, encourages us to let loose (‘just do it’). IBM of which it becomes the most visible symbolises orderliness, whereas Apple outward sign. conveys friendliness. Moulinex defines Brand culture plays an essential role in itself as ‘the friend of women’. The differentiating brands. It indicates the Laughing Cow is at the heart of a mother– ethos whose values are embodied in the child relationship. The relationship aspect products and services of the brand. Ralph is crucial for banks, banking brands and Lauren is WASP; Calvin Klein’s mini- services in general. Service is by definition a malism expresses a different set of values. relationship. This facet defines the mode of This facet is the one that helps differen- conduct that most identifies the brand. tiate luxury brands the most because it 186 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS This has a number of implications for the target is quite frequent and causes way the brand acts, delivers services, relates problems. So many managers continue to to its customers. require advertising to show the targeted buyers as they really are, ignoring the fact 5. A brand is a customer reflection. When that they do not want to be portrayed as asked for their views on certain car such, but rather as they wish to be – as a brands, people immediately answer in result of purchasing a given brand (or terms of the brand’s perceived client type: shopping at a given retailer’s). Consumers that’s a brand for young people! for indeed use brands to build their own fathers! for show-offs! for old folks! identity. In the ready-to-wear industry, Because its communication and its most the obsession to look younger should striking products build up over time, a concern the brands’ reflection, not neces- brand will always tend to build a sarily their target. reflection or an image of the buyer or user All brands must control their customer which it seems to be addressing reflection. By constantly reiterating that Reflection and target often get mixed Porsche is made for show-offs, the brand up. The target describes the brand’s has weakened. potential purchasers or users. Reflecting the customer is not describing the target; 6. Finally, a brand speaks to our self-image. If rather, the customer should be reflected as reflection is the target’s outward mirror he/she wishes to be seen as a result of (they are …), self-image is the target’s own using a brand. It provides a model with internal mirror (I feel, I am …). Through which to identify. Coca-Cola, for our attitude towards certain brands, we instance, has a much wider clientele than indeed develop a certain type of inner suggested by the narrow segment it relationship with ourselves. reflects (15- to 18-year-olds). How can In buying a Porsche, for example, many such a paradox be explained? For the Porsche owners simply want to prove to younger segment (8- to 13-year-olds), the themselves that have the ability to buy Coca-Cola protagonists embody their such a car. In fact, this purchase might be dream, what they want to become and do premature in terms of career prospects later on when they get older (and thus and to some extent a gamble on their freed from the strong parental rela- materialisation. In this sense, Porsche is tionship), ie an independent life full of constantly forcing to push beyond one’s fun, sports and friends will then become limits (hence its slogan: ‘Try racing true. Youth identifies with those heroes. against yourself, it’s the only race that will As for adults, they perceive them as repre- never have an end’). As we can see, sentatives of a certain way of life and of Porsche’s reflection is different from its certain values rather than of a narrowly consumers’ self-image: having let the defined age group. Thus, the brand also brand develop such a negative reflection succeeds in bringing 30- or 40-year-old is a major problem. consumers to identify with this special Even if they do not practise any sports, way of life. Many dairy brands positioned Lacoste clients inwardly picture themselves on lightness or fitness and based on low (so the studies show) as members of an fat products project a sporty young female elegant sports club – an open club with no customer reflection: yet they are actually race, sex or age discrimination, but which purchased in the main by older people. endows its members with distinction. This The confusion between reflection and works because sport is universal. One of the  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 187 characteristics of people who eat Gayelord The last two facets, relationship and culture, Hauser health and diet products is that they bridge the gap between sender and recipient. picture themselves not just as consumers, The brand identity prism also includes a but as proselytes. When two Gayelord vertical division (see Figure 7.4). The facets to Hauser fans meet, they can strike up a the left – physique, relationship and reflection conversation immediately as if they were of – are the social facets which give the brand its the same religious obedience. In promoting outward expression. All three are visible a brand, one pledges allegiance, demon- facets. The facets to the right – personality, strating both a community of thought and culture and self-image – are those incorpo- of self-image, which facilitates or even stim- rated within the brand itself, within its spirit. ulates communication. This prism helps us to understand the essence of both brand and retailer identities (Virgin, These are the six facets which define the K-Mart, Talbott’s). identity of a brand as well as the boundaries within which it is free to change or to develop. Clues for strong identity prisms The brand identity prism demonstrates that these facets are all interrelated and form a Identity reflects the different facets of brand well-structured entity. The content of one long-term singularity and attractiveness. As such facet echoes that of another. The identity it must be concise, sharp and interesting. Let us prism derives from one basic concept – that remember that brand charters are management brands have the gift of speech. Brands can tools: they are necessary for decentralised only exist if they communicate. As a matter of decision making. They must help all the people fact, they grow obsolete if they remain silent working on the brand to understand how the or unused for too long. Since a brand is a brand is special, in all its dimensions. They must speech in itself (as it speaks of the products it also stimulate creative ideas: they are a spring- creates and endorses the products which epit- board for brand activation. Finally, they must omise it), it can thus be analysed like any help us to decide when an action falls within the other speech or form of communication. brand territory and when it does not. Semiologists have taught us that behind any As a consequence, a good identity prism is type of communication there is a sender, either recognisable by the following formal charac- real or made up. Even when dealing with teristics: products or retailers, communication builds an image of its speaker or sender and conveys it to l There are few words to each facet. us. It is truly a building process in the sense that l The words are not the same on different brands have no real, concrete senders (unlike facets. corporate communication). Nevertheless, customers, when asked through projective l All words have strength and are not techniques, do not hesitate to describe the lukewarm: identity is what makes a brand brand’s sender, ie the person bearing the brand stand out. name. Both the physique and personality help define the sender thus built for that purpose. Too often, in our consulting activity, we Every form of communication also builds a notice just the opposite: recipient: when we speak, everything seems as l Facets are filled up with image traits that if we were addressing a certain type of person derive from the last usage and attitude or audience. Both the reflection and self- study. Let us remember that identity is not image facets help define this recipient, who, the same as image. The question is, which thus built, also belongs to the brand’s identity. 188 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS Polo From casual to formal, Self confident always comfortable WASP Social Ralph Lauren = Boston elitism distinctiveness Success American Exclusive Luxury They are comfortable, young men I belong to my time of good social standing, nice, I am fashionable rich: Ideal son-in-law I am the elite Shirt 12x12 Soft, airy Well balanced Crocodile Authentic Colours Serene Aristocratic ideals Valorisation Lacoste = Sophistication and simplicity Accessible Chic Sport and classicism Individualism They are non-conspicuous I am discreetly elegant men and women having I am always correct real class although casual Figure 7.5 Sample brand identity prisms of these very many image items does the Sources of identity: brand DNA brand want to identify with? l There is a lot of redundancy between facets, How can we define a brand’s identity? How the same words being used many times. can we define its boundaries, its areas of This should not be possible. Although strength and of weakness? Anyone in charge related, each facet addresses a different of managing a well-established brand is dimension of brand uniqueness. perfectly aware that the brand has little by little gained its independence and a meaning l Most of the words are looking for of its own. At birth, a brand is all potential: it consensus, instead of looking for sharpness. can develop in any possible way. With time, Consumers do not see the strategies, nor do however, it tends to lose some degree of they see the brand platforms. They do expe- freedom; while gaining in conviction, its rience the brand by its creations, or at facets take shape, delineating the brand’s contact, or in its places. To produce ideas, legitimate territory. Tests confirm this creative people need flesh: an identity with progression: certain product or communi- soul, body, forms, a real profile, not an cation concepts now seem foreign to the average excellent profile, where nothing brand. Other concepts, on the contrary, seem really stands out.  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 189 to be perfectly in tune with the brand, as it a firm to stay attuned to the market. Of course both endorses and empowers them, by giving no brand envies the destiny of Van Gogh, who them greater credibility. lived a life of misery and became famous only Brand image research does not provide any after he died. Nonetheless, present brand satisfactory answer to these questions. Neither management policy must be reappraised, do the purchasers when asked to say what because unfortunately it still assumes that they expect from the brand. Generally, they consumers are the masters of brand identity haven’t a clue. At best, they answer in terms of and strategy. Consumers are actually quite the brand’s current positioning. Thus, in the incapable of carrying out such functions. USA, and the UK, there are only very few Firms should, therefore, begin to focus more purchasers of Saab cars: the brand is not wide- on the sending side of brand marketing and spread though it is expanding its market less on the receiving side. distribution network. That is why English or Trying to define the specifics of a brand’s American owners see their Saab as unusual substance and intrinsic values naturally requires rather than foreign. When asked what they an understanding of what a real brand is all expect from the brand, they are, indeed, likely about. A brand is a plan, a vision, a project. This to answer that Saab must continue to design plan is hardly ever written down (except for the unusual, unique cars. In doing so, they expect few brands which have a brand charter). It can that the brand will reinforce their own unusu- therefore only be inferred from the marks left by ality and uniqueness which they, as the only the brand, ie the products it has chosen to few marginal Saab buyers, most definitely endorse and the symbols by which it is repre- want to demonstrate. Obviously, however, if sented. Discovering the essence of brand Saab focused exclusively on such self-centred identity, ie of the brand’s specific and unique expectations, its market share would most attributes, is the best way to understand what certainly remain restricted: the economic the brand means overall. That is why identity future of the Saab automotive division would research must start from the typical products (or then be under threat. services) endorsed by the brand as well as on the Consumers and prospects are often asked brand name itself, the brand symbol if there is what their ideal brand would be and what one, the logo, the country of origin, the adver- attributes it would need in order to get univer- tisements and the packaging. The purpose of all sally approved. This approach fails to segment this is to semiologically analyse the sending properly the expectations and thus to produce process by trying to discover the original plan any definition other than the average brand underlying the brand’s objectives, products and ideal. It is typical for consumers to expect symbols. Generally, this plan is simply uncon- banks to provide expertise and attention, scious, neither written anywhere, nor explicitly availability and competence, proximity and described. It is simply enacted in daily deci- know-how. These expectations are also ideal sions. Even creators of famous brand names in the sense that they are often incompatible. (Christian Lacroix, Yves Saint Laurent, Calvin In pursuing them, such brands may lose their Klein or Liz Claiborne) are not conscious of it: identity and regress to the average level. In when asked about the general plan, they are seeking at all costs to resemble the ideal brand indeed unable to explain it clearly, yet they can described by the consumers (or industrial easily say what their brand encompasses and buyers), brands thus often begin to downplay what it does not. Brand and creator merge. We their differences and look average. have shown (p 95) that, paradoxically, a luxury The mistake is to pursue this market ‘ideal’: brand does not really begin to exist until its it’s up to each brand to pursue an ideal of its creator dies. It then shifts from body and own. Commercial pressure naturally requires instinct to plan and programme. 190 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS In conducting research on brand identity, it specify the characteristics which could help us may well be that we discover several under- identify when we are in a game situation and lying plans. The history of a brand indeed when we are not. For abstract categories, made reflects a certain discontinuity in the decisions of heterogeneous products, the difficulty is made by different brand managers over time. even greater. In this case, brands can serve as Thus Citroen changed when it was purchased examples only if they are not exclusively by Michelin, and later by Peugeot. A lot of its attached to one specific product. What is cars have left no print, although they reached Danone? When does a product deserve to be a high level of sales. Rather than attempt the named Danone and when does it not? The impossible task of making sense of all its same holds true for Philips or Whirlpool. products, brand managers must choose the Consumers can easily answer this question: sense that will best serve the brand in its they are indeed able to group products in targeted market and focus only on that one. terms of their capacity to typically represent Finally, when dealing with a weak brand, we and perfectly exemplify a large spectrum might not discover any consistent plan at all: brand. This is shown in Table 7.3, which ranks in this case, the brand is more like a name Danone’s most typical products against stuck on a product than a real player in the Yoplait’s, according to the consumers’ point of field. This situation is very similar to the initial view. The most representative product is stage of brand creation: the brand has great called the ‘brand prototype’, not in the sense latitude and almost infinite possibilities, even of an airplane or car prototype, but rather in though it has already planted the seeds of its that of the best exemplar of the brand’s potential identity in the memory of the meaning. In this respect, in Europe Danone market. has two prototypical products: plain yoghurt (natural) and the refrigerated dessert cream, The brand’s typical products Danette. The cognitive psychologists around Rosch (1978) claim that prototypes actually The product is the first source of brand transfer some of their features to the product identity. A brand indeed reveals its plan and its category (Kleiber, 1990). In other words, if uniqueness through the products (or services) there were no definition of Danone, the it chooses to endorse. A genuine brand does public would probably be able to come up not usually remain a mere name printed on a with one anyway, by taking a close look at the product, ie a mere graphic accessory added on features of Danone’s most representative at the end of a production or distribution products. This is what we call prototype process. The brand actually injects its values in semantics. It is true that each brand sponta- the production and distribution process as well neously brings to mind certain products – as in the corollary services offered at the point some more than others – and actions as well as of sale. The brand’s values must therefore be a certain style of communication. These embodied in the brand’s most highly symbolic prototype products are representative of the products. This last sentence calls for some various facets of brand identity. According to attention. Cognitive psychology (Kleiber, some cognitive psychologists, such products 1990; Rosch, 1978; Lakoff, 1987) has taught us may convey brand identity, but above all they that it is easier to define certain categories by generate it. In fact, when questioned on simply showing their most typical members Danone’s brand image, consumers are more than by specifying what product features are likely to answer in terms of Danone’s required to be considered a member of those prototype products. categories. As stated in this example, it is Historically, it is quite significant that difficult to define the ‘game’ concept, ie to Danone became famous with its plain  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 191 Table 7.3 The most typical products of two mega-brands Products Danone Yoplait Danette – dessert cream 9.33(1) 4.04 Plain yoghurt (natural) 9.16(2) 8.93(1) Fruit yoghurt 8.64(3) 8.39(5) Whole milk yoghurt 8.55(4) 8.88(2) Liquid yoghurt 8.54(4) 8.51(4) Whipped yoghurt 8.44(6) 6.76 Petit fromage frais 8.13(7) 7.98 Fromage frais 8.11(8) 8.66(3) Chocolate/coffee delight with whipped cream 8.07(9) 7.6 Key: grading from 0 to 10 (rank in parentheses if grade >9) Source: Kapferer and Laurent (1996) yoghurt, a product which had previously been ments, ie the new colours of the season. sold in pharmacies as natural medication. Saying it is not enough though: the toughest That is where Danone’s health image origi- part is doing it, and they did. Unlike their nated. And it is now revived by the creation of competitors, Benetton innovated by dyeing the Danone Foundation. But the duality of pullovers after they were made and not prototypes has also contributed to soften before, which helped save lots of precious Danone’s image: Danette cream dessert time. By delaying their decision on the final signifies hedonism, pleasure and opulence. colours, they were indeed better prepared for Danone’s brand identity is thus dual: both the whims of fashion and last-minute health and pleasure (Table 7.3). As such it changes. If summer turned out to be magenta, captures the largest share of the market. It Benetton could immediately react and fulfil leaves the smallest shares to brands that do expectations. However, although it is an not provide this balance to consumers: they essential physical facet of Benetton’s brand offer either diet brands or sweet confectionery identity, colour is not just a question of brands. physique (in the identity prism): the colour If this theory holds, another question element also impacts on the other facets of comes to mind: just what is it, in a typical the prism, especially the cultural (which has product, that conveys meaning? A brand’s sometimes made brands look like religions), a values only convey meaning if they are at the key facet when a brand markets to youth. core of the product. Brand intangible and Colour does not merely serve to position tangible realities go hand in hand: values the brand (the colourful brand); it is the drive reality, and reality manifests these outward sign of an ideology, a set of values values. and a brand culture. In its very slogan ‘United For example, the essence of Benetton’s Colours of Benetton’, as in its posters showing brand identity is tolerance and friendship. a blond and a black baby, the brand expresses Colour is more than an advertising theme. It its inspiration and its idealistic vision of a is both the symbolic and industrial basis of united world in which all colours and races the brand. Using a technical innovation, live together in harmony. Colour then ceases dyeing sweaters at the last minute, Benetton to be a mere feature distinguishing the manu- could stay ahead of its competitors through facturer. It is a banner, a sign of allegiance. its capacity to meet the latest fashion require- Colour is celebrated by the youth who wears 192 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS it. Brotherhood and cultural tolerance are the the brand will discover itself. Roots last, trends brand’s values. That is why the provocative don’t. They indicate the present direction of style of Benetton’s recent advertising was so the wind, the energy that pushes disturbing: it was at odds with the brand’s past consumption. identity. The values that Orangina has conveyed Orangina is the case of a brand in search of since the beginning are: spontaneity, humour identity, substance and psychological depth. and friendliness. Orangina is a healthy, For years Orangina has been represented by natural drink, a mixture of pulp and water. It both a certain physique and a unique product: symbolises sunshine, life, warmth and energy. a fizzy orange soft drink. What makes it really All combine latently to give a typical taste and stand out is that the orange pulp is purposely feeling of the South (underlying it all, there is left in the liquid. This feature was so crucial to a common model: the Southern model). The the product that an orange-shaped bottle was word ‘model’ reminds us that a strong brand is designed especially for it and its advertising always the product of a certain culture, hence focused on the need to shake the bottle well in of a set of values which it chooses to represent. order to disperse the pulp and experience the In the case of Orangina, Southern values seem unique and best-tasting flavour of Orangina. to be a potent alternative to the North. Living The brand further developed its own person- in the South means both looking at the world ality through its TV advertising, which was and experiencing it in a different way. done in a jumpy, video-clip style so popular The Lacoste shirt now only represents 30 among young people. The last stage in this per cent of the company’s world sales. It is process consisted of conveying the full nonetheless a core product, since it conveys meaning of the brand and, to do this, the the brand’s original values. This shirt was brand/product relationship had to be indeed designed at a time when tennis was reversed. Until then, Orangina was merely the still being played in long trousers and shirts name of a soft drink containing orange pulp. with rolled-up sleeves. In 1926 (Kapferer and Thus, adopting a modern style does not Laurent 2002), René Lacoste asked his friend change the structure of this relationship. André Gilliet to make a ‘false’ shirt: something Today, the basic question is asked the other that would look like a shirt (so as not to shock way around: what are the values that a soft the Queen at Wimbledon), yet would be more drink containing orange pulp could serve to practical, ie airy (hence the cotton knit), embody? Coca-Cola’s leadership among 13- to sturdy and with straight sleeves. Thus right 18-year-olds cannot be understood on the from the beginning, and by accident, René basis of physique and personality only. Coca- Lacoste’s shirt came to embody the individu- Cola is a brand that vows an allegiance to the alistic and aristocratic ideal of living both all-American cultural model. Pepsi-Cola courageously and elegantly. Whatever the embodies the values of the new generation, as occasion, a Lacoste is always appropriate: does Virgin in the UK, hence its ability to chal- perfectly suited to the person who, overall, lenge Pepsi’s second place in terms of cola cares to respect proper dress codes, but not in market share with its own Virgin Cola. very minute detail. Lacoste is neither trendy Orangina must find its own source of inspi- nor stuffy: it is simply always appropriate. ration as well as the set of values that its All major brands thus have a core product product will embody. This search for identity in charge of conveying the brand’s meaning. is based on our fundamental axiom of brand Chanel has its gold chain, Chaumet its pearls management: the truth of a brand lies within and Van Cleef a patented technique of setting itself. It is not by interviewing consumers or stones in invisible slots. These features do not consulting oracles of sociocultural trends that merely characterise the products, they  BRAND IDENTITY AND POSITIONING 193 actually embody the brands’ values. Dupont, legitimate territory. Why did Steve Jobs and on the other hand, does not seem to have Steve Wozniak choose Apple as their brand much at stake: it certainly endorses superb name? Surely, this name neither popped out lighters, but beyond them is there any of any creative research nor of any computer dynamic brand concept in evidence? In terms software for brand name creation. It is simply of ready-to-wear clothing, 501 jeans are at the the name that seemed plainly obvious to the heart of the Levi’s brand and of the carefree two creative geniuses. In one word, the Apple and unconventional ideology it represents. brand name conveyed the exact same values (On this point, it is significant that the as those which had driven them to revolu- product most frequently worn with a Lacoste tionise computer science. shirt is a pair of jeans.) Conversely, brands What must be explained is why they did such as Newman suffer from never having not go for the leading name style of that created a real core product, one exclusive to period, ie International Computers, Micro the brand which conveys its very identity. Computers Corporation or even Iris. The These examples serve to illustrate a key majority of entrepreneurs would have chosen principle for brand credibility and durability: this type of name. In deciding to call it Apple, all facets of brand identity must be closely Jobs and Wozniak wanted to emphasise the linked. Moreover, the brand’s intangible facets unconventional nature of this new brand: in must necessarily be reflected in its products’ using the name of a fruit (and the visual physique. This ‘laddering’ process is illus- symbol of a munched apple), was it taking trated by the Benetton case (Table 7.4). itself seriously? With this choice, the brand Likewise, Lacoste’s identity prism can neither demonstrated its values: in refusing to idolise be dissociated from the story behind its computer science, Apple was in fact preparing famous shirt nor from the values of its to completely overturn the traditional emblematic sport, tennis. human/machine relationship. The machine had, indeed, to become something to enjoy The power of brand names rather than to revere or to fear. Clearly, the brand name had in itself all the necessary The brand’s name is often revealing of the ingredients to produce a major breakthrough brand’s intentions. This is obviously the case and establish a new norm (which all seems so for brand names which, from the start, are obvious to us now). What worked for Apple specifically chosen to convey certain objective also worked for Orange. This name reflected or subjective characteristics of the brand the founders’ values, which materialised into (Steelcase or Pampers). But it is also true of user-friendly mobile phone services. Similarly other brand names which were chosen for Amazon conveys strength, power, richness subjective reasons rather than for any and permanent flow. apparent objective or rational ones: they The brand name is thus one of the most too have the capacity to mark the brand’s powerful sources of identity. When a brand Table 7.4 Brand laddering process: the Benetton case l Physical attribute: colour and price. l Objective advantage: the latest fashion. l Subjective advantage: the brand for young people who want to be ‘in’. l Value: tolerance and brotherhood. 194 THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN MARKETS questions its identity, the best answer is advertising cleverly plays upon the theme of therefore to thoroughly examine its name and duplication – those stepping in from Ecco will so try to understand the reasoning behind its of course perfectly duplicate and echo those creation. In so doing, we can discover the stepping out of the company. brand’s intentions and programme. As the Generally speaking, it is best to follow the Latin saying goes: nomen est omen – a name is brand’s overall direction as well as its under- an omen. Examining the brand name thus lying identity, whenever possible. All Hugo amounts to decoding this omen, ie the Boss is entirely contained in that one short, brand’s programme, its area of legitimacy and yet international, name – Boss: it conveys know-how as well as its scope of competence. aggressive success, professional achievement, Many brands make every effort to acquire conformity and city life. Rexona is a harsh qualities which their brand name fails to name all over the world because of its abrupt reflect or simply excludes altogether. ‘Apple’