PBS Full Study Guide Josh Jones PDF

1.1 One Page Wonders Josh Jones Proper PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) Gloves Goggles Lab Coats Types of Evidence Fingerprints Footprints Hair Identific...

1.1 One Page Wonders Josh Jones Proper PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) Gloves Goggles Lab Coats Types of Evidence Fingerprints Footprints Hair Identification Bodily Fluids/DNA m M m m Determining Time of Death- Biomedical sciences are used to determine the time of death and how the person died Rigor Mortis- stiffening Algor Mortis- cooling of Lividity- blood pooling in of the muscles the body tissues and discoloration of skin  Glaister Equation 98.4 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ 1.5 98.4 − 92.4 6 = =4 1.5 1.5 The body was found and the temperature was 92.4 degrees Fahrenheit. This means that it was approx. 4 hours since this person’s death. 98.4 is the average body temperature subtract 92.4, which is the measured rectal temperature, divided by 1.5. Forensics Science is used to determine whether civil and criminal laws are being violated. The Glaister Equation helps them decide this problem. Blood Pressure Experiment: How will having your hand in cold water affect your blood pressure? Hypothesis: If you put your hand in ice water, then your blood pressure will increase. Independent Variable: Hand in ice Dependent Variable: Blood Pressure Constant: sitting Constant: right arm being tested Control groups are not being Constant: Using exposed to the independent Sphygmomanometer variable. Constants are the things that stay the same in an experiment Positive Controls is where the Negative Controls can be used to influence a negative outcome group is expected to have a positive result Blood Spatter We can learn how a person was killed, how they died, and how high the blood was dropped, just based on the blood spatter. You can find out if the person was hit and at what angle they were hit at.  1.2 One Page Wonder - DNA Analysis Josh Jones What is DNA? Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) - is in the shape of a double helix and contains genetic information for cells and proteins. DNA is made up of many nucleotides, which are made up of a phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar and a nitrogenous base. Nucleotides form DNA. A section of DNA is called a Gene. When many genes buildup, they form a Chromosome. These chromosomes code for the production of proteins and contain genetic information. We built a model to identify how nucleotides turn into chromosomes Purines- 2 carbon nitrogen rings in the nitrogenous Pyrimidines- 1 carbon nitrogen ring in the bases (Adenine and Guanine) nitrogenous base (Thymine and Cytosine) Purine Double Hydrogen Bond Triple Hydrogen Bond Pyrimidine Pyrimidine Purine 1.2.2 Strawberry DNA Lab Step 1: Mash strawberry Step 2: Press through Step 3: Put beaker full of Step 4: Add layered with soap cheese cloth stuff in test tube ice cold alcohol to the solution  Restriction Enzymes and RFLPS HaeIII is a Restriction Enzyme. It cuts when it Restriction enzymes cut sees GGCC and splits it into GG and CC. pieces of DNA. The Restriction Enzymes can cut DNA in specific certain lengths of the places. When a virus (bacteriophage) lands on DNA is called a bacteria, it inserts its DNA code. The Restriction Fragment restriction enzymes cut the viral DNA and Length Polymorphism protects the bacteria’s DNA. (RFLPs). RFLPs show the differences in a DNA sequence and their lengths. RFLPs can be seen in Gel Electrophoresis and that is where scientists can compare the lengths of DNA strands. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) takes out a n specific strand of DNA and makes a lot of it. This allows scientists to make many copies of a DNA sequence. Thermocycler is a device that allows DNA strands to be copied. Inside, there are thermal blocks where the DNA samples can be placed. First, the computer raises the temperature, which causes the DNA strands to separate. This is called Denaturation. Then, the computer cools, giving the primers one chance to bind with the complimentary strands of DNA. This is known as Annealing. Finally, extension is when the DNA polymerase runs through the DNA and seals the primers together making complimentary strands of DNA. From the gel electrophoresis DNA Analysis, we can conclude that Anna’s DNA was found at the crime scene. Not only do her RFLPs match up perfectly with the crime scene’s RFLPs, but her body was even found at the crime scene. Anna’s RFLPs and the crime scene’s RFLPs extend the same distance and are identical. Therefore, Anna’s DNA was found at the crime scene.  1.3 One Page Wonder – The Findings Josh Jones Body Systems Immune- Protects by filtering Skeletal-Supports making muscle Urinary- Covers by keeping pathogens and makes white blood cells attachments and protecting organs internal parts in and Joints, bones, cartilage and tendons outside stuff out, maintaining body temperature, and protecting tissues Muscular - Moves materials around the Digestive- Nourishes by breaking down body, makes heat, and body movement. food into nutrients and takes them to the Heart, diaphragm, tongue, skeletal cells in the muscles, body, etc. removes toxins Cardiovascular- Delivers Endocrine- Controls by secreting Respiratory- Exchanges oxygen for nutrients/oxygen and hormones carbon dioxide hormones to cells Nervous- Communicates by receiving Integumentary- Cleans by removing signals coordinating response, and tells cellular waste, filtering blood, and what other systems to do maintaining water balance Autopsy- the dissection of a deceased person that will decide the cause of death. One of the occupations that can perform this task is a medical examiner. A Y-incision is made to open up the body and see the organs. Rokitansky’s method is that block 1 is from the trachea to the large intestine and block 2 are the large intestine, small intestine, kidneys, appendix, and the adrenaline glands. External Exam Internal Exam Viewing Internal Removal of Organs Organs Removal of Brain Weighing of Organs Returning Organs to Sew Back Together the Body Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) is a set of laws that provides clients/patients/students with confidentiality and privacy. Health officials must protect and follow HIPAA or else they will be fined, lose their job, be criminally prosecuted, and/or have a loss of license. To violate HIPPA, you must share a client’s basic info, past, present, or future conditions, bills, etc. No public records can be laying around. But, information can be shared if: the client has an infectious disease, it prevents an injury, it prevents neglect/abuse, it prevents public health or safety, or worker’s compensation orders the release of records. 3 ways of violating HIPAA: 3 things that are allowed according to HIPAA: - Leaving public records/patient records on - A doctor reporting an infectious disease to the cafeteria table a local/state health department - A phone call about lab results to anybody - Talking to another doctor who has the other than the patient patient (so you both have the patient) in - Talking to another person about a patient private that does not have the patient - A mother asking the doctor about her daughter’s baby and the doctor answering all the questions  2.1 One Page Wonder – What is Diabetes? Josh Jones 2.1.1. Diabetes Diabetes is a disease in which the body does not produce enough insulin or the receptors do not recognize insulin, resulting in high blood sugar. Risk Factors of Type 2 Diabetes: Symptoms of Diabetes: - Being overweight/obese - Recessive thirst/urination - Inactivity - Fatigue - Unhealthy eating (lots of carbs - Weight loss and sugars) - Blurred vision - Family History (increased risk - Hunger if parents/siblings have it) - Tingling/pain/numbness (in limbs and extremities) - Age: >45 have an increased risk - Edema (water retention) - Race: African- - Mood swings Americans/Blacks, Hispanic, - Fainting Asian Americans, American Indians, etc. - People with prediabetes or gestational diabetes Type 1 Diabetes Similarities Type 2 Diabetes - Juvenile diabetes- symptoms - Can damage the - Adult onset diabetes- risk start young cardiovascular system, increases when you are >45 - Your body does not produce urinary, and nervous - Cell receptors don’t recognize enough insulin systems (often puts people insulin anymore, so the cells cannot - Genetic- autoimmune disease, at risk for kidney failure, turn the glucose, in your blood, into so it can’t be prevented or heart failure, blindness, ATP (energy). reversed etc.) - Unhealthy lifestyle, can be - Treatment: Medications for - Similar symptoms: frequent prevented/reversed insulin and carb hunger, thirst, fatigue, - Treatment: Exercise/weight loss, counting/diabetic diet blurred vision, etc. Diabetic diet, and medication - More common in white people - If you have diabetes or (anticoagulants, statin, and insulin) - Onset is sudden and suspect you have diabetes, - More common in African-Americans, unexpected you go to an Asian Americans, Hispanics, etc. endocrinologist - Onset is gradual Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT) is used to determine if a person has diabetes through oral and blood testing. In Left- Normal GTT Results GTT, people are given high levels of sugar, and we see how Right-Normal vs Diabetic Results (Diabetic is green, normal is red) their body reacts. Insulin is a protein hormone produced to signal the cell to take in glucose and make energy (Adenosine Triphosphate or ATP). The beta cells of the pancreas make the insulin in order to contain the amount of glucose in the blood. Then, the insulin travels through the blood to cells all over the body. There, they fit into the insulin receptors, like a key and a lock. This triggers the glut 4 transporter to transport glucose through the cell membrane into the cell and out of the bloodstream. After the glut 4 transporter takes in the glucose, it turns it into energy through glycolysis. In type 1 diabetes, the beta cells of the pancreas do not produce enough insulin for the amount of glucose in the blood. In type 2 diabetes, the insulin receptors have become resistant to the insulin and refuse to allow any glucose in. Both cause hyperglycemia because they are not taking the glucose from the blood and turning it into energy. This is why diabetics are often tired. Diabetics are often thirsty because your kidneys are taking much of the water found throughout your body to balance out the hyperglycemia. This causes some diabetics to have edema and swell. Negative Feedback Loop Similarities Positive Feedback Loop - Both are secreted by hormones and are controlled by the endocrine system - Both are a reaction to a problem in the body - Both contain a cause, that results in an effect - Both are necessary for - A negative feedback loop stops one survival in animals, - A positive feedback loop action and makes no action or an plant, humans, etc. continues an action until opposite action in attempt to maintain something big happens. It keeps homeostasis. reinforcing the first action and - Examples: causes the reaction to increase. - Temperature - Examples: - Blood sugar levels - Contractions in childbirth - Blood pressure - Orgasms - Blood clotting When you eat sugar, your blood When you have not eaten glucose levels will increase. sugar in a while, your blood This is then detected by the glucose levels will decrease. insulin-secreting cells in the It is detected by the pancreas and then insulin is glucagon-releasing cells in released into the blood. The the pancreas. Glucagon is liver takes out some of the released into the blood to glucose in your blood and turns target the liver. Then, the it into glycogen (stored liver detects this and energy). But, most is absorbed glycogen breaks down and by the cells throughout the releases glucose into the body. The blood glucose level blood. This raises the blood returns to normal. sugar level back to normal.  2.2 One Page Wonder – The Science of FOOD! Josh Jones 2.2.1 Food Testing We used chemical indicators to test for macromolecules to better understand what is in our foods. When chemical indicators show a positive result, generally through coloration or bubbling, this tells us that a certain chemical reaction has occurred. This chemical reaction happens when chemicals bonds are broken down, and then reformed again. Carbohydrates Protein Lipids Starch- Lugol’s Iodine Simple Sugars- Biuret Solution Brown Paper Towel Benedict’s Solution, m , Test Positive Result- Dark Positive Result- Positive Result- Positive Result- Shiny Blue/Black Coloration Orange/Red Coloration Purple/Blue Coloration Carbohydrates: Both control Proteins: Provides energy organ Structure/ (needed for activity) function in cells and organ function. function and and regulate are made of tissue and Monosaccharides are carbon, organs. the monomer for hydrogen, carbohydrates. Glucose and oxygen The monomers are amino acids. There are is an example of a monomer for carbohydrates. 20 different amino acids and are made of They are a 5 or 6 carbon ring. Disaccharides are 2 an amino group, a carboxyl group, a side 5-carbon rings that make sucrose. Polysaccharides chain and a carbon. are many monosaccharides. Both provide energy and are necessary in organ and All necessary Nucleotides form DNA, which can be system function. Without carbohydrates or lipids, for survival and all have copied by RNA in the process of protein humans would have no energy and would not exist because the majority of the cell is made of lipids or monomers that synethesis. The nucleic acids code for the buildup to production of proteins and their functions. carbs. polymers. Lipids: Provides Both are key Nucleic acids: Store energy source, gives to cellular genetic information insulation, and and transfer during function and structure of cells cell division. membrane. can change how a cell The monomer is a Glycerol and the 3 functions. nucleotide, which is fatty acid chains are the monomers that build composed of a the lipid. Triglycerides store energy for later phosphate group, a because they have 3 fatty acid chains. deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.  Bonds forming- Chemical Reactions form Breaking Down Bonds and Compounds- Chemical covalent bonds between elements or compounds. bonds are broken when a chemical reaction occurs. They can connect elements together by bonding This can occur when you digest food. Stomach acid them, which is considered a molecule. and the liver can break down the polymers (food) Simultaneously, the chemical reaction generally and turn them into monomers. Breaking down food causes a product to be made, such as energy or helps you get the right nutrients. Chemical water. In dehydration synthesis, covalent bonds reactions happen when there is an imbalance in are formed through a chemical reaction in order electrons. So, the electrons that move, create to make a polymer. At the same time, the energy. The energy from the chemical reaction chemical reaction causes 2 hydrogen and 1 causes the chemical bonds to break. In hydrolysis, oxygen to break off forming water. This helps water is used to split the chemical bonds between form and grow tissue throughout the body. the molecules of the polymer. The polymer is Dehydration synthesis forms the bonds between broken into monomers. Hydrolysis breaks down the the monomers. bonds and compounds. Dehydration Synthesis Hydrolysis , Calorimetry is one way of finding out how many calories are in a certain food. To measure how many calories was in the food, we burnt it under a can of water, and saw how much the temperature increased. By knowing how much heat was given off, we can calculate how much energy was in a single food item. We also measured the weight of the food and the can of water. 50 mL of water was put into the can before we burnt the food under it. Once we did the lab and the results were completed, it was time to calculate the amount of energy gained. To find this, we used the equation (mass of water) x (change in temperature) x (specific heat of water). This was to find out the amount of energy gained by water. Then, we calculated for the energy in the actual food. To do this, we used the equation: Energy content of the food sample = (energy gained by water) / change in mass of food. After doing these 2 calculations, we still had to divide our answer by 1,000. This would tell us the answer in Cal/g (Calorie = energy needed to raise 1kg of water 10C). Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is stored in the body as energy. This energy is measured in calories. It is called Adenosine Triphosphate because it has 3 phosphates and 1 adenine.  2.3 One Page Wonder- Life with Diabetes Josh Jones 2.3.1 Day in a Life It can be The most common blood sugar test very hard is home glucose monitoring. To do to deal with this, you prick your finger with a diabetes. If lancet so that you are bleeding. you have Then, place a drop of your blood on diabetes, a test strip and insert it into the you have to check your blood sugar meter that displays your blood regularly and may need a help to sugar levels. It is important to track your blood sugar levels control your insulin levels. If you have because you do not want your sugar to get too high. Testing Type 1 diabetes, you do not have you blood sugar levels can also prevent long-term diabetic enough insulin. This means that you complications, such as nerve damage, and organ and blood may need a pump to give you insulin vessel damage. By making sure your blood sugar is the right when needed. Also if you have level, you could prevent future health problems. Also, insulin diabetes, exercising will really help pumps detect your blood sugar, and can inject insulin to lower your cells respond to insulin better your blood sugar. The Hemoglobin A1C test can determine and control blood sugar levels. what percent of hemoglobin is glycated (meaning covered in sugar). It tells the average blood sugar concentrations. 2.3.2 Diabetic Emergency High blood sugar, Hyperglycemia, is Low blood sugar, where there is too much sugar in Hypoglycemia, is when there is your blood. A hypertonic cell is not enough sugar in your blood. when there is too much pressure on A hypotonic cell is where the cell causing it to shrink. there is very little pressure on Hyperglycemia causes your cells to the cell causing it to expand. become hypertonic. In the egg lab that we did, In the egg lab, the egg that we placed in water after putting an egg in vinegar to get rid of the grew because it was in water. This means more shell, we placed the egg in a cup of corn syrup. This water could enter the egg through osmosis. caused water to exit the cell through osmosis. In Hypoglycemia causes your cells to become this part of the experiment, the solute was sugar, hypotonic. In this part of the experiment, there the solution was the corn syrup and the solvent was no solute, but both the solution and the was water. solvent was water. Risk factors: family history and diabetes can all Risks factors: family history and people with cause not enough insulin or insulin resistance. Not diabetes can have low blood sugar. If you have producing insulin and insulin resistance cause high recently exercised or have skipped a meal, this blood sugar. puts you at a greater risk of hypoglycemia. Effects/symptoms: extreme thirst, frequent Effects/symptoms: shaking, sweating, anxious, urination, dry skin, hunger, blurred vision, dizziness, hunger, fast heartrate, impaired drowsiness, and nausea vision, weakness/fatigue, headache, irritable Isotonic blood has just the right amount of sugar in it, so it puts the right amount of pressure on the cells. Isotonic blood has the same solute concentration as another solution. By having isotonic blood, your cells can function and there is not too much water entering the cell or too much water exiting the cell.  2.3.3 Complications of Diabetes Retinopathy Diabetic Retinopathy is a disease that effects your vision and can come from diabetes and high blood sugar. The high amount of sugar in your blood weakens the blood vessels. After months to years of high blood sugar, blockages can buildup in small vessels that give the retina oxygen. When these small blood vessels can no longer reach the retina, the retina does not get enough oxygen. In attempt to solve the problem, the eye and blood vessels try to create more blood vessels. Generally, they fail to create successful blood vessels and most leak or are not developed fully. This complication is most related to the ocular system. Overall, it causes blurred vision and can eventually cause you to go blind. Neuropathy Diabetic neuropathy is caused by high glucose levels in your blood. This can damage nerve fibers, mainly in your hands and feet. If you have high blood sugar for a long enough time, you may develop neuropathy because high blood sugar can damage nerve fibers. Also, if you have high blood sugar, it can damage and block the capillaries going to the nerves. This means some parts of the nerves will not get enough oxygen and nutrients to function. High blood sugar can affect the way your nerves transmit signals and interfere with your reaction time. Neuropathy mainly affects the nervous system. Diabetic With diabetic nephropathy, the glomeruli Kidney Disease does not function properly and leaks an (Diabetic unusual amount of proteins into the urine. Glomeruli are clumps of blood vessels and Nephropathy) acts like a filter. In a normal kidney, glomerulus allow waste products, water and salt/electrolytes to pass through into a tubule. This filter does not allow proteins to pass. A glomerulus and tubule make a nephron and a million nephrons are in each kidney. But, in diabetic nephropathy, the glomerulus get damaged and allows proteins, mainly a protein known as albumin, through into the urine. The high blood sugar in your blood causes damage to the tiny blood vessels in your kidneys, thus allowing more albumin to enter your urine. This mainly affects your urinary system.  3.1 One Page Wonder- The Disease Josh Jones Erythrocytes Leukocytes Thrombocytes Scientific Name: Thrombocytes Common Name: Platelets Scientific Name: Scientific Name: Leukocytes Thrombocytes are used in the Erythrocytes Common Name: White Blood Cells (WBC) blood to stop and prevent Common Name: Red White blood cells fight infections and foreign bleeding. Less than 1% of the Blood Cells (RBC) invaders (pathogens) that enter your body. blood is made of Thrombocytes. The erythrocytes main There are 5 different types of leukocytes: When you get a cut or have an job is to supply neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, open wound, platelets recognize muscles and the brain and lymphocytes. Neutrophils, eosinophils, an injury and produce a clot to with oxygen needed to monocytes, and lymphocytes all use stop bleeding. This helps protect function. About 50% phagocytosis, which means that they engulf our bodies from infections, while of your blood is made the bacteria. Basophils, as well as neutrophils keeping blood in. Platelets prevent up of erythrocytes. and eosinophils, use degranulation to kill too much blood from being lost. pathogens. Leukocytes make up less than 1% of They are the smallest blood cells. the blood. Blood Plasma Scientific name: Plasma Common Name: Plasma Blood plasma’s main job is to transport nutrients and carries all the nutrients, red blood cells, leukocytes, thrombocytes, and proteins around the body. The plasma looks like liquid and is about 50% of the blood. About 95% of the plasma is made out of water. Steps of a hematocrit test: Anemia is when your blood hematocrit level gets too low. This means there 1. Collect a microtest tube of a are not as many RBC’s in your blood to carry oxygen around. It can occur patient’s blood when you are bleeding too much and you lose too much blood, when your 2. Centrifuge the blood in a body does not make enough RBC’s, or when your body destroys/attacks microcentrifuge for 4 minutes on RBC’s. Sickle cell disease is a disease in which the body produces low. defective RBC’s that are in the shape of a banana. This means that your 3. Find the measurements of the blood can clot easier and not as much oxygen can be transported (anemia). total height of the blood and the height of the red blood cells (mm). Calculation: 4. Calculate the height of the RBC To find hematocrit levels, you divide the height of the over the height of the whole RBC (Cm) by the height of the blood. This should give you blood and then multiply by 100. a decimal and you multiply that by 100 to get a percent. This gives you a percent. 2.1 Cm = 0.656 × 100 = 65.6% You can use hematocrit test results 3.2 Cm to determine whether a person has a This person has very high hematocrit level low/normal/high hematocrit level. If because the normal hematocrit level for a male is you have a low hematocrit level it 42%-54% and this person had 65.6%. Sickle cell means that you are anemic and you disease causes low hematocrit levels because of cannot carry as much oxygen to your the defective red blood cells that are carried body. throughout the body.  Sickle Cell Disease Sickle Cell Disease, also known as sickle cell anemia, is an inherited disease that is found on chromosome 11. More specifically, it is found on the gene for hemoglobin-Beta. In this disease, the hemoglobin S sticks to each other and form a long sickled blood cell. Sickled red blood cells cause more blood clots and carry less blood. Although sickle cell disease is a harmful disease, it also has some benefits. If you receive the gene for sickle cell disease, you more immune to malaria (malaria resistance). In a person without sickle cell disease, the hemoglobin molecule binds and takes oxygen from the lungs and carries it to peripheral tissues. Sickle Cell Disease is Red Blood Cells are passed down through a directly affected recessive gene, so you by sickle cell can only get sickle cell disease. The disease if both parents mutation that are carriers or have the causes sickle cell disease. Generally, this disease can be mutation is found in found on the Sickled RBC African-Americans, hemoglobin-Beta Indians, and Mexicans. gene. This gene is located on chromosome 11 and If your parents are both carriers for sickle cell changes the total function of the RBC. Instead of disease (like shown in the picture), you have a 25% flowing smoothly in the arteries, veins, and chance that you will get the disease and a 50% capillaries, the sickled RBC’s can get stuck. In a chance that you will carry the gene. This means sickle cell, the gene tells the hemoglobin to stick that the sickle cell gene will be passed on for together, which causes the long banana shape. If generations. Finally, a person can never get or lose you have sickle cell disease, not all of your cells the sickle cell disease over time, but we can treat turn sickle. Finally, sickle cells die really quickly people with sickle cell anemia. and easily. Normal cells last approximately 120 days, but sickled RBC’s only live 10-20 days. Symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease: Antibiotics (hydroxyurea), folic acid supplements, - Angina or other pains (occurs when the sickled chronic blood transfusion therapy, and bone blood forms a clot) marrow transplant are all ways to treat/cure sickle - Swelling (due to the blockages blocking flow to cell disease. Antibiotics can help fight and prevent hands and feet) infection for sickle cell disease. Hydroxyurea - Infections (can damage organs such as the stimulates the production of fetal hemoglobin, spleen) which prevents sickled cells from forming. Folic -Delayed Growth (nutrients and oxygen cannot acid production can help with the making of new travel the body as quickly) red blood cells. This will help to dilute the blood. -Jaundice (the sickled Chronic blood transfusion can help increase the RBC’s are dying faster amount of RBC’s, which ultimately helps carry more than the liver can filter oxygen and more blood throughout the body. them out causing Finally, bone marrow bilirubin to build-up) helps make red blood cells, so transplanting bone marrow will increase red blood cell production.  3.2 One Page Wonder- It’s In the Genes Josh Jones 3.2.1 Protein Synthesis Transcription Translation Translation is the process after transcription, in which the mRNA’s code (copied and opposite DNA’s code) is transformed into a protein. First, the mRNA must find a ribosome. Transcription is a process in which DNA’s code is copied onto The ribosome goes along the mRNA and finds the a strand of RNA(ribonucleic acid). The mRNA is known as start codon (AUG). Thereafter, the ribosome messenger RNA because it synthesizes DNA’s code to take to recognizes the letters on the base pairs. As the the ribosomes for translation. The purpose of transcription is ribosome moves along the mRNA, tRNA (transfer for the mRNA to copy specific genes on DNA and to be taken RNA) holding the amino acids comes and starts to out of the nucleus, so that a protein can be produced. DNA form a peptide chain. They must match so the cannot fit through the nuclear pores, so it must be tRNA codons will fit with the mRNA codons. The synthesized on a strand of mRNA. This allows mRNA to take tRNA is actually using DNA’s code to produce a the complimentary base pairs out of the nucleus for the peptide chain, which will eventually turn into a production of proteins. This process happens inside the protein. After the tRNA has been used, it leaves. nucleus. RNA polymerase runs down the DNA strand and Finally, once the ribosome reaches a stop codon unwinds it so that an mRNA strand can copy the nucleotides. (UAG, UAA, and UGA), the peptide chain breaks The mRNA copies complimentary letters (except adenine (A) away to fold and form a protein. The whole pairs with uracil (U), instead of thymine (T)). Finally, after process, both transcription and translation, makes the mRNA copied the DNA, it exits the nucleus through one single protein and this is when mutations nuclear pores. often occur. Amino Acids Codons Cytoplasm Amino acids are Codons are 3 The cytoplasm is a the monomers nucleotides on the cell organelle and for proteins mRNA that attract is where and are taken the complimentary translation occurs. to the ribosome by the tRNA in tRNA. This helps translation. build the peptide chain. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) mRNA Nucleus DNA is made mRNA is a copy of a The nucleus is of genetic strand of DNA and is the control information synthesized by RNA center of a cell to code for polymerase. It holds and is where all living DNA’s genetic transcription things. It information and takes takes place. is copied it outside the nucleus After DNA is onto an mRNA strand so for production of synthesized, the mRNA exits the proteins can be built. proteins. nucleus. Ribosomes RNA Polymerase tRNA Ribosomes RNA is tRNA transfers the bring an amino acids to the together the enzyme ribosome and tRNA and that identifies the codons mRNA and unzips so that its anticodons move along DNA so (complimentary an mRNA that a nucleotides of codons) strand in order to form a peptide complimentary strand of RNA can can match up. It adds an amino chain. be made. acid to the peptide chain.  Van der Waals S-S Bonds Electrostatic Forces Hydrogen Bonds The stickiness of all Cysteine amino acids Positively charged Water attracts atoms that attracts bond because there amino acids bond to hydrophilic amino acids. them to each other is sulfur atoms attract. negative amino acids. This affects all amino known as Van der This only happens with acids. Waals. hydrophilic molecules. Hydrophilic Hydrophobic To be hydrophilic means that you are an amino acid To be hydrophobic means that you are an amino that is attracted to water. These amino acids are acid that is trying to move away from water. These polar and charged. Polar means that an amino acid amino acids are nonpolar, uncharged, and neutral. has both a positive and a negative. Hydrophobic amino acids are like oil because oil and water separate. Hydrophilic amino acids (Polar): Hydrophilic amino acids Hydrophobic amino acids: (Charged):  Glutamine- Gln  Alanine- Ala  Asparagine- Asn  Aspartic Acid (-) –Asp  Isoleucine- Ile  Histidine- His  Glutamic acid (-) –Glu  Leucine- Leu  Serine- Ser  Arginine (+) –Arg  Phenylalanine- Phe  Threonine- Thr  Lysine (+) –Lys  Valine- Val  Tyrosine- Tyr  Proline- Pro  Cysteine- Cys  Glycine- Gly  Methionine- Met  Tryptophan- Trp The nucleotide that is changed in order for a person to have sickle cell disease is located in the codon for the 6th amino acid. The mutation is a single nucleotide substitution, so that means that only one letter is changed in the whole protein. Instead of a T, people with sickle cell have an A. This changes how the RNA is made, resulting in an amino acid change, and eventually the whole cell malfunctioning. th The amino acid changed is the 6 amino acid. In a normal red blood cell the amino acid sequence goes: Valine – Histidine – Leucine – Threonine – Proline – Glutamic Acid. However, in a sickled red blood, instead of the 6th amino acid being glutamic acid, it changes to valine due to the nucleotide substitution. As a result, the hemoglobin becomes sickled. A person could have to deal with a lifetime of pain and suffering all because of one nucleotide base change. Glutamic acid is hydrophilic When trying to form a cell, and has a negative charge. So, the sickle cell hemoglobin when it is replaced by valine, a starts to stick to each highly hydrophobic amino acid, other causing a dense cell. the cell and its shape has It becomes very hard for changed. The hydrophobic the sickle cell to carry valine wants to get away from oxygen. In a normal red the water so it “caves” in. This blood cell hemoglobin is not eventually causes a sickle-cell sticky, which causes it to hemoglobin, which leads to a be able to carry more sickled red blood cell. oxygen and flow better.  3.3 One Page Wonder – Chromosomes Josh Jones 3.3.1 Chromosomes There are 23 This pairs of karyotype chromosomes shows the in an average person is human cell (46 male because total the genotype chromosomes). is XY. Chromosome pairs 1-22 are considered A sex chromosome determines your sex. The sex autosomes. Autosomes are chromosomes that chromosomes are on the 23rd pair of chromosomes. do not determine a person’s sex, but code for If you are female, your genotype will be XX and if every other protein in the body. you are male, your genotype will be XY. This picture shows that chromosomes in the nucleus are made of coils, which are made up of nucleosomes. A nucleosome is a strand of DNA wrapped around histone proteins. Then, the DNA is made up of genes and genes are made up of base pairs. DNA is made up of genes, and is what chromosomes are made of. DNA is the genetic material for life because it stores genetic information. A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that ultimately can cause a change in the production of a protein. Mutations can be both harmful and beneficial. The change in the genetic material can allow for genetic diversity, but can also cause genetic disorders. For example, in sickle cell disease, some red blood cells will not be able to carry as much oxygen, but it also protects you against malaria. Mitosis occurs in the somatic cells. This occurs only for autosomes. Somatic cells are all the cells in your body except sperm and egg. In interphase, the cells duplicate and pair with their matching chromosomes. During metaphase, the chromosomes center themselves and the spindle fibers attach. During anaphase, the chromosomes split up and go to opposite poles. Finally, in telophase, 2 nuclei are formed, which are then split into 2 daughter cells. The result of mitosis is 2 daughter cells. Meiosis occurs in gamete, or sex, cells. More specifically, meiosis occurs in the ovaries or the testes. The first step in meiosis is prophase. In prophase I the chromosomes condense and crossing over occurs. Then in metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes move to the equator. In anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles. In telophase I, the cytoplasm divides and 2 cells are formed. The cells are now haploid. Then in prophase II, chromosomes condense. In metaphase II, chromosomes are pulled to the equator and spindle fibers attach. In anaphase II, the chromosomes are pulled apart. Finally, in telophase II, 4 haploid cells are produced. Meiosis occurs to produce sex cells.  Homologous chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes with a similar location, dimensions, and structure. Homologous chromosomes centromeres are in the same spot and their gene loci’s are in the same position. Even though the gene loci of the 2 chromosomes are similar, it does not mean that the have the same alleles. The mother may have given you the dominant allele, but you father may have given you a recessive allele for a certain trait, which makes you heterozygous. A dominant trait is a characteristic that can be A recessive trait is a characteristic that must be passed down genetically from only one parent. If passed down genetically by both parents in order the mother has the trait and passes it down, the for the offspring to get the trait. Both the offspring will have the trait no matter what the mother and the father must pass on a recessive father gives. Some examples of a dominant trait trait for the child to show the trait. Some are: examples of a recessive trait are:  Freckles  Attached earlobes  Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH)  Sickle cell disease  Unattached Earlobes  Hemophilia  Dwarfism  Phenylketonuria (PKU) Homozygous dominant genotype: Homozygous recessive genotype: Heterozygous genotype: Aa AA aa Phenotypes: Phenotypes: Phenotypes:  Sickle cell disease (a  Sickle cell disease (a  Sickle cell disease (a recessive trait): disease recessive trait): disease recessive trait): some is not present, but the is not present red blood cells are person is a carrier and  Dwarfism (a dominant sickled can pass on the trait trait): genetic disorder is  Dwarfism (a dominant  Dwarfism (a dominant present so expresses trait): disorder is not trait): genetic disorder is dwarfism traits present present so expresses dwarfism traits Pedigrees show how a disease is passed from one generation to the next. Pedigrees are a big family tree that shows who has a specific trait for a specific disorder/disease. Pedigrees show the heredity of a specific trait. Sickle cell disease is a recessive trait, so both parents must have the disease in order for their offspring to get it. It is an autosomal disorder (occurs on chromosome 11). In the pedigree, generation 1 mother had the disease, so her genotype was: ss. However, the father does not have the disease, so his genotype is SS. The father can only give an S and mother can only give an s. This means all of their offspring must be Ss, so they all are carriers, but do not express the disease in any way. Then, for the next generation, one of the females from generation 2 has offspring with a male that is also a carrier. This means there is a 25% chance their children will have the disease, 25% chance their children will not have the disease, and 50% chance their children will be carriers.  3.4 One Page Wonder – Inheritance Josh Jones 3.4.1 Inheritance Genes, chromosomes, and alleles all decide most of your traits and which traits you inherit from your parents. Genes are a specific strands of DNA that code for proteins. Each parent gives one chromosome and chromosomes are made up of lots of genes. Alleles are specific genes that code for proteins and determine what trait you have. Each parent can give you either a dominant or a recessive allele on the chromosome, which determines your phenotype. Your heredity, or inheritance, can be tracked through a pedigree. If you have a specific disease or know you have or are a carrier for a genetic disease (through genetic testing), a pedigree can help determine whether your children will have it. It can also determine whether your relatives are carriers or have the disease. Both parents could be carriers and not know that they could pass the disease/trait to their children. As seen on the picture at the right, the people who are carriers of sickle cell disease are partially shaded, those who do not have it are not shaded, and those who do have the disease are shaded. From the information given, you can determine and predict what other relatives might have been/will be. For example, female 3-1 will always have children that are carriers or have the disease, no matter who the father is. We can use pedigrees to predict the probability that your children will have a disease or trait. Dominant Traits Recessive Traits A dominant trait is a trait that overrides A recessive trait is a trait that must be other alleles. A person who have a dominant expressed by both alleles. Both parents must trait only needs one dominant allele to contribute a recessive allele in order for the express a certain trait because it will offspring to receive the trait. override a recessive allele. The only possible genotype for a recessive Possible genotypes include: AA or Aa trait is: aa Three examples of a dominant trait are: Three examples of a recessive trait are: dimples, freckles, and unattached (free) hitchhikers thumb, color blindness, and earlobes hemophilia Trait: Hitchhikers Thumb Possible Genotypes: aa Genotypes that will not express the trait: AA, Aa Phenotype: hitchhikers thumb Phenotype: no hitchhikers thumb Punnett Squares use peoples’ genotypes to determine the probability that they’re offspring will receive a certain trait or disease. Punnett squares can influence decisions on whether people want to have children or not. Tay-Sachs is a genetic disorder that destroys the brain and nerves in children. As children should be developing, children with Tay-Sachs are going backwards. Tay Sachs expresses an absence of the hexosaminidase A enzyme that regulates the fat in the brain. Without this enzyme, the fat in the brain accumulates causing swelling. Type of Trait: Autosomal Recessive Mom: Heterozygous (Rr) Dad: Heterozygous (Rr) Prediction: The offspring will have a 25% chance of not producing enough of the hexosaminidase A enzyme, 50% chance of being a carrier, and 25% they will not carry the disease. This map shows the places that sickle cell disease is the most common. Sickle cell disease is most common is nothern and eastern Africa, as seen on the map, but can also be found other places around the world. Africa is one of the hottest continents with the largest desert in the world. Not only is it hot, but it is also filled with mosquitos that carry malaria. Sickle cell disease may be prevalent in Africa because the sickled cells prevent malaria. It is not seen as often in other parts of the world because mosquitos carrying malaria is most common in Africa. This is why mainly African Americans and Indians (or people that descended from these groups) inherit the disease. Another perk of having Sickle Cell Disease is that you will never have the plasmodium parasite, a parasite that can cause malaria. This evolutionary genetic mutation that caused sickle cell disease may have/will save millions of lives, but can also harm millions of lives.  4.1 One Page Wonder – Heart Structure Josh Jones 4.1.1. Tissues, Cells, and the Heart Cells make up tissues, which make up organs. Cells are the smallest units of life and a tissue is a group of cells. Cardiac muscle tissue is the tissue that makes up the heart. It is the strongest muscle in the body because it has to pump blood constantly. Heart cells make up cardiac muscle tissue. Cardiac muscle tissue makes up the heart and the heart is part of the cardiovascular system. 4.1.1. Heart Anatomy (Role of Structures) Vessels Valves Chambers There are 2 kinds of There are 2 kinds of valves: There are 2 kinds of chambers: vessels: arteries and atrioventricular and semilunar. the ventricles and the atrium. veins. Arteries take Atrioventricular valves are the The atrium is part of the heart blood from the heart to valves that allows/pumps blood to where veins drop off blood and it the body. Veins take go from the atrium to the is the entrance to the heart. blood back to the heart. ventricle. Semilunar valves Then, the atrium pushes the Pulmonary arteries and allow/pump blood from the blood through a valve into the the aorta are 2 examples ventricles into the body. Examples ventricle. The heart then pumps of arteries. 2 examples of atrioventricular valves are: the blood out of the ventricles of veins in the heart are tricuspid valve and mitral and to the lungs or to the heart. the superior vena cava (bicuspid) valve. Examples of The main chambers in the heart and the inferior vena semilunar valves are: the aortic are: the right atrium, the left cava. valve and the pulmonary valve. atrium, the left ventricle and the right ventricle. The right side of the heart is deoxygenated and the left side of the heart is oxygenated. The left side pumps blood to the body, which is when oxygen is delivered. The right side of the heart pumps the blood, which it receives from the superior/inferior vena cava, to the lungs so that it can be pick up oxygen. This process continues all the time. If the heart stops, you will die.  4.1.1. Circuits Pulmonary Circulation Systemic Circulation The goal of the pulmonary The goal of the circuit is to get oxygen systemic circuit is to from the lungs so that it transport oxygen to can enter the systemic the body. After it circuit. First, the blood delivers the oxygen it picks up oxygen molecules reports backs to the and goes back into the left right atrium where it atrium where it can be is pushed through the pumped through the left ventricle and then ventricle and out the back to the pulmonary aorta. After pumped arteries where it through the aorta it starts the systemic circuit. restarts the pulmonary circuit. So, the constant The right side of your heart is smaller than the blood flow goes back and forth from the left left side because it only has to pump to the lungs, side to the right side. This process repeats whereas the right side pumps to your whole body. thousands of times every day. 4.1.1. Path of Blood As a young erythrocyte, I traveled throughout the human body every single day. I still remember my first day of circulation. It was a rough, winter morning for my beloved master when I started my circulation. I started in the right atrium as a poor deoxygenated red blood cell. The red blood cells told me to hold on tight because we were getting ready to pass through the tricuspid valve. Sure enough, we were all forced through the tricuspid valve to the beat of Staying Alive by the Bee Gees. Before we knew it we were in and out of the right ventricle and up through the pulmonary valve. "Oh oh oh oh staying alive staying alive!" sang my fellow erythrocytes, so I joined in. Finally, we were shot through the right pulmonary artery, the expressway to the right lung. We visited the right lung as it infused all of us with its oxygen. I left the right lung because I had to get back to the heart. My friends nearest me followed me through the right pulmonary vein until we reached the left atrium. There we got to stop for a split second while the Bee Gees sang one Oh! and we soon were shoved into the left ventricle through the mitral valve. My oxygenated friends and I were shot through the Aortic valve and then into the ascending aorta. We were really going fast and we were shot up into the brain. There all of us gave our spare oxygen to the brain. Just as fast as we were shot up to the brain, we were descended back down into the Superior Vena Cava. It was a long and hard day at work. We did this all day, every day for the rest of our lives. 4.1.2 Heart Dissection External and Internal Examination of a Sheep Heart Photos courtesy of Anjali Patel and Lexi Mills  4.2 One Page Wonder – The Heart at Work! Josh Jones 4.2.1 Heart Rate Pulse is a rhythmic beat created by the Carotid Pulse is a method of taking pulse to find expansion and contraction of the arteries, how much blood you are pumping per minute. which causes blood to be Your pulse can be pumped around the body. found on your neck. Pulse is caused by an This is where the electrical signal that runs carotid artery is through your heart located. Use your index causing it to contract. finger and middle finger to take the pulse because your thumb has its own distinct pulse. Radial Pulse is another way The typical heart rate is 60-80 beats per to take your pulse. It is minute (bpm). If the pulse is too high, this taken on your wrist. Also, means that you have tachycardia. If your pulse take this pulse with your is lower than normal, it means that you are index and middle finger. physically fit. This is good because it can decrease your risk of heart disease and a heart attack in the future. Systole/Systolic Pressure Diastole/Diastolic Pressure When the heart is When the experiencing the most heart is systolic pressure, it is experiencing being compressed. During the most this time the blood is being diastolic pushed into the arteries. pressure, the The stage in which systolic heart is pressure is the greatest is relaxed. known as systole. When During this taking blood pressure, systolic pressure is the stage, the first number and is hearts always higher than chambers, diastolic pressure. more To find blood specifically the ventricles, are filling up with pressure, you can blood. This stage is known as diastole. When use a taking blood pressure, diastolic pressure is the sphygmomanometer. second number and is always the lower of the 2 On a sphygmomanometer, the first time you numbers. While using the sphygmomanometer, hear the pulse is the systolic pressure. diastolic pressure is the number at which you hear the last pulse. Hypertension is when you blood pressure is Causes of hypertension: Too much sodium in too high. your diet, lack of exercise, being overweight, stress, and smoking/alcohol consumption Hypertension treatments: Exercise, take medication (ACE Inhibitor), cut back on sodium, and stress management (e.g. yoga). The heart beats due to the electrical system that runs through it. First, the Sinoatrial node (SA node) sends a signal for the heart to beat. This occurs in the right atrium and the signal continues until it reaches the Atrioventricular node (AV node). At the AV node, the signal pauses in order for the atria to contract. Then, the electricity continues down into the AV bundle or the Bundle of His. This allows the signal to branch in two. The bundle carries the two signals down the septum for the left and right ventricle. Then, as the current continues, it travels to the apex and then spreads on the ventricular walls. Finally, it reaches the Purkinje fibers which are in the ventricular walls. It allows the ventricular muscles to strongly contract in unison. A pacemaker can replace the SA node because it starts the electrical current throughout your heart. The electrical system and your pulse can be tracked through an Electrocardiogram (EKG). During each stage of the electrocardiogram, a change occurs. The P phase on the EKG is the time when the atrium contracts and the heart becomes electro-polarized. Then, during the QRS stage, the ventricles are contracting. Finally, during the T stage, the ventricles become repolarized. All of this can occur from 0.5-0.7 seconds. Also, the length between the R-R is the length of your heart beat, and from that cardiologists can determine your pulse. Cardiology is the study of the heart and its actions, so a cardiologist is a person that studies the heart. A cardiologist can use an EKG for many purposes. They can use the EKG to determine their pulse, their likelihood of a heart attack and they can determine if they need a pacemaker.  4.3 One Page Wonder – Heart Dysfunction Josh Jones 4.3.1. HDL vs LDL HDL – High Density Lipoprotein LDL – Low Density Lipoprotein HDL carries cholesterol away from your heart and other organs. It delivers the cholesterol to the liver. HDL is considered good cholesterol because it takes the cholesterol from your arteries and delivers them to your liver, which can prevent LDL brings cholesterol to the cells and can atherosclerosis (hardening/narrowing of the build up in your arteries. This is considered arteries). Structurally, HDL has more proteins the bad cholesterol because it can cause and less cholesterol than LDL has. cholesterol to buildup in your arteries and can cause atherosclerosis. Triglycerides Triglycerides are a type of fat that store extra energy from your food. High levels of triglycerides can cause atherosclerosis. Triglycerides are lipids. A normal amount of triglycerides are below 150 mg/dL. High levels of triglycerides are 200-499 mg/dL. 4.3.2 Familial Hypercholesterolemia Familial Hypercholesterolemia is a genetic disorder, caused by a mutation on chromosome 19, which causes LDL receptors on the cell surfaces to be defective or nonexistent. This allows the buildup of LDL in the arteries. It is an autosomal dominant trait. Genotypes for FH: AA, Aa. Because it is an autosomal dominant trait, it must have at least one dominant allele. AA means that it is homozygous dominant and they have a 100% chance of passing to their offspring. Aa is heterozygous for the trait and is a 50% chance of passing the trait to their offspring. The phenotype for either genotypes is that you have Familial Hypercholesterolemia, which means you have high cholesterol due to genetics. 4.3.2 Familial Hypercholesterolemia Genotype that protects from FH: aa. In order FH is to be protected from FH, you must have 2 passed on recessive alleles from one Hypercholesterolemia has many risks. If you person to have FH you are at risk for: heart disease, their atherosclerosis, aortic aneurysm, stroke, offspring. peripheral artery disease, etc. Because it Hypercholesterolemia mainly harms the is cardiovascular system because it is means that autosomal dominant, it is very common for a you have too much cholesterol in your blood. parent to pass it to their child. If a person is homozygous dominant, their offspring is guaranteed to receive the trait. Familial Hypercholesterolemia causes high levels of LDL because of the genetic mutation. On chromosome 19, the instructions for making LDL receptors is missing or badly mutated. The low amount of LDL receptors, causes a high amount of LDL in the bloodstream, which can cause hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis. To see if you have Familial Hypercholesterolemia, doctors can take DNA samples and use Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) to multiply your DNA. Then, they can see the DNA samples on Gel Electrophoresis, to determine whether the RFLPs show that you have FH. The Restriction Enzymes on the Gel Electrophoresis cuts the DNA so that you can tell whether you have FH. 4.3.3 Atherosclerosis and the Heart Hypercholesterolemia is a high amount of cholesterol in the bloodstream. Atherosclerosis is the build-up of plaque in the arteries, which causes it to narrow and harden. If you have Hypercholesterolemia, there is a higher risk of you getting atherosclerosis. Hypercholesterolemia can increase you blood pressure. The narrowing of your arteries causes the same of blood to travel through a smaller area. This puts more pressure on your arteries. There are very high risks for high cholesterol and atherosclerosis. Fat, cholesterol, and calcium is considered the plaque in your arteries. When these components build-up, atherosclerosis can create many problems. Risks of having hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis includes: hypertension, heart disease, heart failure, stroke, kidney disease, liver dysfunction (from lack of blood), and peripheral artery disease. You could die from a heart attack or stroke, if you have hypercholesterolemia and/or atherosclerosis.  4.4 One Page Wonder – Heart Intervention Josh Jones 4.4.1 Unblocking the Vessels Myocardial Angiograms allow Infarctions are cardiologists to find blockages of blood where a blockage is in flow in the coronary your heart. From this artery to the heart. they can determine If you have whether you have atherosclerosis, blocked arteries that then you are at a higher risk of getting a need a stenting, myocardial infarction. Because Coronary Artery Bypass Graft (CABG) or atherosclerosis is the hardening and balloon angioplasty. Cardiologists insert a narrowing of the arteries, less blood can pass catheter into your elbow and inject dye, so through your arteries, which eventually will that when they perform the angiogram, they cause a blockage. Eventually, if untreated, can determine where the dye does not go. If myocardial infarctions and atherosclerosis the dye flows to a certain artery less, then will cause a heart attack. this means you have a blockage. Atherosclerosis can also relate to many other health problems, including a stroke. Just like in the heart, if you have a build-up of plaque, blood will not be able to flow as well. A stroke occurs because of a blood clot, which can be linked to atherosclerosis. If you have atherosclerosis, you are at a higher risk for a blood clot because there is a smaller amount of space for the same amount of blood to flow. Methods of Unblocking Vessels Balloon Angioplasty Stenting Coronary Artery Bypass Graft (CABG) In balloon angioplasty, In stenting, a cardiologist will If the blockage is severe cardiologists insert a catheter insert a catheter with a balloon enough, cardiothoracic surgeons with a balloon on the end into and a stent. Once the catheter will remove part of your the blocked artery/vein. Then, reaches the blockage, saphenous vein in your leg, and they blow the balloon up, so that cardiologists will blow up the insert it into your heart to it pushes the plaque back. They balloon and the stent. They then bypass the blockage. then remove the catheter and remove the balloon so that only balloon. the stent remains.  4.4.2 Heart Disease Risk According to the CDC, heart disease is the leading cause of death in the US, killing more than 614,000 people per year. Many people can be at risk for heart disease, but may not know it. 6 major risk factors for heart disease include:  Family History (non-modifiable)  Smoking (modifiable)  Age and Gender (non-modifiable)  Exercise/Physical Inactivity (modifiable)  Diet with lots of sugars, fats, salt, and cholesterol (modifiable)  Obesity (modifiable) Metabolic Syndrome Metabolic Syndrome is a group a factors that can cause an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases and Type 2 diabetes. If you have three or more of the following, you are considered to have metabolic syndrome: high blood pressure, high triglyceride levels, low HDL levels, high fasting levels of blood sugar, and are obese. If you have metabolic syndrome, then you are at risk for many other health problems. From metabolic syndrome, you could get heart disease, lipid problems, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, cancer, dementia, polycystic ovarian syndrome, and non- alcoholic fatty liver disease.  5.1 One Page Wonder – Infection Josh Jones 5.1.1. Patient Zero Patient Zero refers to the person who started an outbreak of an infectious agent. They are the first carrier of a contagious disease and may never show signs of the infection. An example of a patient zero would be Typhoid Mary. Mary Mallon was the first asymptomatic carrier of the pathogen, Typhoid Fever. Because she was a cook, she spread the pathogen through food, after not washing her hands. 5.1.2 Infectious Disease Agents Bacteria Virus Helminths  Superbugs-antibiotic resistant  Attaches to a cell and  Parasites (generally worms  Single-celled microbes- few injects DNA into the cell and are multicellular) cause disease, mostly helpful  Vaccines prevent  Treatment: Anthelmintic  Treatment: Antibiotics  Antivirals treat drugs  Transmission: Direct Contact,  Transmission: Direct/  Transmission: Contaminated Airborne, Touching Indirect Contact, Bodily food/water, Feces Contaminated Objects Fluids, Airborne  Examples: Tapeworms,  Examples: MRSA, C. Difficile,  Examples: Zika, HIV, Guinea Worms, Pin worms Streptococcus pneumonia, etc. Influenza, Rhinovirus, etc. Protozoa Prions Fungus  Single celled organisms-  Not an organism, not made  Related to mushrooms, but parasitic meaning first animal of cells – protein that feed on human tissue  Treatment: Antibiotics folded wrong  Treatment: Antifungal,  Transmission: “fecal-oral  Destroys the brain antibiotics route”, contaminated  Treatment: None  Transmission: Airborne, food/water, direct contact  Transmission: None Direct contact  Examples: Giardia lamblia  Examples: Kuru Disease,  Examples: Ringworm, parasite, plasmodium parasite, Bovine Spongiform Candiaditis, Dermatophytes Brain-eating amoeba, etc. Encephalopathy, etc. 5.1.3 Bacterial Structure Nucleoid: DNA of bacteria – holds genetic information Plasmid: Round piece of DNA for passing genetic information between bacteria Ribosomes: made of rRNA, help create proteins Cell Wall (peptidoglycan): Keeps the shape of the cell Plasma Membrane: selectively permeable Capsule: Protects the cell and makes more virulent Flagella: movement- spin around Pili: hollow tubes that allow plasmid to go through Cytoplasm: holds everything in place 5.1.3 Aseptic Technique Aseptic literally means “without infection”, so aseptic technique is the technique used to ensure that you do not spread germs to a specimen and that the specimen does not introduce infectious agents to you. 5 ways we ensure aseptic techniques are: PPE is worn, hair is properly tied back, inoculating loops are never placed in the same sample twice, no food or drink in the lab, and hands are washed before and after the lab. A person who studies microbiology, a microbiologist will use these aseptic techniques  5.1.3 Plate Streaking The quadrant method is a way of streaking and culturing bacteria. First, you obtain a Petri dish, bacteria, and an inoculating loop. Then, you split the Petri dish into 4 quadrants. Take the bacteria and start in the top left quadrant. Then, you get a new inoculating loop (or you burn it if it’s metal), and you streak across the top half, from left to right. You repeat this with the right side. Finally, you streak the bottom, this time from right to left. The purpose of the quadrant method is to separate individual colonies to identify the morphology and identify the type of infectious agent. 5.1.4 Gram Staining The purpose of gram staining is to see the bacteria sample and to identify the cell morphology and the type of infectious agent. Under the microscope, if the bacteria is rod-shaped, it is bacillus; if the bacteria is spherical, it is coccus; if the bacteria is spiral-shaped, then it is spirillum. Gram Positive Gram Negative  Blue/purple color  Pink/Red color  Less pathogenic  More pathogenic  Less endotoxins (“worse”)  Less capsule  More endotoxins  More peptidoglycan  More capsule  Less cell peptidoglycan 5.1.5 Bacterial Identification Chemical testing can be used to identify bacteria by finding out specific thing about them. For example, you can narrow it down based on their morphology, but sometimes that does not totally eliminate all the possibilities. The lactose fermentation test determines whether the bacterium ferments lactose as a food source. The Lysine Decarboxylase Test determines whether the bacterium can use lysine as a food source. Finally, the oxidase test determines whether an infectious agent contains cytochrome oxidase. 5.1.6 Lines of Defense – the immune system helps protect the human body against infectious diseases. The specific defenses (antigens, antibodies, T-cells, and B-cells) and non-specific defenses (skin, nose hair, mucus, phagocytes) rid your body of unnecessary infectious agents. The specific and non-specific defenses of the immune system, especially B-cells, can provide immunity to specific pathogens. Antibodies are B Lymphocytes T-Cells Phagocytes what our B-cells T- immune are a cells systems kind are produce to of the attack the pathogen. WBC last that makes the Antigens are on the cell antibodies to resort option. When an Phagocytes are surfaces to alert the immune attack and stop infection has infected cells, a kind of WBC cells of an invader. the pathogen. Killer T-cells inject poison that eat yeast into that cell so it will die. and other cells.