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ITP REVIEWER CHAPTER 1 - What is Psychology? - Proposed by William James LO 1.1 Definition and Goals of Psychology - Influenced by the modern field of:...

ITP REVIEWER CHAPTER 1 - What is Psychology? - Proposed by William James LO 1.1 Definition and Goals of Psychology - Influenced by the modern field of: - educational psychology Psychology - the scientific study of behavior and - evolutionary psychology mental processes. - industrial/organizational psychology - Behavior: outward or overt actions and reactions Gestalt Psychology - Mental Processes: internal, covert activity of LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and our minds. Behaviorism - Psychology is a Science - Prevent possible biases from leading to faulty Gestalt - “The whole is greater than the sum of its observations parts” - Precise and careful measurement - “Good figure” psychology - Started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and Psychology’s Four Goals perception Description - What is happening? - Gestalt ideas now part of the study of cognitive Explanation - What is happening? psychology - Theory: general explanation of a set of - Cognitive psychology: field focusing not observations or facts only on perception but also on learning, memory, Prediction - Will it happen again? thought processes, and problem solving Control - How can it be changed? Figure 1.1 A Gestalt Perception History: Psychology then: THE HISTORY OF The eye tends to “fill in” the blanks here and sees both PSYCHOLOGY of these figures as circles rather than as a series of dots or a PERSPECTIVE OR APPROACHES IN broken line. PSYCHOLOGY Structuralism LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism Wilhelm Wundt’s Psychology Laboratory - Germany in 1879 - Developed the technique of objective introspection: the process of objectively examining and measuring one’s thoughts and Psychoanalysis mental activities - Theory and therapy based on the work of Edward Titchener Sigmund Freud - Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to - Freud’s patient suffered from nervous America disorders with no apparent physical cause. - Structuralism died out in the early 1900s. - Freud proposed the existence of an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we Functionalism push or repress - our threatening urges and - How the mind allows people to adapt, live, desires work, and play ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER - Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders Behavioral perspective with no apparent physical cause. - B.F. (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner studied - believed that these repressed urges, in trying operant conditioning of voluntary behavior to surface, created nervous disorders - Behaviorism became a major force in the 20th - stressed the importance of early childhood century experiences - Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to behaviorism Behaviorism - Science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only - Must be directly seen and measured - Proposed by John B. Watson - based on the work of Ivan Pavlov, who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned (learned) - Watson believed that phobias were learned - case of “Little Albert”: baby taught to fear a white rat Watson – Little Albert – (phobia) Humanistic perspective - Owes far more to the early roots of psychology in the field of philosophy - People have free will: the freedom to choose their own destiny MODERN PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY - Early founders: LO 1.4 Modern Perspective: Skinner, Maslow, and - Abraham Maslow Rogers - Carl Rogers - Emphasizes the human potential, the ability of each Psychodynamic perspective: modern version of person to become the best person he or she could be psychoanalysis - self-actualization: achieving one’s full - More focused on the development of a sense potential or actual self of self and the discovery of motivations behind a person’s behavior other than sexual Cognitive perspective - focuses on memory, motivations intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Sociocultural perspective - focuses on the (a) There are many different work settings for relationship between social behavior and culture psychologists. Although not obvious from the Biopsychological perspective - attributes human chart,many psychologists work in more than one and animal behavior to biological events occurring in setting. For example, a clinical psychologist may work the body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and in a hospital setting and teach at a university or the activity of the nervous system college. (Tsapogas et al., 2006) (b) This pie chart Evolutionary Perspective - focuses on the biological shows the specialty areas of psychologists who bases of universal mental characteristics that all recently received their doctorates. (Hoffer et al., 2007) humans share - Looks at the way the mind works and why it works as it does - Behavior seen as having an adaptive or survival value SPECIALIZATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY Types of Psychological Professionals LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, Psychological, and Other PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Professionals LO 1.6 Psychology is a Science; Steps in the Scientific Method Psychologist - Professional with an academic degree and Scientific Method - system of gathering data so that specialized training in one or more areas of bias and error in measurement are reduced. psychology - Can do counseling, teaching, and research; Steps in the scientific method: may specialize in any one of a large number of 1. Perceive the question areas within psychology 2. Form a hypothesis: tentative explanation of a - Areas of specialization in psychology phenomenon based on observations. include clinical, counseling, 3. Test the hypothesis developmental, social, and personality, 4. Draw conclusions among others 5. Report your result so that others can try to - Basic research replicate, or repeat, the study or experiment to - Applied research see whether the same results will be obtained Psychometrician in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results - psychometrics Psychiatrist DESCRIPTIVE METHODS - Medical doctor who has specialized in the LO 1.7 Naturalistic and Laboratory Settings diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders Laboratory observation - watching animals or - Can prescribe medication to patients with humans behave in a laboratory setting psychological disorder Advantages: - control over environment - allows use of specialized equipment Figure 1.2 Work Settings and Subfields of Disadvantages: Psychology ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER - Artificial situation may result in artificial - Variable: anything that can change or vary behavior - Measures of two variables go into a - Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable mathematical formula and produce a hypotheses correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: Case Study - Direction of the relationship LO 1.8 Case studies and Surveys - Strength of the relationship - Study of one individual in great detail - Knowing the value of one variable allows Advantage: tremendous amount of detail researchers to predict the value of the other Disadvantage: cannot apply to others variable - Famous case study: Phineas Gage Positive correlation: variables are related in the Surveys - researchers ask a series of questions about same direction the topic under study - As one increases, the other decreases - As one decreases, the other increases Given to representative sample - Representative sample: randomly selected Negative correlation: variables are related in sample of subjects from a larger population of opposite direction subjects - As one increases, the other decreases - Population: the entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested THE EXPERIMENT - Surveys advantages LO 1.10 Experimental Approach and Terms - Data from large numbers of people - Study covert behaviors Experiment - a deliberate manipulation of a variable - Surveys disadvantages to see whether corresponding changes in behavior - Researchers have to ensure result, allowing the determination of cause and effect representative sample or the results relationships are not meaningful - People are not always accurate Operational Definition - definition of variable of (courtesy bias) interest that allows it to be directly measured - Definition: aggressive play Random Sampling from Population Independent variable (IV) - the variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter - IV: violent TV Dependent variable (DV) - the variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment Finding Relationships LO 1.9 Correlational Technique - DV: aggressive play Correlation Experimental group - subjects in an experiment who - Measure of the relationship between two are subjected to the independent variable variables - Experimental group: watch TV ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER The electronmicrograph on the left shows myelinated EXAMPLES OF A REAL EXPERIMENT axons. LO 1.12 Conducting a Real Word Experiment Hypothesis - knowing that other people might think one’s success in school is due to the athletic ability rather than intelligence can make an athlete perform poorly on an academic test Independent variable - “I Control” - Timing of “high threat” question Dependent variable - test scores CHAPTER 2 - OVERVIEW OF NERVOUS SYSTEM OTHER TYPES OF BRAIN CELLS LO 2.1 What are the nervous system, neurons, and nerves? Glial cells are grey fatty cells that: - Provide support for the neurons to grow on Nervous System - an extensive network of and around specialized cells that carry information to and from - Deliver nutrients to neurons all parts of the body - Produce myelin to coat axons Neuroscience - deals with the structure and Myelin: fatty substances produce by certain glial cells function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and - Relationship to behavior and learning speed up the neural impulse Structure of the Neuron - Clean up waste products and dead neurons Neuron - the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and receives and sends messages within the Ions: charged particles system - Inside neurons: negatively charged PARTS OF A NEURON - Outside neurons: positively charged Dendrites - branch-like structures that receive Resting potential: the state of the neuron when not messages from other neurons firing a neural impulse Soma - the cell body of the neuron, responsible for Action potential: the release of the neural impulse maintaining the life of the cell consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon Axon - long, tube-like structure that carries the neural message to other cell - Allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell Figure 2.2 The Structure of the Neuron GENERATING THE MESSAGE: NEURAL IMPULSE ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER All or none: a neuron either fires completely or does - Sending the messages to other cells not fire at all Axon terminals: round areas at the end of the - Return to resting potential branches at the end of the axon Figure 2.3 The Neural Impulse Action Potential - Responsible for communicating with other nerve cells In the graph below, voltage readings are shown at a NEURON COMMUNICATION given place on the neuron over a period of 20 or 30 milliseconds (thousandths of a second). At first the Synaptic vesicles: sack-like structures found inside cell is resting; it then reaches threshold and an action the axon terminal containing chemicals potential is triggered. After a brief hyperpolarization period, the cell returns to its resting potential. - Neurotransmitter: chemical found in the synaptic vesicles which, when, released, has an effect on the next cell - synapse/synaptic gap: microscopic fluid- filled space between the rounded areas on the end of the axon terminals of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell - Receptor sites: holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters Figure 2.4 Reuptake of Dopamine Dopamine is removed from the synapse by reuptake sites. Cocaine acts by blocking dopamine reuptake sites, allowing dopamine to remain active in the synapse longer. COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NEURONS LO 2.2 How neurons use neurotransmitters to communicate ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER NEURON COMMUNICATION Neurons must be turned ON and OFF Cleaning up the Synapse - Excitatory neurotransmitter: - Reuptake: process by which neurotransmitter neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell are taken back into the synaptic vesicles to fire - Inhibitory neurotransmitter: neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to stop firing Chemical substances can affect neuronal communication - Agonists: mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of the cell - Antagonists: block or reduce a cell’s response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM LO 2.3 How the brain and spinal cord interact Central nervous system (CNS): part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord - Spinal cord:a long bundle of neurons that carries messages to and from the body to the brain that is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes - Sensory neuron: a neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER - Also called an afferent neuron - Soma = ‘body’ - Motor neuron: a neuron that carries - Somatic Nervous System: division of the messages from the central nervous system to PNS consisting of nerves that carry the muscles of the body information from the senses to the CNS and - Also called an efferent neuron from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body - Interneuron: a neuron found in the center of - Sensory Pathway: nerves coming from the the spinal cord that receives information from sensory organs to the CNS consisting of the sensory neurons and sends commands to sensory neurons the muscles through the motor neurons Somatic nervous System (cont’d) - Interneurons also make up the bulk of 6. Motor pathway: nerves coming from the CNS the neurons in the brain to the voluntary muscles, consisting of motor neurons - Neuroplasticity: the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of cells AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM in response to experience or trauma LO 2.4 Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM LO 2.4 Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) : division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): all nerves and involuntary muscles, organs, and glands; sensory neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal pathway nerves coming from the sensory organs to cord but that run through the body itself the CNS consisting of sensory neurons. Divided into the: - Somatic nervous system Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (cont’d) - Autonomic nervous system - Sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system): part of the ANS that is responsible FIGURE 2.7 for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal - Parasympathetic division: part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day-to- day functioning of the organs and glands FIGURE 2.8 SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM LO 2.4 and Autonomic Systems ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER influences all other hormone-secreting glands (also known as the master gland) - Pineal gland: endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum that secretes melatonin (sleep-wake cycle) - Thyroid gland: endocrine gland found in the neck that regulates metabolism - Pancreas: endocrine gland that controls the levels of sugar in the blood. - Gonads: the sex glands; secretes hormones THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction. LO 2.5 How Hormones Interact with the Nervous System and Affect Behavior - Ovaries: female gonads - Testes: male gonads - Endocrine glands: glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the - Adrenal glands: endocrine glands located on bloodstream - Hormones: chemicals released into the top of each kidney - Secrete over thirty different hormones to deal bloodstream by endocrine glands. with stress, regulate salt intake (blood FIGURE 2.9 pressure) - Provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence GLAND, HORMONE, FUNCTION TABLE - Pituitary gland: gland located in the brain that FIGURE 2.12 MAJOR STRUCTURES OF THE secretes human growth hormone and HUMAN BRAIN ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER STRUCTURES UNDER THE CORTEX THE HINDBRAIN LO 2.8 Structures that Control Emotion, Learning and LO 2.7 Structure and Functions of the Bottom Part of Motivation. Brain - Limbic System: a group of several brain - Medulla: first large swelling at the top of the structures located under the cortex and spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the involved in learning, emotion, memory and brain. motivation. - Responsible for life sustaining functions such - Thalamus: part of the limbic system located in as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate the center of the brain - Relays sensory information from the lower part - Pons: larger swelling above the medulla that of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex. connects the top of the brain to the bottom. - Processes some sensory information before - Plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body sending it to its proper area coordination and arousal. - Reticular formation(RF): area of neurons Limbic System (cont’d) running through the middle of the medulla and - Hypothalamus: small structure in the brain the pons and slightly beyond. located below the thalamus and directly above - responsible for selective attention. the pituitary gland. - Responsible for motivational behavior such as - Cerebellum: part of the lower brain located sleep, hunger, thirst and sex behind the pons - Hippocampus: curved structure located - Controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, within each temporal lobe. fine motor movement. - Responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of the memory for FIGURE 2.13 THE LIMBIC SYSTEM location of objects. - Amygdala: brain structure located near the hippocampus - Responsible for fear responses and the memory of fear. ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER hemisphere containing the visual centers of - Cingulate Cortex: the limbic structure the brain actually found in the cortex Primary visual cortex: processes - Plays important roles in cognitive abd visual information from the eyes. emotional processing. Visual association cortex:identifies and makes sense of the visual information. CORTEX LO 2.9 Parts of the Cortex Controlling Senses and Parietal Lobes: sections of the brain located Movement at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, - Cortex: outermost covering of the brain touch, taste and temperature sensations consisting of densely packed neurons - Responsible for higher though processes and Somatosensory cortex: area of neurons interpretation of sensory input running down the front of the parietal lobes Responsible for processing - Corticalization: wrinkling of the cortex information from the skin and internal - Allows a much larger area of the cortical cells body receptors for touch, temperature, to exist in the small space inside the skull. body position and possibly taste. - Cerebral hemispheres: the two sections of Figure 2.15 The Motor and Somatosensory Cortex the cortexon the left and right sides of the brain. - Corpus Callosum: thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres. FIGURE 2.14 THE LOBES OF THE BRAIN - Temporal Lobes: areas of the cortec located just behind the temples containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech FOUR LOBES OF THE BRAIN: Primary auditory cortex: processes - Occipital Lobe: section of the brain located at auditory information from the ears the rear and bottom of each cerebral ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Auditory association cortex: identifies and makes sense of the auditory information. - Frontal lobe: areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain; responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech Motor cortex: section of the frontal lobe located at the back; responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system ASSOCIATION AREAS OF THE CORTEX Association areas: areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing. Broca’s aphasia: condition resulting from damage to TABLE 2.2 SPECIALIZATION OF THE TWO Broca’s area (usually in left frontal lobe) HEMISPHERE - Causes the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words and to speak haltingly Wernick’s Aphasia: condition resulting from damage to Wernicke’s area (usually in left temporal lobe - Causes the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language SPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH - Cerebrum: the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures to connect them - Left side of the Brain: controls language, - Split brain Research: study of patients with writing, logical thought, analysis and mathematical abilities severed corpus callosum - Involves sending messages to only one side of - Processes information sequentially, and the brain enables one to speak. - Right side of the Brain: controls emotional - Demonstrates right and left brain specialization expression, spatial perception, recognition of faces, patterns, melodies and emotions. - It processes information globally and cannot influence speech. ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER CHAPTER 3 - SENSATION SUBLIMINAL SENSATION LO 3.1 Sensation and How it enters the Central LO 3.1 Sensation and How it enters the Central Nervous System Nervous System Sensation - The activation of receptors in the various Subliminal stimuli: stimuli that are below the level of sense organs conscious awareness - Just strong enough to activate the sensory 2 necessary factors for sensation to occur: receptors, but not strong enough for people to - Stimulus be consciously aware of them - Receptors sensitive to the stimulus (light, - Limin: “threshold” taste, sound, temperature, odor) - Sublimin: “below the threshold” Sensory receptors - specialized forms of neurons Subliminal perception: the process by which - Stimulated by different kids of energy rather subliminal stimuli act upon the unconscious mind, than by neurotransmitters. influencing behavior Sense organs: eyes, ears, nose, skin, taste buds, additional senses (equilibrium, kinesthesis, organic *pictures of brands: Tostitos, amazon.com, Baskin sense) robbin, FedEx, Toyota* Transduction - turning outside stimuli into neural activity HABITUATION AND SENSORY ADAPTATION Habituation: the tendency of the brain to stop SENSORY THRESHOLDS attending to constant, unchanging information Just noticeable difference: (jnd or the difference Sensory Adaptation: the tendency of sensory threshold): the smallest difference between 2 stimuli reception cells to become less responsive to a that is detectable 50 percent of the time. stimulus that is unchanging. Absolute threshold: the smallest amount of energy Microsaccades: constant movement of the eyes; tiny needed for a person to consciously detect a stimulus little vibrations that people do not notice consciously 50 percent of the time it is present. - Prevent sensory adaptation to visual stimuli PERCEPTUAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHT LO 3.2 What is light? ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Brightness: is determined by the amplitude of the Cornea: clear membrane that covers the surface of wave -how high or how low the wave actually is the eye - The higher the wave, the brighter the light will - protects the eye be - focuses most of the light coming into the eye - Low waves are dimmer - photoreactive keratectomy (PRK) and laser-assisted Color or hue: is determined by the length of the wave in situ keratomileusis (LASIK): vision-improving - Long wavelengths are found at the red end of techniques that make small incisions in the cornea to the visible spectrum (the portion of the whole change the focus in the eye spectrum of light that is visible to the human eye) Aqueous humor: visual layer below cornea - Shorter wavelengths are found at the blue end - clear, watery fluid that is continually replenished Saturation: the purity of the color people see - supplies nourishment to the eye - Mixing in black or gray would lessen the Pupil: hole through which light from the visual image saturation enters the interior of the eye Figure 3.1 The Visible Spectrum Iris: round muscle (the colored part of the eye) in The wavelengths that people can see are only a small which the pupil is located part of the whole electromagnetic spectrum. - can change the size of the pupil, letting more or less light into the eye - helps focus the image Lens: another clear structure behind the iris, suspended by muscles - finishes the focusing process begun by the cornea Visual accommodation: the change in the thickness of the lens as the eye focuses on objects that are far away or close Figure 3.2 Structure of the Eye Vitreous humor: jelly-like fluid that also nourishes the Light enters the eye through the cornea and pupil. The eye and gives it shape iris controls the size of the pupil. From the pupil, light passes through the lens to the retina, where it is Nearsightedness, or myopia transformed into nerve impulses. The nerve impulses the shape of the eye causes the focal point to fall short travel to the brain along the optic nerve. of the retina Farsightedness, or hyperopia the focus point is behind the retina Figure 3.3 Nearsightedness and Farsightedness Retina, Rods, and Cones Retina: final stop for light in the eye - contains three layers: Structure of the Eyes - ganglion cells LO 3.2 What is light? - bipolar cells ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER - photoreceptors that respond to various light waves COLOR VISION Rods: visual sensory receptors found at the back of Trichromatic theory: theory of color vision that the retina proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green. - responsible for noncolor sensitivity to low levels of light Opponent-process theory: theory of color vision that Cones: visual sensory receptors found at the back of proposes four primary colors with cones arranged in the retina pairs: red and green, blue and yellow - responsible for color vision and sharpness of vision - Afterimages: images that occur when a visual Blind spot: area in the retina where the axons of the sensation persists for a brief time even after three layers of retinal cells exit the eye to form the the original stimulus is removed optic nerve; insensitive to light Figure 3.6 Color Afterimage Stare at the white dot in the center of this oddly colored flag for about 30 seconds. Now look at a white piece of paper or a white wall. Notice that the colors are now the normal, expected colors of the American flag. They are also the primary colors that are opposites of the colors in the picture and provide evidence for the opponent- process theory of color vision. HOW THE EYE WORKS LO 3.3 How eyes see and how eyes see color COLOR BLINDNESS Dark adaptation: the recovery of the eye’s sensitivity Monochrome colorblindness: a condition in which a to visual stimuli in darkness after exposure to bright person’s eye either have no cones or have cones that lights are not working at all Light adaptation: the recovery of the eye’s sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after exposure to darkness ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Red-green colorblindness: either the red or the green cones are not working Figure 3.9 The Structure of the Ear Sex-linked inheritance: gene for color-deficient Auditory canal: short tunnel that runs from the pinna vision is recessive to the eardrum (tympanic membrane) Figure 3.7The Ishihara Color Test Eardrum: thin section of skin that tightly covers the opening into the middle part of the ear - when sound waves hit the eardrum, it vibrates and causes three tiny bones in the middle ear to vibrate - hammer, anvil, stirrup Cochlea: snail-shaped structure of the inner ear that is filled with fluid Organ of Corti: rests in the basilar membrane - contains receptor cells for sense of hearing Auditory nerve: bundle of axons from the hair cells in SOUND the inner ear LO 3.4 What is sound? - receives neural message from the organ of Corti Wavelength: interpreted as frequency or pitch (high, medium, or low) Amplitude: interpreted as volume (how soft or loud a sound is) Purity: interpreted as timbre (a richness in the tone of the sound) Hertz (Hz): cycles or waves per second, a measurement of frequency. Figure 3.8a Sound Waves Two sound waves. The higher the wave, the louder the sound; the lower the wave, the softer the sound. If the waves are close together in time (high frequency), the pitch will be perceived as a high pitch. Waves that are farther apart (low frequency) will be perceived as having a lower pitch. Theories of Pitch LO 3.4 What Is Sound? Pitch: psychological experience of sound that corresponds to the frequency of the sound waves higher frequencies are perceived as higher pitches ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Place theory: theory of pitch that states that different pitches are experienced by the stimulation of hair cells in different locations on the organ of Corti Frequency theory: theory of pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar membrane Volley principle: theory of pitch that states that frequencies from about 400 Hz up to about 4000 Hz cause the hair cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley pattern, or take turns in firing TYPES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENTS LO 3.5 Hearing impairment and Improvement TASTE LO 3.6 How senses of tastes and smell work Conduction hearing impairment can result from: Taste buds –damaged eardrum: would prevent sound waves from being carried into the middle ear properly – taste receptor cells in mouth; responsible for sense of taste –damage to the bones of the middle ear: sounds Gustation cannot be conducted from the eardrum to the cochlea Nerve hearing impairment can result from: – the sensation of a taste – damage in the inner ear Figure 3.10 Tongue (a) Nerves in the tongue’s deep tissue (b) – damage in the auditory pathways and Taste bud’s location inside the papillae (c) cortical areas of the brain Microphotograph of the surface of the tongue showing two different sizes of Surgery to Help Restore Hearing papillae LO 3.5 Hearing Impairment and Improvement Cochlear implant: a microphone implanted just behind the ear that picks up sound from the surrounding environment - speech processor selects and arranges the sound picked up by the microphone - implant is a transmitter and receiver, converting signals into electrical impulses Collected by the electrode array in the cochlea and then sent to the brain Five basic tastes Figure 3.10 Cochlear Implant Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, “brothy,” or umami SMELL LO 3.6 How senses od taste and smell work ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Kinesthetic sense: sense of the location of body Olfaction: (olfactory sense) sense of smell parts in relation to the ground and each other Olfactory bulbs: areas of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal Vestibular senses: the sensations of movement, lobes that receive information from the olfactory balance, and body position receptor cells - At least 1000 olfactory receptors Sensory conflict theory: an explanation of motion sickness in which the information from the eyes conflicts with the information from the vestibular senses - Results in dizziness, nausea, and other physical discomforts PERCEPTION AND CONSTANCIES LO 3.8 Perception and Perceptual Constancies SOMETHESTIC SENSES Perception: the method by which the sensations LO 3.7 Sense of touch, pain, motion, and balance experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion Something senses: the body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the Size constancy: the tendency to interpret an object vestibular senses. as always being the same actual size, regardless of - “soma”: body its distance - “Esthetic”: feeling Skin senses: the sensation of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain - Gate-control theory: pain signals must pass through a “gate” located in the spinal cord Figure 3.14 Cross Section of the Skin and Its Receptors Shape constancy: the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina Brightness constancy: the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change. ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Figure 3.16 The Necker Cube Figure 3.15 Shape Constancy Proximity: tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping Similarity: tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group Closure: tendency to complete figures that are incomplete Continuity: tendency to perceive things as simply as GESTALT PRINCIPLES possible with a continuous pattern rather than a with LO 3.9 Gestalt principles of perception a complex, broken-up pattern Figure-ground: the tendency to perceive objects, or Contiguity: tendency to perceive two things that figures, as existing on a background happen close together in time as being related Reversible figures: visual illusions in which the figure Figures 3.18 Gestalt Principles of Grouping and ground can be reversed Figure 3.17 Figure-Ground Illusion ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER - Motion parallax: the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away Figure 3.19 Examples of Pictorial Depth Cues (a) Linear perspective, (b) texture gradient, (c) aerial or atmospheric perspective, (d) relative size BINOCULAR CUES: cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes Binocular disparity: the difference in images DEVELOPMENT OF PERCEPTION between the two eyes, which is greater for objects that are close and smaller for distant objects LO 3.10 What is depth perception? Figure 3.20 Binocular Cues to Depth Perception Depth perception: the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions MONOCULAR CUES - (pictorial depth cues): cues for perceiving depth based on one eye only - Linear perspective: the tendency for parallel PERCEPTUAL ILLUSIONS lines to appear to converge on each other - Relative size: perception that occurs when LO 3.11 How visuall illusions and other factors objects that a person expects to be of a certain influence perception size appear to be small and are, therefore, Hermann grid: is possibly due to the response of the assumed to be much farther away primary visual cortex - Overlap: the assumption that an object that Muller-Lyer illusion: illusion of line length that is appears to be blocking part of another distorted by inward-turning or outward-turning corners object is in front of the second object and on the ends of the lines, causing lines of equal length closer to the viewer to appear to be different - Texture gradient: the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases Figure 3.21 The Hermann Grid ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER - The Enigma: due in part to microsaccades Figure 3.23 “Rotating snakes” Figure 3.22 The Muller-lyer illusion Figure 3.24 “Reinterpretation of Enigma” Moon illusion: the moon on the horizon appears to be larger than the moon in the sky - Apparent distance hypothesis Ames Room Illusion Illusions of motion - Autokinetic effect: a small, stationary light in a darkened room will appear to move or drift because there are no surrounding cues to indicate that the light is not moving FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERCEPTION - Stroboscopic motion: seen in motion Perceptual set (perceptual expectancy): the pictures, in which a rapid series of still pictures tendency to perceive things a certain way because will appear to be in motion previous experiences or expectations influence those perceptions - Phi phenomenon: lights turned on in a sequence appear to move Top-down processing: the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a - Rotating snakes: due in part to eye unified whole movements ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Figure 3.2 Perceptual Set LO 5.2 Classical Conditioning Look at the drawing. What do you see? Then look at Ivan Pavlov: Russian physiologist (person who the two pictures on the next slide. studies the workings of the body) who discovered classical conditioning through his work on digestion in dogs Classical conditioning: learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response –unconditioned means “unlearned” or “naturally occurring.” Unconditioned response (UCR): an involuntary response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus (CS): stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus Bottom-up processing: the analysis of the smaller –conditioned means “learned” features to build up to a complete perception –neutral stimulus (NS) can become a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned response (CR): learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus –sometimes called a conditioned reflex –CS: ice cream truck –CR: salivation when one hears ice cream truck bell CHAPTER 4 - What is Learning? LO 5.1 Learning Learning: any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice –When people learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what they have learned. –Any kind of change in the way an organism behaves is learning. Pavlov and Classical Conditioning ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Acquisition: repeated pairing of the NS and the UCS; the organism is in the process of acquiring learning –although classical conditioning happens quite easily, there are a few basic principles that researchers have discovered: - CS must come before UCS - CS and UCS must come very close together in time—ideally, only several seconds apart - neutral stimulus must be paired with the UCS several times, often many times, before Figure 5.1 Classical Conditioning conditioning can take place Before conditioning takes place, the sound of the metronome does not cause salivation and is a neutral CS is usually some stimulus that is distinctive or stimulus, or NS. During conditioning, the sound of the stands out from other competing stimuli metronome occurs just before the presentation of the Stimulus generalization: tendency to respond to a food, the UCS. The food causes salivation, the UCR. stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned When conditioning has occurred after several pairings stimulus with the conditioned response of the metronome with the food, the metronome will begin to elicit a salivation response from the dog Stimulus discrimination: tendency to stop making without any food. This is learning, and the sound of a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the metronome is now a CS and the salivation to the the original conditioned stimulus because the similar bell is the CR. stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus Extinction: disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning) Figure 5.2 Strength of the Generalized Response An example of stimulus generalization. The UCS was an electric shock and the UCR was the galvanic skin response (GSR), a measure associated with anxiety. The subjects had been conditioned originally to a CS tone (0) of a given frequency. When tested with the original tone, and with tones 1, 2, and 3 of differing frequencies, a clear generalization effect appeared. The closer the frequency of the test tone to the Classical Conditioning Concepts frequency of tone 0, the greater was the magnitude of LO 5.2 Classical conditioning the galvanic skin response to the tone (Hovland, 1937). ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Conditioned Emotional Response LO 5.3 Conditioned Emotional Response Conditioned emotional response (CER): emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli –examples: fear of dogs; the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person –CERs may lead to phobias—irrational fear responses. Figure 5.5 Conditioning of “Little Albert” After “Little Albert” had been conditioned to fear a Figure 5.3 Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery white rat, he also demonstrated fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat (although it remains uncertain if stimulus generalization actually occurred as this fear was to a single rabbit, a single dog, etc.). Can you think of any emotional reactions you experience that might be classically conditioned emotional responses? Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred –learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior Higher-order conditioning - strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus - neutral stimulus becomes a second conditioned stimulus Figure 5.4 Higher-Order Conditioning ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Operant conditioning: the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses Thorndike’s law of effect –if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated –if a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated Figure 5.6 Graph of the Time to Learn in Taste Aversion Thorndike’s Experiment LO 5.3 Conditioned Emotional Response This is one of the earliest “learning curves” in the Vicarious conditioning: classical conditioning of a history of the experimental study of conditioning. The time required by one of Thorndike’s cats to escape reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction from the puzzle box gradually decreased with trials but of another person Conditioned taste aversion: development of a with obvious reversals. nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction –occurs after only one association Biological preparedness: the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning Why Classical Conditioning Works Skinner’s Contribution Stimulus substitution: original theory in which LO 5.4 Operant Conditioning:Thorndike and Skinner Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurred because the conditioned stimulus became a Skinner was a behaviorist: he wanted to study only substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being observable, measurable behavior paired closely together Gave “operant conditioning” its name –operant: any behavior that is voluntary Cognitive perspective: modern theory in which Learning depends on what happens after the classical conditioning is seen to occur because the response: the consequence conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the unconditioned Figure 5.7 A Typical Skinner Box stimulus This rat is learning to press the bar in the wall of the cage in order to get food (delivered a few pellets at a Operant Conditioning time in the food trough on lower left). In some cases, LO 5.4 Operant Conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner the light on the top left might be turned on to indicate that pressing the bar will lead to food or to warn of an ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER impending shock delivered by the grate on the floor of Schedules of Reinforcement the cage. LO 5.6 Schedules of Reinforcement Partial reinforcement effect: a response that is reinforced after some—but not all— correct responses tends to be very resistant to extinction Continuous reinforcement: reinforcement of each and every correct response Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement: interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same Variable interval schedule of reinforcement: the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement Reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event LO 5.5 Important Concepts in Operant Conditioning Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement: number of Reinforcement: any event or stimulus, that when responses required for reinforcement is always the following a response, increases the probability that same the response will occur again Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement: –primary reinforcer: any reinforcer that is naturally schedule of reinforcement in which the number of reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such responses required for reinforcement is different for as hunger, thirst, or touch each trial or event –secondary reinforcer: any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, Figure 5.8 Schedules of Reinforcement such as praise, tokens, or gold stars These four graphs show the typical pattern of responding for both fixed and variable interval and Positive and Negative Reinforcement ratio schedules of reinforcement. The responses are LO 5.5 Important Concepts in Operant Conditioning cumulative, which means new responses are added to those that come before, and all graphs begin after Positive reinforcement: the reinforcement of a the learned pattern is well established. Slash marks response by the addition or experience of a mean that a reinforcement has been given. In both the pleasurable stimulus fixed interval and fixed ratio graphs, there is a pause Negative reinforcement: the reinforcement of a after each reinforcement as the learner briefly “rests.” response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance The “scalloped” shape of the fixed interval curve is a of an unpleasant stimulus typical indicator of this pause, as is the stair-step –example: taking aspirin for a headache is negatively shape of the fixed ratio curve. In the variable interval reinforced: removal of headache! and ratio schedules, no such pause occurs, because the reinforcements are unpredictable. Notice that both fixed and variable interval schedules are slower (less steep) than the two ratio schedules because of the need to respond as quickly as possible in the ratio schedules. ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Problems with Punishment LO 5.8 What Are Some Problems with Punishment? Severe punishment –may cause avoidance of the punisher instead of the behavior being punished –may encourage lying to avoid punishment Punishment –creates fear and anxiety LO 5.7 How Does Punishment Differ from Reinforcement? How to Make Punishment More Effective LO 5.8 What Are Some Problems with Punishment? Punishment: any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely - Punishment should immediately follow the to happen again behavior it is meant to punish. Punishment by application: the punishment of a - Punishment should be consistent. response by the addition or experiencing of an - Punishment of the wrong behavior should be unpleasant stimulus paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement Punishment by removal: the punishment of a of the right behavior. response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus Operant Stimuli and Stimulus Control LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior Discriminative stimulus: any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement Shaping: reinforcement of simple steps, leading to a desired complex behavior Successive approximation: small steps, one after another, that lead to a particular goal behavior Extinction occurs if the behavior (response) is not reinforced. ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to Biofeedback: use of feedback about biological ignore it; lack of reinforcement for the tantrum conditions to bring involuntary responses such as behavior will eventually result in extinction blood pressure and relaxation under voluntary control Operantly conditioned responses also can be Neurofeedback: form of biofeedback using devices generalized to stimuli that are only similar—not (EEG, fMRI) to provide feedback about brain activity identical—to the original stimulus in an effort to modify behavior Spontaneous recovery (reoccurrence of a once- Cognitive Learning Theory extinguished response) also happens in operant LO 5.11 Cognitivie learning theory conditioning In the early days of learning, researchers’ focus was on behavior. Behavior Resistant to Conditioning In the 1950s—and more intensely in the 1960s— Instinctive drift: tendency for an animal’s behavior many psychologists were becoming aware that to revert to genetically controlled patterns cognition, the mental events that take place inside a –Each animal comes into the world (and the person’s mind while behaving, could no longer be laboratory) with certain genetically determined ignored. instinctive patterns of behavior already in place. –These instincts differ from species to species. Latent Learning –There are some responses that simply cannot be Edward Tolman: early cognitive scientist trained into an animal regardless of conditioning. –best-known experiments in learning involved teaching three groups of rats the same maze, one at Raccoons commonly dunk their food in and out of a time (Tolman & Honzik, 1930b) water before eating. This “washing” behavior is controlled by instinct, and is difficult to change even Edward Tolman’s Maze Experiment using operant techniques. –Group 1 rewarded each time at end of maze Behavior Modification learned maze quickly LO 5.10 Behavior Modification –Group 2 Behavior modification: use of operant conditioning in maze every day; only rewarded on 10th day techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior demonstrated learning of maze almost immediately Token economy: type of behavior modification in after receiving reward which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens –Group 3 never rewarded Time-out: form of mild punishment by removal in did not learn maze well which a misbehaving animal, child, or adult is placed in a special area away from the attention of others Latent learning: learning that remains hidden until –essentially, the organism is being “removed” from its application becomes useful any possibility of positive reinforcement in the form of attention Figure 5.9 A Typical Maze This is an example of a maze such as the one used in Applied behavior analysis (ABA): modern term for Tolman’s experiments in latent learning. A rat is a form of behavior modification that uses shaping placed in the start box. The trial is over when the rat techniques to mold a desired behavior or response gets to the end box. Biofeedback and Neurofeedback ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER –cannot be gained through trial-and-error learning alone –“Aha” moment Learned Helplessness: Seligman Learned helplessness: tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past Positive psychology: new way of looking at the entire concept of mental health and therapy that focuses on the adaptive, creative, and psychologically more fulfilling aspects of human experience rather than on mental disorders Figure 5.11 Seligman’s Apparatus In Seligman’s studies of learned helplessness, dogs were placed in a two-sided box. Dogs that had no prior experience with being unable to escape a shock Figure 5.10 Learning Curves for Three Groups of would quickly jump over the hurdle in the center of the Rats box to land on the “safe” side. Dogs that had In the results of the classic study of latent learning, previously learned that escape was impossible would Group 1 was rewarded on each day, while Group 2 stay on the side of the box in which the shock was rewarded for the first time on Day 11. Group 3 occurred, not even trying to go over the hurdle. was never rewarded. Note the immediate change in the behavior of Group 2 on Day 12 (Tolman & Honzik, 1930). Observational Learning: Bandura LO 5.12 Observational Learning Observational learning: learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior Learning/performance distinction: learning can Insight - Kohler take place without actual performance of the learned Insight: the sudden perception of relationships behavior among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER Figure 5.12 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment MEMORY AND ITS PROCESSES In Albert Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment, the LO 6.1 Memory and the three processes of memory doll was used to demonstrate the impact of observing an adult model performing aggressive behavior on the Memory: an active system that receives information later aggressive behavior of children. The children in from the senses, organizes and alters that information these photos are imitating the adult model’s behavior as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information even though they believe they are alone and are not from storage being watched. Processes of memory – encoding: the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems – storage: holding onto information for some period of time – retrieval: getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used Four Elements of Observational Learning MODELS OF MEMORY - Attention Information-processing model: assumes that the –To learn anything through observation, the processing of information for memory storage is learner must first pay attention to the model. similar to the way a computer processes memory—in - Memory a series of three stages –The learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model: remembering the steps in preparing a dish that memory processes are proposed to take place at the were first seen on a cooking show. same time over a large network of neural connections - Imitation Levels-of-processing model: assumes that –The learner must be capable of reproducing, information that is more “deeply processed”—or or imitating, the actions of the model. processed according to its meaning, rather than just - Motivation the sound or physical characteristics of the word or –The learner must have the desire to perform words—will be remembered more efficiently and for a the action. longer period of time Real-World Example Figure 6.1 Three-Stage Process of Memory LO 5.13 Real-World Example of the Use of Conditioning Information enters through the sensory system, briefly registering in sensory memory. Selective attention Training a cat to use the toilet will involve: filters the information into short-term memory, where it is held while attention (rehearsal) continues. If the –shaping information receives enough rehearsal (maintenance –preparing “the training arena” or elaborative), it will enter and be stored in long-term –positive reinforcement on a variable schedule memory.S MEMORY ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER – duration: information that has just entered iconic memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information, a process called masking Eidetic imagery: the (rare) ability to access a visual memory for thirty seconds or more Echoic memory: the brief memory of something a person has just heard – capacity: limited to what can be heard at any one moment; smaller than the capacity of iconic memory – duration: lasts longer than iconic; about two to four seconds SENSORY MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY LO 6.2 Sensory memory LO 6.3 Short-term or working memory Sensory memory: the very first stage of memory Short-term memory (STM; working memory): the – the point at which information enters the nervous memory system in which information is held for brief system through the sensory systems periods of time while being used – selective attention: the ability to focus on only one Figure 6.2 Iconic Memory Test stimulus from among all sensory input Sample grid of letters for Sperling’s test of iconic Digit-span test: a series of numbers is read to memory. To determine if the entire grid existed in subjects who are then asked to recall the numbers in iconic memory, Sperling sounded a tone associated order with each row after the grid’s presentation. – conclusion: capacity of STM is about seven items Participants were able to recall the letters in the row or pieces of information, plus or minus two items—or for which they heard the tone. The graph shows the from five to nine bits of information. decrease in the number of letters recalled as the delay – “magical number” = 7 in presenting the tone increased. Chunking: bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, so that more information can be held in STM Maintenance rehearsal: saying bits of information to be remembered over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory (STMs tend to be encoded in auditory form) Figure 6.3 Digit-Span Test Instructions for the digit-span test: Listen carefully as the instructor reads each string of numbers out loud. As soon as each string is ended (the instructor may say “go”), write down the numbers in the exact order in which they were given. STM lasts from about twelve to thirty seconds without rehearsal Iconic memory: visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second – capacity: everything that can be seen at one time ITP REVIEWER CHARMWELL ESGUERRA  ITP REVIEWER a smaller one and a disk can not be moved if there are other disks on top of it. Amnesia patients were able to learn the procedure for solving the puzzle but could not remember that they knew how to solve it. TYPES OF LTM Declarative (explicit) memory: type of long-term STM is susceptible to interference memory containing information that is conscious and – e.g., if counting is interrupted, one will have to start known over – memory for facts LONG-TERM MEMORY DECLARATIVE (EXPLICIT) LTM LO 6.4 Long-term memory All the things that people know Long-term memory (LTM): the memory system into Semantic memory: declarative memory containing which all the information is placed to be kept more or general knowledge less permanently – knowledge of language, information learned in Elaborative rehearsal: a method of transferring formal education information from STM into LTM by making that Episodic memory: declarative memory containing information meaningful in some way personal information not readily available to others TYPES OF LTM – daily activities and events LO 6.5 Different types of long-term memory Semantic and episodic memories are forms of Nondeclarative (implicit) memory: type of long- exp