Unit 6 Social Psychology Guided Notes PDF

Unit 6: Social Psychology 4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception Attributions Definition: Attributions are explanations we create for our own and others' behaviors. They help us make sense of social interactions by determining the causes behind actions. ​ Dispositional (Internal) Attribu...

Unit 6: Social Psychology 4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception Attributions Definition: Attributions are explanations we create for our own and others' behaviors. They help us make sense of social interactions by determining the causes behind actions. ​ Dispositional (Internal) Attributions: ○​ Explanation: Assigning behavior to internal factors such as personality traits, attitudes, or character. ○​ Example: Believing someone is late because they are irresponsible. ​ Situational (External) Attributions: ○​ Explanation: Attributing behavior to external circumstances or environmental factors. ○​ Example: Understanding someone is late due to heavy traffic. Explanatory Styles Explanatory styles are habitual ways of explaining events, which can influence our reactions and expectations. ​ Optimistic Explanatory Style: ○​ Characteristics: Attributing negative events to external, unstable, and specific factors. Positive events are attributed to internal, stable, and global factors. ○​ Impact: Leads to resilience and a positive outlook. ○​ Example: "I failed the test because it was unusually hard (external), but I'm good at math (internal)." ​ Pessimistic Explanatory Style: ○​ Characteristics: Attributing negative events to internal, stable, and global factors. Positive events are seen as external, unstable, and specific. ○​ Impact: Can lead to feelings of helplessness and depression.  Unit 6: Social Psychology ○​ Example: "I failed the test because I'm not smart (internal), and I'll always struggle (stable)." Attribution Biases Actor/Observer Bias ​ Definition: The tendency to attribute our own actions to situational factors while attributing others' actions to dispositional factors. ​ Example: ○​ Self: "I cut off that driver because I was in an emergency." ○​ Others: "He cut me off because he's a reckless driver." Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) ​ Definition: The tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when evaluating others' behaviors. ​ Impact: Can lead to misunderstandings and unfair judgments. ​ Example: Assuming a colleague is unfriendly because they're quiet (dispositional) without considering they might be stressed (situational). Self-Serving Bias ​ Definition: The tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors. ​ Purpose: Protects self-esteem. ​ Example: ○​ Success: "I aced the presentation because I'm skilled." ○​ Failure: "The presentation went poorly because the audience was uninterested." Locus of Control Locus of control refers to an individual's belief about the degree to which they can control events affecting them. ​ Internal Locus of Control: ○​ Belief: Outcomes are a result of one's own efforts or abilities.  Unit 6: Social Psychology ○​ Impact: Associated with proactive behavior and a sense of personal responsibility. ○​ Example: "I can improve my grades by studying harder." ​ External Locus of Control: ○​ Belief: Outcomes are determined by external forces like luck or fate. ○​ Impact: May lead to passivity or reliance on external factors. ○​ Example: "My grades depend on how easy the teacher makes the tests." Person Perception Person perception involves forming impressions and making judgments about others. Mere Exposure Effect ​ Definition: The phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases an individual's preference for it. ​ Application: Can influence attraction and likability. ​ Example: Liking a song more after hearing it several times. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy ​ Definition: When an individual's expectations about another person lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations. ​ Process: 1.​ Expectation: You believe a student is highly capable. 2.​ Behavior: You give them more attention and opportunities. 3.​ Result: The student performs better, confirming your belief. Social Comparison ​ Definition: Evaluating oneself by comparison with others. ​ Types: ○​ Upward Social Comparison: ​ Comparing: Yourself to those who are better off.  Unit 6: Social Psychology ​ Impact: Can be motivating but may also lead to dissatisfaction. ​ Example: Comparing your athletic ability to a professional athlete. ○​ Downward Social Comparison: ​ Comparing: Yourself to those who are worse off. ​ Impact: Enhances self-esteem but may discourage self-improvement. ​ Example: Feeling better about your skills after noticing a beginner. Relative Deprivation ​ Definition: Feeling deprived or entitled to something based on the comparison to others. ​ Impact: Can lead to frustration and discontent. ​ Example: Feeling underpaid when discovering colleagues earn more for the same job. 4.2 Attitude Formation and Attitude Change Attitudes An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner toward a particular object, person, or idea. Components of Attitudes 1.​ Cognitive: Beliefs or thoughts about the object. 2.​ Affective: Emotional feelings toward the object. 3.​ Behavioral: Predisposition to act in a certain way toward the object. Stereotype ​ Definition: A generalized belief about a group of people, where certain traits are assigned to all members. ​ Impact: Can simplify social perception but often leads to inaccuracies.  Unit 6: Social Psychology ​ Example: Believing all elderly people are bad with technology. Prejudice ​ Definition: An unjustified, typically negative attitude toward an individual based on their group membership. ​ Components: ○​ Cognitive: Stereotypes. ○​ Affective: Emotions like fear or hostility. ○​ Behavioral: Discrimination. Discrimination ​ Definition: Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members based on prejudice. ​ Example: Refusing to hire someone because of their race. Implicit Attitudes ​ Definition: Unconscious attitudes that may influence behavior inadvertently. ​ Assessment: Often measured via tools like the Implicit Association Test (IAT). ​ Impact: Can lead to unintended discrimination. Just-World Phenomenon ​ Definition: The belief that the world is fair, and people get what they deserve. ​ Impact: Leads to victim-blaming and rationalization of others' misfortunes. ​ Example: Assuming a homeless person is responsible for their situation due to laziness. Out-Group Homogeneity Bias ​ Definition: Perceiving members of out-groups as more similar to each other than they really are.  Unit 6: Social Psychology ​ Impact: Reduces the ability to see individual differences in out-groups. ​ Example: Believing all members of another school are alike. In-Group Bias ​ Definition: Favoring one's own group over others. ​ Impact: Enhances self-esteem but may contribute to intergroup conflict. ​ Example: Believing your sports team is better than others without objective evidence. Ethnocentrism ​ Definition: Belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic or cultural group. ​ Impact: Can lead to discrimination and cultural insensitivity. ​ Example: Judging other cultures based on the standards of your own. Belief Perseverance ​ Definition: Maintaining beliefs even after they have been discredited. ​ Impact: Hinders critical thinking and openness to new information. ​ Example: Continuing to believe in a debunked conspiracy theory. Confirmation Bias ​ Definition: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preconceptions. ​ Impact: Leads to skewed perceptions and reinforcement of stereotypes. ​ Example: Only reading news that supports your political views. Cognitive Dissonance ​ Definition: The discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting cognitions (e.g., beliefs, attitudes). ​ Resolution: Individuals may change their attitudes or behaviors to reduce the dissonance. ​ Example:  Unit 6: Social Psychology ○​ Situation: Believing smoking is unhealthy but continuing to smoke. ○​ Resolution: Quitting smoking or downplaying health risks. 4.3 Psychology of Social Situations Social Norms ​ Definition: The unwritten rules about how to behave in a society. ​ Role: Guide behavior, promote social order. ​ Examples: Dressing appropriately, saying "please" and "thank you." Social Influence Theory ​ Definition: Explores how individuals are influenced by others in their social environment. ​ Types of Influence: ○​ Normative Social Influence: ​ Explanation: Influence stemming from a desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. ​ Example: Dressing a certain way to fit in. ○​ Informational Social Influence: ​ Explanation: Influence due to accepting others' opinions about reality. ​ Example: Following someone's directions in a new city. Persuasion ​ Definition: The process of changing someone's beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors through argument, reasoning, or pleading. ​ Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM): ○​ Central Route to Persuasion: ​ Process: Involves critical thinking and evaluation of arguments. ​ Effectiveness: Leads to longer-lasting attitude change. ​ Example: Choosing a product after researching its features.  Unit 6: Social Psychology ○​ Peripheral Route to Persuasion: ​ Process: Involves superficial cues like attractiveness or credibility of the source. ​ Effectiveness: Attitude change may be temporary. ​ Example: Buying a product because a celebrity endorses it. Halo Effect ​ Definition: The tendency to let an overall impression of someone influence specific judgments about their character. ​ Impact: Can lead to biased evaluations. ​ Example: Assuming an attractive person is also intelligent. Compliance Techniques Foot-in-the-Door Technique ​ Process: Starting with a small request to increase the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request later. ​ Mechanism: Leverages consistency in self-perception. ​ Example: Asking for a small donation before requesting a larger one. Door-in-the-Face Technique ​ Process: Making a large request likely to be refused, then following up with a smaller request. ​ Mechanism: Relies on perceived concession. ​ Example: Asking for a two-week volunteer commitment, then reducing it to one day. Conformity ​ Definition: Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match those of a group. ​ Factors Increasing Conformity: ○​ Group size. ○​ Unanimity. ○​ Admiration of the group.  Unit 6: Social Psychology ​ Classic Study: Solomon Asch's line experiment demonstrated the power of conformity. Obedience ​ Definition: Following orders from an authority figure. ​ Key Study: Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment showed people would administer shocks to others under authority's orders. ​ Factors Influencing Obedience: ○​ Presence of authority. ○​ Proximity to the victim. ○​ Institutional authority. Cultural Influences Individualism ​ Definition: Emphasizes personal goals and individual rights. ​ Impact: Promotes independence and self-reliance. ​ Common In: Western cultures. Collectivism ​ Definition: Prioritizes group goals and social harmony. ​ Impact: Encourages conformity and interdependence. ​ Common In: Asian, African, and Latin American cultures. Multiculturalism ​ Definition: Recognition and appreciation of cultural diversity. ​ Impact: Promotes inclusivity and respect for different traditions. Group Dynamics Group Polarization ​ Definition: The tendency for group discussion to strengthen the group's dominant viewpoint, leading to more extreme positions. ​ Impact: Can intensify shared opinions. ​ Example: Political group discussions amplifying political views.  Unit 6: Social Psychology Groupthink ​ Definition: A mode of thinking where the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives. ​ Symptoms: ○​ Illusion of invulnerability. ○​ Self-censorship. ○​ Pressure to conform. ​ Prevention: Encouraging open dialogue and dissenting opinions. Diffusion of Responsibility ​ Definition: The phenomenon where individuals feel less responsible for taking action when others are present. ​ Impact: Can lead to inaction in emergency situations. ​ Example: Not calling 911 because you assume someone else will. Social Loafing ​ Definition: The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group compared to working alone. (perform worse on simple or unimportant tasks) ​ Cause: Feeling less accountable or believing others will pick up the slack. ​ Prevention: Assigning individual responsibilities. Deindividuation(MOB MENTALITY) ​ Definition: Loss of self-awareness and restraint in group situations fostering arousal and anonymity. ​ Impact: Can lead to impulsive and deviant acts. ​ Example: Rioting behavior in large crowds. Social Facilitation ​ Definition: Improved performance on simple tasks and worsened performance on complex tasks in the presence of others. ​ Explanation: Presence of others increases physiological arousal. ​ Example: Athletes performing better during competitions.  Unit 6: Social Psychology False Consensus Effect ​ Definition: The tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs and behaviors. ​ Impact: Can lead to misunderstanding and conflict. ​ Example: Believing that everyone agrees with your opinion on an issue. Conflict and Cooperation Superordinate Goals ​ Definition: Shared goals that override differences among people and require cooperation. ​ Impact: Can reduce intergroup hostility. ​ Example: Two rival groups working together during a crisis. Social Traps ​ Definition: Situations where conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. ​ Examples: ○​ Tragedy of the Commons: Overusing shared resources. ○​ Prisoner's Dilemma: Individuals choose between cooperative and competitive moves. Application in Real-World Contexts Altruism and Helping Behavior Altruism ​ Definition: Unselfish concern for the welfare of others. ​ Motivation: Empathy, moral principles, or societal expectations. Social Reciprocity Norm ​ Definition: The expectation that people will help those who have helped them. ​ Impact: Encourages mutual aid and cooperation.  Unit 6: Social Psychology ​ Example: Returning a favor to a colleague. Social Responsibility Norm ​ Definition: The expectation that people will help those needing their assistance. ​ Impact: Promotes helping behavior toward the vulnerable. ​ Example: Assisting an elderly person with crossing the street. Bystander Effect ​ Definition: The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present. ​ Explanation: ○​ Diffusion of Responsibility: Feeling that someone else will act. ○​ Pluralistic Ignorance: Looking to others for cues and interpreting inaction as a non-emergency. ​ Famous Case: The Kitty Genovese incident highlighted this phenomenon. Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologists ​ Role: Apply psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity, work-life balance, and employee satisfaction. ​ Areas of Focus: ○​ Employee selection and training. ○​ Leadership development. ○​ Organizational development. ○​ Ergonomics and workplace design. Integrating Concepts Understanding these concepts holistically allows for a deeper comprehension of human behavior in social contexts. For example: ​ Cognitive Dissonance and Attitude Change: Recognizing how conflicting attitudes and behaviors can lead to attitude adjustments.  Unit 6: Social Psychology ​ Group Dynamics and Decision-Making: Applying knowledge of groupthink and polarization to enhance group effectiveness. ​ Attribution Biases in Interpersonal Relations: Being aware of biases can improve relationships and reduce misunderstandings. ​ Cultural Influences on Behavior: Appreciating individualism vs. collectivism influences on conformity and obedience. Study Tips ​ Apply Real-Life Examples: Relate concepts to personal experiences or current events. ​ Create Mind Maps: Visualize connections between concepts. ​ Practice with Scenarios: Consider how different theories explain behavior in various situations. ​ Use Flashcards: For key terms and definitions. ​ Discuss with Peers: Explaining concepts to others reinforces your understanding.