ITHC01 Module PDF

1  Table of Contents Title Page Chapter I – Introduction to Interaction Design ……………………………………………………………………..…. 3 What is interaction design? Difference be...

1  Table of Contents Title Page Chapter I – Introduction to Interaction Design ……………………………………………………………………..…. 3 What is interaction design? Difference between good and poor design How products can differ radically The Users involved in the “Process of Interaction Design” The user experience in terms of usability, user experience goals, and design principles Chapter II - Understanding and Conceptualizing Interaction…………………………………………..……..…26 What is the Problem Space How to conceptualize interaction The Conceptual Model is and how to begin to formulate one The use of interface metaphors as part of a conceptual model The core interaction types for informing the development of a conceptual model Paradigms, Visions, Theories, Models, and Frameworks in forming interaction design Chapter 3 - Cognitive Aspects………………………………………………………………………………………….……….35 The Core Cognitive Aspects of Interaction Designs The design of technologies that both extend human capabilities Chapter 4 - Social Interaction………………………………………………………………………………………..………….54 What is meant by social interaction The social mechanisms that are used by people when communicating and collaborating How social media have changed the ways in which we keep in touch What is meant by tele-presence Overview of shareable technologies Chapter 5 – Interfaces……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….58 Principles that influence a system’s interface design before writing any code Chapter 6 - Design, Prototyping, and Construction…………………………………………………………………….68 The design–evaluation–redesign cycles involving users Differentiating two types of design: conceptual and physical 2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Interaction Design Objectives 1. Discuss what interaction design is; 2. Discuss difference between good and poor design 3. Explain how products can differ radically 4. Describe what and who is involved in the process of interaction design 5. Outline how to characterize the user experience in terms of usability, user experience goals, and design principles. Introduction How much do you use "interactive products/devices"? A laptop, remote control, coffee machine, tablet, ticketing, scanner, GPS, smoothing machine, smart TV, alarm clock, and so on. Think about what you do on a regular day for a minute. The list would be endless. So, focus for a minute on the versatility they are. How many of those in fact are easy, effortless and fun to use? others can be really frustrating, like finding how to buy the cheapest airline ticket from a ticket machine than after running a set of steps, does not quite accept your debit card, but you restart from scratch. Why does disparity exist? Devices that allow customers to connect with them, including mobile phones and fitness bands, which have also been explicitly developed with the consumer in mind. They are exciting and practical to use in general. Others were not necessarily designed in the consumer's mind; Instead of software systems, they were specifically designed to perform specified operations. An example is to program a mixture of buttons pressed on a burner that are not clear as to those to press together or separately. Although they can work effectively, in a real context, it can be at the expense of the ease to which they can be interpreted and thus Implemented. What Is Involved in Interaction Design? Interaction design is particularly responsible for commands centered mainly on the exploration of the product specifications, the designs of anything to meet the requirements, and the development of the prototype is then evaluated. In addition, design interactions focus on consumers and their priority. For example, the utilization of the artifact and also the target domain are explored by a user-centric development strategy, user feedback and feedback to early styles are requested, and users are properly enclosed within the development part itself. This ensures that the requirements of users are intermeshed towards growth instead of simply technological concerns. Design is also about trade-offs— On adjusting immediate concerns. Another common method of exchange when designing a project is to provide advice or suggestions, for obvious reasons, is to make a decision what more option would be granted to a user as well as how much trajectory the system could also take. Frequently, the department will rely on the functionalities of the system, for example, whether it is for playing music tracks or for controlling traffic flow. Getting the balance right requires experience, but it also requires developing and evaluating alternative solutions. Producing alternative solutions seems to be the smartest core principle to be considered in many other fields of study. Linus Pauling, twice Nobel Prize winner, said, "The best way to get a good idea is to get a lot of ideas." Therefore, the creator should not only restrict oneself with one prospect, but should also take a glance 3 at all other design output options and potential. This is not inherently hard to think about certain aspects or concepts for your product, as well as how to evaluate whether the concept is far more difficult to sustain. For instance, Tom Kelley (2016)' explains seven secret info for effective brainstorms, such as honing your focus (having a well-founded problem statement), having lighthearted rules (promoting concepts), and getting physical (using visual props).” In order to obtain more options in the occasion that the "initial design" you anticipated did not go as expected, it is crucial to inform potential users and other beneficial factors in order to interact effectively the concept you see in view and to combine it all with the user. The design should be constructed in such a way as to enable for correction, modification and enhancement. The easiest thing to start with is to create a series of drafts. Sketch diagrams, try to create a prototype of the outcome/output that you've envisioned to be your product. Combining the latter discipline would certainly have to be effective. It's simpler to comprehend the product if you've had a customer's viewpoint on your invention. Bear in mind that you use laymen's definitions as most users may not understand specific jargons in your field of specialization. What is involved in Interaction Design? Understanding the problem space Importance of involving users Degrees of user involvement What is a user-centered approach? Four basic activities of interaction design A simple lifecycle model for interaction design Some practical issues Who are the users? What are the users’ needs? How to generate alternative designs How to choose among alternative designs How to integrate interaction design activities within other lifecycle models Example: Envision a situation where you are a "cloud specialist" requested by the customer to develop a "cloud-based service system" that would allow the user (people) to curate and exchange their files, such as photos, audio, messaging, digital documents, and so on. But the catch is that aside from meeting the specifications handed out to you, you also need to find a way to make your system efficient, entertaining and secure. How would you be able to do that? Where and how are you going to begin? Which one would you do first, draw up a design of your proposed system, or hurry to coding? Perhaps start with surveying, the would be “users” about their perception on the similar cloud apps available, then decide on how are you going to sketch the new update and what would be next? This particular topic presents the processes involved with interaction design, and how to innovate an interactive output. There were several areas of design, like as architectural design, graphic design, industrial design, and application design. Whereas each specialty has its unique method for design, but still find a commonality with each. The UK council of design has formulated the double diamond of design, which is iterative in nature and has four phases, namely: 4  1. Discover: Designers attempt to gather insights into the problem. 2. Define: Designers are developing a straightforward brief that identifies the design challenge. 3. Develop: Remedies or ideas are formed, prototyped, tested and iterated. 4. Deliver: The resulting product will be completed, developed and released. Interaction design also follows these phases of the double diamond design, and is user oriented in nature. Good versus Bad Design "Interactive products" are functional and essential for the design of interactions. This means products that are usually easy to understand, efficient to use and that can still provide enjoyable user experience. A great idea to start thinking as to how to design interactive products is to start comparing references of well-designed and poorly implemented products. By recognizing the unique weaknesses and advantages of the various interactive products, we will begin to learn what it means for a product to be functional or not. Here, we discuss two instances of ill-designed products that have endured over the years—the "voice mail system" used in hotel rooms and the iconic "remote control"—and compare them with two well-designed models of same devices that serve the same purpose. Bad designs Example: 1. Elevator. “Lifts” triggers and signs on the bottom section all appear the same so it's easy to press a sign by accident instead of a control button. The signs and controls on the top row don't repeat the same mistake. But why not? 5  2. A vending machine, that needs to push button first to activate reader. Normally insert bill first before making selection and Contravenes well known convention. 3. The Voice-Mail System would be the highlight of the example of a bad design. Let us analyze the criteria this system has. Visualize the situation that follows. You book a room for three days at a hotel so that you would have a place to stay while attending the SCITE seminar. You see a flickering crimson light on the home phone next to the mattress. You're not sure how it works, so you pick up the phone. You listen to the sound and it "rang". Perhaps that means there's a message for you. But before could do so, you must figure out first how to use the phone. You see an instruction next to the phone. The steps that are indicated are the following: Step 1. The system then prompts a voice message that says: “Welcome you have reached the Sun Peak Hotel assistance desk. Type in your hotel room number so you can leave a message to our receptionist.” You wait for additional instructions but no voice message followed. So you just look again into the instructions. Step 2. On the instruction printed on the paper beside the phone, it reads “Touch*, your hotel room number, and #” Step 3. You do as what is instructed on the system, then you receive a voice message saying: “You have reached the mailbox for room 106. To leave a message, type in your password.” Step 4. You type your hotel room number on the phone then the system replies : “Please enter your hotel room number again on the phone keypad and then your password” The problem is you don’t know what password the voice message is You type in the room number again, and the system replies: “Please enter room number again and then your password.” You don’t know what your password is. You thought it was the same as your room number, but clearly it is not. At this point, you give up and call the front desk for help. The person at the desk explains the correct procedure for listening to messages. This involves typing in, at the appropriate times, the room number and the extension number of the phone (the latter is the password, which is different from the room number). Moreover, it takes six steps to access a message. You give up. What is problematic with this voice-mail system Good design Example: 1. The "Marble Answering Machine" invented by Bishop (Bishop, 1995) is highly referenced on how common objects behave and is designed to be easy, intuitive and enjoyable to use. Plus, only one-step actions are asked to perform core tasks. Good and bad design Scenario: Why is TiVo considered to be well designed than conventional tv remotes? 6  “Peanut shaped to fit in hand” “Logical layout and color-coded, distinctive buttons” “Easy-to-locate buttons” Scenario 2: What's the smartest system to use with a smart TV? Why? “Pecking using a grid keyboard via a remote control” “Swiping across two alphanumeric rows using a touchpad on a remote control” “Voice control using remote or smart speaker” “How to plan and design?” These are the things you need to take into account: “Who the users are” “What activities are being carried out” “Where interaction is taking place” And also note what is needed to optimize the interactions users have with a product, in order to fit with the clients’ needs and activities. What is Interaction design? 1. “Designing interactive products to support the way people communicate and interact in their everyday and working lives.” Sharp, Rogers, and Preece (2019) 2. “The design of spaces for human communication and interaction.” Winograd (1997) Goals of interaction design 1. Develop usable products – which refers to usability as something that is “easy to learn”, “effective to use”, and at the same time “can provide enjoyable experience” 2. It takes into consideration the users in its design process. There had been numerous terms used to describe and identify what is being designed.Here are some examples of different types of design: 1. “User Interface Design” 2. “Software Design” 3. “User-centered Design” 4. “Product Design” 5. “Web Design” 6. “Experience Design (UX)” 7 Interaction design is considered as an integral part of to all disciplines, fields, and approaches concerned with “researching and designing computer-based systems” for humans. The illustration that you see below shows how ID covers all of these different aspects: 1. Relationship between ID, HCI, and other fields−academic disciplines Academic disciplines contributing to ID: Psychology Social Sciences Computing Sciences Engineering Ergonomics Informatics 2. Relationship between ID, HCI and other fields−design practices Design practices contributing to ID: Graphic design Product design Artist-design Industrial design Film industry 3. Relationship between ID, HCI and other fields−interdisciplinary fields Interdisciplinary fields that ‘do’ interaction design: 8  HCI Ubiquitous Computing Human Factors Cognitive Engineering Cognitive Ergonomics Computer Supported Co-operative Work Information Systems Working in multidisciplinary teams “Pertains to people with different field of expertise are involved” “Equate to more varying perspectives and ways of seeing and talking about things” The advantage of working in a multidisciplinary team is that more ideas and prototypes can be generated. While its disadvantage is that it would be difficult to communicate and progress forward the designs being created. Interaction design in business Due to the huge demand for interaction design, through the years there had been companies established who solely provide services in the field of Interaction design consulting. Example of these are: Nielsen Norman Group: “help companies enter the age of the consumer, designing human- centered products and services” Cooper: “From research and product to goal-related design” IDEO: “creates products, services and environments for companies pioneering new ways to provide value to their customers” The User Experience - this refers to the observation of how a product behaves and is being utilized by people in real life. “The way people feel about it and their pleasure and satisfaction when using it, looking at it, holding it, and opening or closing it” “Every product that is used by someone has a user experience: newspapers, ketchup bottles, reclining armchairs, cardigan sweaters.” (Garrett, 2010) “All aspects of the end-user's interaction with the company, its services, and its products.” (Nielsen and Norman, 2014) Another thing to remember about UX design is that, “it cannot design a user experience−only can design for a user experience,” 9 Defining user experience according to Hornbaek and Hertzum, 2017 “How users perceive a product, such as whether a smartwatch is seen as sleek or chunky, and their emotional reaction to it, such as whether people have a positive experience when using it.” Hassenzahl’s (2010) model of the user experience looks into two characteristics, your product must be pragmatic and at the same time pleasurable/hedonic. Pragmatic: “refers to how simple, practical, and obvious it is for the user to achieve their goals” Hedonic: refers to “how evocative and stimulating the interaction is to users “ What are the factors that lead to the success of iPod? They had taken into consideration the quality user experience from the beginning and took note that they product must be minimalist, posh, shows a unique distinction among other competition, hedonic, has a cool and catchy name and must also well blend with the fashion trend. Core characteristics of interaction design All throughout construction of the product, users should be engaged At the start of the project, precise usability and user experience objectives must be defined, clearly outlined and consented upon. Iteration is required through all the core operations Why, is it important to know the core characteristics of design? And how could it help the designers? The description below, tells how understanding design helps designers in formulation of overall product prototype design. Recognize how interactive products could be designed that match what users expect, need and would want. Know that one size does not suit all (for example, teenagers are very different to grown-ups) 10  Classify any false assumptions concerning specific user groups that they may have. (for example, not all old people want or need big fonts) Know the sensitivities of both individuals and their capacities Accessibility and inclusiveness Accessibility: refers to the degree over which as many individuals as possible can access an interactive product. It is possible to achieve accessibility in 2 ways: initially, though the inclusive technology design, and second, though the assistive technology design. It is important to determine the type of impairments that can lead to disability when designing for accessibility, as they come in many forms. Example: Focus is on people with disabilities; for instance, those using android OS or apple voiceover. The common classification by the type of impairment are: 1. Sensory impairment (such as loss of vision or hearing) 2. Physical impairment (having loss of functions to one or more parts of the body, for example, after a stroke or spinal cord injury) 3. Cognitive (for instance, learning impairment or loss of memory/cognitive function due to old age or a condition such as Alzheimer’s disease) There is a complex mix of individuals and capabilities within each type. For example, an individual may only have peripheral vision, be color blind, or have no perception of light. Impairment can also be categorized as follows: Permanent (for example, long-term wheelchair user) Temporary (such as after an accident or illness) Situational (for instance, a noisy environment means a person can’t hear) Inclusiveness: refers to the manufacturing of products and services which support as many individuals as possible. For example, smartphones designed for all and made available to everyone regardless of their disability, education, age, or income As people age, the number of people living with permanent disabilities, increases. People with permanent disabilities often use assistive technology in their everyday life, which they consider to be life-essential and an extension of their self (Holloway and Dawes, 2016). Disability could refer to : “someone is disabled changes over time with age, or recovery from an accident” “The severity and impact of an impairment can vary over the course of a day or in different environmental conditions” “Disabilities can result because technologies are designed to necessitate a certain type of interaction that is impossible for someone with an impairment” The examples that you see states how design have been accessible or exclusive to the needs and demands of people with disability : 11  Fashionable leg cover designed by Alleles Design Studio Designers for products used by people with disability had greatly changed overtime. Prosthetics could be built to go further than functionality (and often ugly) to being attractive and trendy. People now refer to “wearing their wheels,” rather than “using a wheelchair”. Another factors that post as a challenge to designers is the “cultural differences”. And a great example of that would be the date format “5/21/2015” versus “21/5/2015”. Which format should be used for international services and online forms? How is it that specific products are widely agreed by individuals from all parts of the globe, such as mobile devices, while people from other cultures respond differently to websites? The main component of the user understanding process is to be apparent about the primary goal of creating an interactive product for them. Usability Goals Usability considers the perspective of the user, it aims to design interactive products that are easy to learn, efficient to use, and enjoyable. It includes optimizing interactions with interactive products to allow them to perform their activities at work, at classroom, and in one ‘s regular lifestyle. Useability has 6 goals: 1. Effective to use 2. Efficient to use 3. Safe to use 4. Have good utility 12  5. Easy to learn 6. Easy to remember how to use “Usability goals are typically operationalized as questions. The purpose is to provide the interaction designer with a concrete means of assessing various aspects of an interactive product and the user experience.” Preece, 2017 Usability and User experience goals takes into considerations of choosing terms to express the emotions, feelings, and so on of a person can help designers understand the multifaceted nature of the user experience. It also answers the question on how useability goals vary from User experience goals. Both useability and user experience goals, looks weighing in the trade-offs, like, can a product be both safe and enjoyable to use? In interaction design, which contains a range of emotions and felt experiences, a diversity of user experience objectives has been articulated. These include desirable and undesirable ones, as illustrated below: Most of these are subjective characteristics and deal with how a platform feels to a user. Instead of evaluating how useful or productive a system is from its own perspective, they differ from the more objective usability objectives in that they are concerned with how users experience an interactive product from their perspective. Design principles - Interaction designers use design principles to support their thought process when designing for the user experience. These are generally applicable abstractions aimed at orienting designers to look at various elements of their designs. “Generalizable abstractions for thinking about different aspects of design” “The do’s and don'ts of interaction design” “What to provide and what not to provide at the interface” “Derived from a mix of theory-based knowledge, experience, and common-sense” 13 Example of a “Visibility - poor interface” The illustrated item is a control panel for an elevator. Now, let us analyze how it works. Does it clearly indicate the labels on the buttons and what each button does? How to improve the previous design ? Visibility - Improving on a poor interface 14 …with this elevator, you need to insert your room card in the slot by the buttons to get the elevator to work! How would you make this action more visible? ‘Make the card reader more obvious’ ‘Provide an auditory message that says what to do (which language?)’ ‘Provide a big label next to the card reader that flashes when someone enters’ ‘Make relevant parts visible’ ‘Make what has to be done obvious’ Another example of design problem is the automatic faucet that does not recognize black clothing. What do I do if I am wearing black? 15  A sign in the restrooms at the Cincinnati [email protected] However, it does not discuss what to do if you wear black outfits! Progressively, high visibility control devices that are intuitive to use, such as knobs, keypad, and switches, have been substituted by invisible and ambiguous activating zones in which people have to guess where to move their hands, bodies, or feet to make them work. There is no other alternative solution to its flaw but to be updated or give another option to people who wore black clothing. Feedback - is relative to the notion of visibility. This is best demonstrated by a metaphor to what daily life without it would be like. Sending information back to the user about what has been done Includes sound, highlighting, animation, and combinations of these For example, when screen button is clicked, it provides sound or red highlight feedback: 16 Constraints - The idea of constraining design refers to the determination of ways to limit the types of user interaction that can take place at a given moment. There are different ways that this can be done. Constraints involves actions, such as: “Restricting the possible actions that can be performed” “Helps prevent user from selecting incorrect options” “Physical objects can be designed to constrain things. (for example, there being only one way you can insert a key into a lock)” Let us analyze the example below. Is it Logical or ambiguous design? 17 “Where do you plug the mouse? “ “Where do you plug the keyboard, in the top or bottom connector?” “Do the color-coded icons help?” How to design them more logically (A) “provide a direct adjacent mapping between icon and connector” (B) “provide a color coding that associates the connectors with the labels” Consistency - relates to the design of interfaces with similar operations and the use of comparable elements to achieve similar tasks. A consistent interface is specifically one that follows rules, such as using the same operation to select all objects. Design interfaces to have similar operations and use similar elements for similar 18 tasks. (for example, always use Ctrl key plus first initial of the command for an operation: Ctrl+c, Ctrl+s, Ctrl+o). Products that has consistent interfaces are easy to navigate and use. When consistency breaks down If there is more than one command beginning with the same letter, what happens? (for example, save, spelling, select, style). The possible solution is that you have to find other initials or combinations of keys, thereby breaking the consistency rule (for example, Ctrl+s, Ctrl+Sp, Ctrl+shift+l). Puts the amount of learning on users, making them more vulnerable to mistakes. Internal and external consistency Internal consistency refers to designing operations within an application to behave the same. This is hard to accomplish with complex interfaces. External consistency refers to developing operations, interfaces, and so on across apps and devices to be the same. Very rarely, on the basis of the predisposition of different designers. Example : Keypad numbers layout A case of external inconsistency Affordances: This is a term used to refer to an object characteristic that enables people to comprehend what to do with it. It basically, means “To give a clue” on how to use a particular product. (For example, a mouse button invites pushing, a door handle affords pulling). Norman (1988) used the term to discuss the design of everyday objects and has since been popularized in interaction design to discuss how to design interface objects (for example, scrollbars to enable moving up and down; icons to click on) What does “affordance” have to offer interaction design? “Interfaces are virtual and do not have affordances like physical objects”. Norman argues that it does not make sense to talk about interfaces in terms of ‘real’ affordances. Instead, interfaces are better conceptualized as ‘perceived’ affordances: such as, learned conventions of arbitrary mappings between action and effect at the interface and consider that some mappings are better than others. Activity 1 19 Virtual affordances How do these screen objects afford? What if you were a novice user? Would you know what to do with them? User – centered design pertains to the involvement and consideration of the perception and needs of the users all throughout the whole process. It is done so, by doing a study about the target user/client then compile and draft the summary of their ideas from gathered surveys. It is only possible if the designer knows who are the target users and how their ideas can be involved in development. The designer must also know what data and how data gathering from target users can be accomplished by meticulously analyzing what type of questions to ask the user. Once the designer has gotten a hold of the gathered data, he/ she must now figure out how to be able to collate those suggestions from users and turn it into a design. We present and address these types of questions in this section, address user-centered design, and discover the four core activities of the process of interaction design. We also implement an interaction design life-cycle model which captures these events and the relationship between them. What is the Problem Space Explore What is the current user experience? Why is a change needed? How will this change improve the situation? Articulating the problem space Team effort Explore different perspectives Avoid incorrect assumptions and unsupported claims We have previously discussed the double diamond of design. Now, we are going to analyze and study it. This is the first double diamond phase. This can be enticing to start at an extravagant or grandiose level of design in the process of creating an interactive product. This means working out how to design the physical interface and what techniques and styles of interaction to use, such as multitouch, voice, graphical user interface, heads-up display, augmented reality, gesture-based, etc. 20 The Importance of Involving Users Expectation management Realistic expectations No surprises, no disappointments Timely training Communication, but no hype Ownership Make the users active stakeholders More likely to forgive or accept problems Can make a big difference in acceptance and success of product This involves the participation of users all throughout entire design process. Since they're the one's that who would patronize and use your design, it is important not to ignore their inputs. Users understand what they want, but they don't understand the technical details, which is why designers should guide users to choose and suggest options and guide them if their perception of a specific design is realistic or just right to implement. If the designer and the user could communicate well with each other, this would work well. Criteria of Degrees of User Involvement Member of the design team ▪ Full time: constant input, but lose touch with users ▪ Part time: patchy input, and very stressful ▪ Short term: inconsistent across project life ▪ Long term: consistent, but lose touch with users Face-to-face group or individual activities Online contributions from thousands of users ▪ Online Feedback Exchange (OFE) systems ▪ Crowdsourcing design ideas 21  ▪ Citizen science User involvement after product release This sets out the scope of the user's participation in aspects of the design process. Different degrees of user participation are possible, ranging from fully engaged throughout all iterations of the development process to targeted participation in specific activities, to hundreds of thousands of potential users and stakeholders online, from small groups of individual users in face-to-face contexts. What is a user-centered approach? User-centered approach is based on: “Early focus on users and tasks: directly studying cognitive, behavioral, anthropomorphic, and attitudinal characteristics “ “Empirical measurement: users’ reactions and performance to scenarios, manuals, simulations, and prototypes are observed, recorded, and analyzed” “Iterative design: when problems are found in user testing, fix them and carry out more tests” Four basic activities of Interaction Design 1. Discovering requirements 2. Designing alternatives 3. Prototyping alternative designs 4. Evaluating product and its user experience throughout A simple interaction design lifecycle model Exemplifies a user-centered design approach Another lifecycle model: Google Design Sprints (Knapp et al., 2016) 22 Source: Google Design Sprints (used courtesy of Agile Marketing Another lifecycle model: Research in the Wild (Rogers and Marshall, 2017) A framework for research in the wild studies Source: Rogers and Marshall, 2017, p6. (used courtesy of Morgan and Claypool) Some practical issues Who are the users? What are the users’ needs? How to generate alternative designs? How to choose among alternatives? How to integrate interaction design activities with other lifecycle models? Who are the users/stakeholders? Not obvious 23  382 distinct types of users for smartphone apps (Sha Zhao et al, 2016) Many products are intended for use by large sections of the population, so user is “everybody” More targeted products are associated with specific roles Stakeholders Larger than the group of direct users Identifying stakeholders helps identify groups to include in interaction design activities What are the Users’ needs? Users rarely know what is possible Instead: ▪ Explore the problem space ▪ Investigate who are the users ▪ Investigate user activities to see what can be improved ▪ Try out ideas with potential users Focus on peoples’ goals, usability, and user experience goals, rather than expect stakeholders to articulate requirements How to generate alternatives Humans tend to stick with something that works Considering alternatives helps identify better designs Where do alternative designs come from? ▪ ‘Flair and creativity’: research and synthesis ▪ Cross-fertilization of ideas from different perspectives ▪ Users can generate different designs ▪ Product evolution based on changing use ▪ Seek inspiration: similar products and domain, or different products and domain Balancing constraints and trade-offs How to choose among alternatives Interaction design focuses on externally-visible and measurable behavior Technical feasibility Evaluation with users or peers ▪ Prototypes not static documentation because behavior is key A/B Testing ▪ Online method to inform choice between alternatives ▪ Nontrivial to set appropriate metrics and choose user group sets Quality thresholds ▪ Different stakeholder groups have different quality thresholds ▪ Usability and user experience goals lead to relevant criteria How to integrate interaction design activities within other models Integrating interaction design activities in lifecycle models from other disciplines requires careful planning Software development lifecycle models are prominent 24  Integrating with agile software development is promising because: ▪ It incorporates tight iterations ▪ It champions early and regular feedback ▪ It handles emergent requirements ▪ It aims to strike a balance between flexibility and structure Some key points Four basic activities in interaction design process ▪ Discovering requirements ▪ Designing alternatives ▪ Prototyping ▪ Evaluating User-centered design rests on three principles ▪ Early focus on users and tasks ▪ Empirical measurement using quantifiable and measurable usability criteria ▪ Iterative design 25 Chapter 2 Understanding and Conceptualizing Interaction Objectives 1. Explain what is meant by the problem space; 2. Explain how to conceptualize interaction; 3. Describe what a conceptual model is and how to begin to formulate one; 4. Discuss the use of interface metaphors as part of a conceptual model; 5. Outline the core interaction types for informing the development of a conceptual model; and 6. Introduce paradigms, visions, theories, models, and frameworks in forming interaction design. Conceptualizing design As part of a design project, generating ideas, it is essential to conceptualize them in definitions of what the product proposed will do. This is sometimes referred to as developing a proof of concept. It is important to be clear about the underlying assumptions and claims when starting a design project. We mean taking something for granted by an assumption that needs further investigation; individuals now want an entertainment and navigation system in their cars, for example. By a claim, when it is still open to question, we mean declaring something to be true. For example, it is perfectly safe to have a multimodal style of interaction to control this system, one that involves talking or gesturing while driving. Taking notes and then trying to justify and support your assumptions and claims can reflect those that are vague or wanting. In so doing, it is possible to modify badly constructed design ideas. This step includes identifying human activities and interactions that are problematic in many projects and working out how they could be improved by supporting them with a various set of functions. In others, it can be more speculative, requiring thinking about how to design an engaging, non-existent user experience. Proof of concept pertains to conceptualizing what the proposed product will do. Conceptualizing design is important to examine vague ideas and assumptions regarding the advantages of a particular type product or service in terms of its feasibility. It also answers the question if your design can be realistically be develop with the current tools, machineries and with the kind of technology we have. Conceptualization of design also, looks into the effectiveness and desirability of the product. The steps in conceptualizing a design is to: First formulate all the possible assumptions and claims with the new design you are planning to propose. Look into facts and details of your design, such as what can they do and what are their limitations, then defend how the user would overcome the limitations of the product. For inevitable concepts that are hard to articulate or describe into words, you must also highlight the details of your design that seemed too vague or unrealistic for reasons that there is no existing design like your yet or weighing factors if your design can be put into reality with the current technology and equipment’s we now have. Also, included in this is the person’s activities and interactivities that could be problematic for your proposed design Once you have identified the problems, it’s now time to iteratively plan out “how the design ideas might be improved” 26 What is an assumption? Assumption “refers to taking something for granted when it needs further investigation” ▪ For example, Most people prefer to watch TV while driving ( this is only your assumption) What is a claim? A claim tells that even if it is still up for question, one already asserts that something is true example, Example: “a multimodal style of interaction for controlling GPS — one that involves speaking while driving — is safe.” Jotting down and then trying to justify and support your assumptions and claims can outline those that are vague or wanting. In so doing, it is possible to modify badly constructed design ideas. It allows the design team as a whole to see multiple perspectives on the problem space and thus reveal contrasting and problematic ones by explaining people's assumptions and claims about why they think something might be a good idea (or not). Activity: How else will cyborg wait staff be capable of speaking to customers to improve their understanding? 27 Source: Xinhua, Guo Cheng What is the problem being addressed? The benefits: Through talking with them, the robot can take instructions and entertain customers. For diverse customers, such as restless kids or fussy eaters, the robot could also make recommendations, that purely based on assumptions. Now, the real problem we need to address is how difficult it is to find a waiter who can fill in the hospitality of a person over a robot wait staff. In supporting your assumptions, the initial phases of a design project, numerous unknowns have to be considered or addressed. Such as where do ideas come from, what inspired such idea and is there any solid proof research or even at least a theory that would back up the idea? Remember that “During the early ideation process one must ask questions, reconsider assumptions, and articulate concerns” Now, that we have defined the problem being addressed and had come up with assumptions, we can now look into the framework for analyzing the problem space. These frameworks refers to a series of questions that the designer can use as a guide. Such questions are: Does an existing product or user experience have complications? Enumerate what are those complications. Why do you think this problem exist in the first place? How wiould you overcome such complications, in your proposed design? 28  How would you know your suggested design ideas support, alter, or extend current ways of doing things if you are designing for a new user experience? Activity Give an assumption and claim about the 3D TV? Source: Andrey Popov, Shutterstock Assumptions and claims: one must analyze first, how realistic your proposed design is. Sample answer: There's no current hurdle to address, since the proposed design is about a new way to experience TV. An assumption would be that customers would not mind the changes because 3D TV has enhanced clarity and added detail on the color While a claim would be, people do not really mind if the new product is costly since they can now watch their favourite shows and movies in 3D Benefits of conceptualizing Orientation - It allows design teams to ask particular questions on how to perceive the conceptual model. Open-minded - Discourages design teams from focusing narrowly at an early stage Common ground - Enables design teams to create a set of rules commonly agreed to each and everyone in the team From problem space to design space A design space can be informed by a thorough understanding of a problem space. Also, indicates, which sort of interface, behavior, functionality to provide. But before getting into a conclusion one must look into developing a conceptual model. Conceptual model 29 A model is a simplified description of a system or process that helps describe how it works. In this section, we look at a particular kind of model used in interaction design intended to articulate the problem and design space—the conceptual model. In a later section, we describe more generally how models have been developed to explain phenomena in human computer interaction. Conceptual model 1. “a high-level description of how a system is organized and operate”s - Jeff Johnson and Austin Henderson (2002) page 6 2. A conceptual model enables: “designers to straighten out their thinking before they start laying out their widgets” - Jeff Johnson and Austin Henderson (2002) page 28 3. “Provides a working strategy and framework of general concepts and their interrelations” The First steps in formulating a conceptual model according to Johnson and Henderson, are the following: 1. What will the users be doing when carrying out their tasks? 2. How will the system support these? 3. What kind of interface metaphor, if any, will be appropriate? 4. What kinds of interaction modes and styles to use? 5. Always keep in mind when making design decisions how the user will understand the underlying conceptual model A conceptual model offers a working strategy in a nutshell and a framework of general concepts and their interrelationships. The following are the core components: 1. Metaphors and analogies aims to tell people how to recognize what a product is being used for and also how to use it for an activity. (for example browsing and bookmarking). 2. The concepts to which people are exposed through the product, They create and manipulate task- domain objects, their attributes, and the operations that can be performed on them, (such as saving, revisiting, and organizing). 3. The relationships between those concepts (for instance, whether one object contains another). 4. The mappings between the concepts and the user experience the product is designed to support or invoke a design (for example, one can revisit a page through looking at a list of visited sites, most- frequently visited, or saved websites). The user experience is determined by how the different metaphors, concepts, and their relationships are organized. The design team can discuss the merits of offering various methods by explaining these and how they support the main concepts, such as saving, revisiting, categorizing, reorganizing, and mapping them to the task domain. They also can start to approach whether a new general metaphor that combines the activities of browsing, searching, and revisiting may be preferable. This in turn can lead the design team to articulate the types of relationships, such as containership, between them. What is the best way to sort and revisit saved pages, for instance, and how many and what container types must be used (e.g. folders, bars, or panes)? For other functions of the web browser, both present and new, the same enumeration of concepts 30 can be repeated. In doing so, the design team can systematically begin to work out what will be the easiest and most efficient and memorable way to support users while browsing the Internet. The few that seem evident and straightforward are often the best conceptual models; that is, the operations they support are intuitive to use. Applications can, however, sometimes end up being based on overly complex conceptual models, particularly if they are the result of a series of enhancements, where the original conceptual model is added to more and more functions and ways of doing something. Although tech firms often provide footage online what new features are included in an upgrade, users may not pay much attention to them or completely skip them. In addition, many individuals prefer to adhere to the techniques they have always used and recognized and, not remarkably, become upset when they find that one or more has been removed or altered. For instance, many users were unhappy when Facebook rolled out its revised newsfeed a few years ago, as evidenced by their tweets and posts, favoring the old GUI they had gotten used to. Therefore, a challenge for software companies is how best to introduce new features they have added to an upgrade and explain their presumed advantages to users, while also justifying why others have been removed. Actually, most interface apps are based on well-established conceptual models. For example, when the majority of online shopping websites are based at a shopping mall, a conceptual model based on the core aspects of the customer experience. These include the placement in a shopping cart or basket of items that a customer wants to buy and proceeding to checkout when they are ready to make the purchase. Along with many other aspects of a user experience, collections of patterns are now readily available to help design the interface for these core transactional processes, meaning interaction designers do not have to start from scratch every time they design or redesign an application. It is uncommon for completely new conceptual models to arise that change the way everyday and work operations are performed at an interface. The three main classics are included in this category: the desktop (developed in the late 1970s by Xerox), the digital spreadsheet (developed in the late 1970s by Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston), and the World Wide Web (developed by Tim Berners Lee in the early 1980s). All these innovations have made what was previously restricted to a few qualified individuals accessible to all, while significantly expanding what is feasible. The graphical desktop dramatically altered the performance of office tasks (including creating, editing, and printing documents). It was considerably more difficult to perform these tasks using the computers prevalent at the time, having to learn and use a command language (such as DOS or UNIX). Digital spreadsheets made bookkeeping highly efficient and easier to achieve, making it possible to perform a variety of new computations simply by filling in interactive boxes. The World Wide Web has enabled anyone to remotely browse a network of data. Ever since, new ways of reading documents and books online have been introduced by e-readers and digital authoring tools, supporting associated activities such as annotation, highlighting, linking, commenting, copying, and tracking. Many other types of activities, such as searching for news, weather, sports, and financial information, as well as banking, shopping, and learning online, among other tasks, have also been made easier by the web. Importantly, all of these conceptual models were based on familiar activities. The best conceptual models are often those that appear:  Obvious and simple  The operations they support are intuitive to use Example: the concept of online stores like shopee 31 Explanation -> Actually, most interface apps are based on well-established conceptual models. For example, when the number of internet shopping websites are based at a shopping mall, a conceptual model based on the core aspects of the customer experience. Which included the placement in a shopping cart or basket of items that a customer wants to buy and proceeding to checkout when they are ready to create the acquisition. Types of Conceptual Model Metaphor Concept Model Metaphors is a central component of a conceptual model. They provide a framework which is comparable to aspects of a familiar entity (or entities) in some way, but they have their own behaviors and properties as well. More precisely, as part of the user interface, such as the desktop metaphor, an interface metaphor is one that is instantiated in some way. The web browser, initially established in the early 1990s to pertain to a software package that indexed and retrieved files digitally from the Web using different algorithms to match user- selected terms, is another well-known one. The metaphor welcomes comparisons between a mechanical engine that has several working components and the daily activity of trying to find something in different places. In addition to those belonging to an engine which searches, the functions supported by a search engine also include other features, such as listing and prioritizing the search queries. These actions are also done in somewhat diverse situations from how a mechanical machine works or how a human being can browse for paperbacks on a given subject in a library. Consequently, the resemblances that are indicated by the use of the term search engine are at a general level. They are intended to conjure up the spirit of the information finding process, allowing the user to link these to fewer familiar aspects of the presented functionality. 1. Interface metaphors - The interface was developed to be akin to a physical entity, but it has features of its own. Interface metaphors can also be based on activities, objects, or a byproduct of both. It manipulates the familiar knowledge of users to help them understand the unknown. The concept of the unaccustomed activity is conjured up, allowing users to leverage this to comprehend more elements of the unfamiliar feature. Example: desktop metaphor, and web portals Examples of interface metaphors Conceptualizing what users are doing  For instance, surfing the Web A conceptual model instantiated at the interface  For example, the desktop metaphor Visualizing an operation  For instance, an icon of a shopping cart into which the user places items (apps like Shopee, Lazada, Zalora) 2. The card metaphor – considered to be the very popular UI because of its familiar form and its characteristics to be easily flicked through, ordered and themed. “It structures content into meaningful chunks (similar to how paragraphs are used to chunk a set of related sentences into distinct sections)”. 32 Its material characteristics provide the image of the paper surface Benefits of interface metaphors Makes learning new systems easier Helps users understand the underlying conceptual model Can be very innovative and enable the realm of computers and their applications to be made more accessible to a greater diversity of users Problems with interface metaphors Break conventional and cultural rules  For instance, recycle bin placed on desktop Can constrain designers in the way that they conceptualize a problem space Conflicts with design principles Forces users to understand only the system in terms of the metaphor Designers can inadvertently use bad existing designs and transfer the bad parts over Limits designers‘ imagination in coming up with new conceptual models Interaction Types In terms of the interaction types that will underlie the user experience, another way to conceptualize the design space is. In essence, these are the ways in which an individual interacts with a product or application. Originally, four main types were identified: instruction, conversation, manipulation and exploration (Preece et al., 2002). Christopher Lueg et al. (2019) have since proposed a fifth type that we have added to ours, which they call responding. For example, when Netflix pauses a person's viewing to ask them whether they'd like to continue watching, this refers to proactive systems that initiate a request in situations to which a user can respond. Instructing: Where users issue a system with instructions. This can be expressed in a variety of ways, including typing commands, choosing options from menus in a Windows environment or on a multitouch screen, speaking aloud commands, gesturing, pressing buttons, or using a function key combination. Conversing: Where users do have software dialog. Users could even speak through an interface or type questions that are answered by the system via text or speech output. Interacting with a system as if a conversation were being held Manipulating: Where users in a virtual or physical space interact with objects by manipulating them (for instance, opening, holding, closing, and placing). Users could even develop their familiar understanding of how to communicate with objects. Exploring: Where users navigate through a physical space or a virtual environment. 3D worlds and augmented and virtual reality systems include virtual environments. By physically moving around, they allow users to hone their familiar knowledge. Smart rooms and ambient environments include physical spaces that use sensor-based technologies, allowing people to capitalize on familiarity as well. Responding: Where the interaction is initiated by the system and the user decides whether to react. For instance, proactive technology based on mobile locations can alert individuals to areas of interest. They could choose to look at or ignore the data popping up on their phone. An instance is the Google Now Card, shown in Figure 3.5, which provides the user with a restaurant recommendation to consider when strolling nearby. 33 Difference between interaction types and interface styles Interaction type: Interaction type: is regarded as a definition as to what the user does when interacting with a system, such as teaching, talking, browsing, or responding to the style of the interface. While Interface style: The kind of interface used, such as command, menu-based, gesture, or voice, to support interaction Examples of Interface styles Command Speech Data-entry Form fill-in Query Graphical Web Pen Augmented reality Gesture Paradigm - In terms of shared assumptions, concepts, values, and practices, a paradigm refers to a general approach adopted by a community of researchers and designers to carry out their work. Inspiration for a conceptual model General approach adopted by a community for carrying out research  Shared assumptions, concepts, values, and practices  For example, desktop, ubiquitous computing, in the wild Vision - Vision is a future state that shapes interaction design research and development, often depicted in the form of a movie or narrative. theory It is a well-founded description of some part of a phenomenon; The theory of processing information, for instance, describes how well the mind, or some aspect of it, is supposed to function. A model is a simplified representation of some aspect of human-computer interaction intended to facilitate the prediction and evaluation of alternative designs by designers. The framework is a set of interrelated concepts and/or a set of defined queries intended to inform a specific field (e.g. collaborative learning) or an analytical method (for instance, ethnographic studies). 34 Chapter 3 Cognitive Aspects Objectives 1. Identify and discuss the core cognitive aspects of interaction designs 2. Discuss what humans are good and bad at and show how this knowledge can be used to inform the design of technologies that both extend human capabilities and compensate for their weaknesses. What is cognition Cognition refers to some of our common activities such as Thinking, remembering, learning, daydreaming, decision-making, seeing, reading, talking, writing… According to two experts in the study of cognition, there are ways of classifying cognition at a higher level: ▪ Experiential vs. reflective cognition (Norman, 1993) ▪ Fast vs slow thinking (Kahneman, 2011) Evaluate the examples provided, which include fast vs. slow thinking? 1+ 1 = ______ versus 31 × 49 =_______ What color hair do you have? Versus How many colors are there in the rainbow? How many months in the year have 30 days? Versus What is the name of the first school you attended? How can understanding cognition help? Cognition provides insight into what users can and cannot be expected to do. This also makes it easier to identify and specify the nature and implications of users' problems. It also provides theories, tools for modeling, guidelines and techniques that can result to a layout of enhanced interactive products. Cognitive Process Attention Perception Memory Learning Reading, speaking and listening Problem-solving, planning, reasoning and decision-making Attention is mostly about selecting objects to focus on at a point in time from the mass of stimuli around us, and allows anyone to pay attention on information relevant to what we're doing. This also involves senses that are visual and/or audio. There are two types of attention: Focused and divided attention In aspects of the mass of competing stimuli, it causes us to be selective, yet restricts our capacity to track all occurrences. 35 Design recommendation related to “attention” Interface information, as well as using perceptual limits (windows), color, reverse video, sound, and flashing lights, for example, must be structured to attract users' attention. Activity: Find the price for a double room at the Quality Inn in Pennsylvania Activity: Find the price of a double room at the Holiday Inn in Columbia 36 Tullis (1987) found that the two screens produced quite different results ▪ “1st screen: Took an average of 5.5 seconds to search” ▪ “2nd screen: Took 3.2 seconds to search” How is it possible? because both screens have the very same visual format (31%). Spacing is also a factor to consider. ▪ “In the 1st screen, the information is bunched up together, making it hard to search” ▪ “In the 2nd screen, the characters are grouped into vertical categories of information making it easier” Multitasking and attention Is it possible to perform various tasks without detrimentally affecting one or more of them? Multitasking can make people lose their way of thinking, make mistakes, and have to start over. Ophir et al. (2009) compared heavy vs light multitaskers ▪ “Heavy multitaskers were more prone to being distracted than those who infrequently multitask “ ▪ “Heavy multitaskers are easily distracted and find it difficult to filter irrelevant information” Multitasking experiment 37 Lotteridge et al. (2015) Another research involving writing an essay was carried out under two conditions: relevant or irrelevant information Lotteridge et al. (2015) had concluded that heavy multitaskers were readily confused, but were able to make good use of this if the sources of distraction were appropriate for the task in hand. Irrelevant information was discovered to adversely affect performance outcomes Multitasking at work It is increasingly prevalent for employees multitask. Hospital workers, for example, have to attend to numerous operating room screens that provide new types of real-time information. This requires continuous monitoring from the clinician to evaluate if any information is uncommon or anomalous. Therefore, one must ought to come up with strategies of attention and scanning. Is it OK to use a phone when driving? No! ▪ Driving is extremely demanding. ▪ Drivers are susceptible to distractions. ▪ A substantial chance of causing accidents is present. ▪ The response time of drivers to external events when talking on the phone in a car are longer (Caird et al., 2018) ▪ Drivers rely more on their expectations about what is likely to happen next when their attention is taken to conducting a conversation. 38  ▪ Response time to unexpected events is slower (Briggs et al., 2018) ▪ Drivers often try to imagine what the face of the other person is like, the person they are talking to, ▪ Doing so competes with the processing resources needed to enable them to notice and react to what is in front of them Are hands-free phones safer to use when driving? - No, as the same form of cognitive processing occurs when talking, - So if talking to front seat passengers, the same happens. - However if a danger is identified that allows the driver to shift to the road immediately, both can stop in the middle of the statement. - So, talking to a front seat passenger is less dangerous than talking to a distant person. - A remote individual at the end of a phone is not aware of what the driver sees and will continue the conversation when there is a risk. - This makes it hard for the driver to turn all his attention to the road. Design implications for attention Context: Make information salient when it needs to be attended to at a given stage of a task Use techniques to achieve this: ▪ For example, color, ordering, spacing, underlining, sequencing, and animation Avoid cluttering visual interfaces with too much information Consider designing different ways to support effective switching and returning to an interface Perception How information is acquired from the world and transformed into experiences Obvious implication is to design representations that are readily perceivable, for instance: ▪ Text should be legible ▪ Icons should be easy to distinguish and read Is color contrast good? Find Italian 39 Are borders and white space better? Find French Weller (2004) found people took less time to locate items for information that was grouped ▪ Using a border (2nd screen) compared with using color contrast (1st screen) ▪ Some argue that too much white space on web pages is detrimental to search process ▪ Makes it hard to find information 40  ▪ Do you agree? Activity: Which is the easiest to read and why? Design implications Icons should enable users to distinguish their meaning readily Bordering and spacing are effective visual ways of grouping information Sounds should be audible and distinguishable Research proper color contrast techniques when designing an interface: ▪ Yellow on black or blue is fine ▪ Yellow on green or white is a no-no Haptic feedback should be used judiciously Memory Involves recalling various kinds of knowledge that allow people to act appropriately ▪ For example, recognizing someone’s face or remembering someone’s name First encode and then retrieve knowledge We don’t remember everything−it involves filtering and processing what is attended to Context is important as to how we remember (that is, where, when, how, and so on) We recognize things much better than being able to recall things We remember less about objects that we have photographed than when we observe them with the naked eye (Henkel, 2014) 41 Processing in memory Encoding is first stage of memory ▪ Determines which information is attended to in the environment and how it is interpreted The more attention paid to something… The more it is processed in terms of thinking about it and comparing it with other knowledge… The more likely it is to be remembered ▪ For example, when learning about HCI, it is much better to reflect upon it, carry out exercises, have discussions with others about it, and write notes than just passively read a book, listen to a lecture or watch a video about it Context is important Context affects the extent to which information can be subsequently retrieved Sometimes it can be difficult for people to recall information that was encoded in a different context: ▪ “You are on a train and someone comes up to you and says hello. You don’t recognize him for a few moments, but then realize it is one of your neighbors. You are only used to seeing your neighbor in the hallway of your apartment building, and seeing him out of context makes him difficult to recognize initially” Activity Try to remember the dates of your grandparents’ birthday Try to remember the cover of the last two books you read Which was easiest? Why? People are very good at remembering visual cues about things ▪ For instance, the color of items, the location of objects and marks on an object ▪ They find it more difficult to learn and remember arbitrary material ▪ For example, birthdays and phone numbers Recognition versus recall Command-based interfaces require users to recall from memory a name from a possible set of 100s of names Graphical interfaces provide visually-based options (menus, icons) that users need only browse through until they recognize one Web browsers provide tabs and history lists of visited URLs that support recognition memory The problem with the classic ‘7,+ or − 2’ George Miller’s (1956) theory of how much information people can remember 42  People’s immediate memory capacity is very limited to 7, + or − 2 Has been applied in interaction design when considering how many options to display But is it a good use of a theory in HCI? Is it helpful? When creating an interface, should the designer… Present only 7 options on a menu Display only 7 icons on a tool bar Have no more than 7 bullets in a list Place only 7 items on a pull down menu Place only 7 tabs on the top of a website page? Not necessarily… The reason is… People can scan lists of bullets, tabs, and menu items for the one they want They don’t have to recall them from memory, having only briefly heard or seen them So you can have more than nine at the interface ▪ For instance, history lists of websites visited Sometimes a small number of items is good ▪ For example, smart watch displays Depends on task and available screen estate Personal Information management Is a growing problem for many users: They accumulate a vast numbers of documents, images, music files, video clips, emails, attachments, bookmarks, and so forth Where and how to save them all; then remembering what they were called and where to find them again Naming most common means of encoding them But can be difficult to remember, especially when you have 10,000s How might such a process be facilitated taking into account people’s memory abilities? Personal Information management Bergman and Whittaker, three interdependent processes model (2016) to help people manage their stuff: 43  I. How to decide what stuff to keep II. How to organize it when storing III. Which strategies to use to retrieve it later Most common approach is to use folders and naming Strong preference for scanning across and within folders when looking for something Search engines only helpful if you know the name of the file Smart search engines help with listing relevant files for partial name or when type in first letter Apple’s Spotlight search tool Memory load Online/mobile and phone banking now require users to provide multiple pieces of information to access their account ▪ For instance, ZIP code, birthplace, a memorable date, first school attended ▪ Known as multifactor authentication (MFA) Why? ▪ Increased security concerns 44  Password managers, such as LastPass, have been developed that require only one master password ▪ Reduces stress and memory load on users Passwords could become extinct with the widespread use of biometrics and computer vision algorithms Digital Forgetting When might you wish to forget something that is online? ▪ When you break up with a partner ▪ Emotionally painful to be reminded of them through shared photos, social media, and so on. ▪ Sas and Whittaker (2013) suggest ways of harvesting and deleting digital content ▪ For example, making photos of ex into an abstract collage ▪ Helps with closure Memory aids SenseCam, developed by Microsoft Research Labs (now Autographer) ▪ A wearable device that intermittently takes photos without any user intervention while worn ▪ Digital images taken are stored and revisited using special software ▪ Has been found to improve people’s memory, especially those suffering from dementia Other aids include RemArc, which triggers long-term memory using old BBC materials SenseCam Design implications Reduce cognitive load by avoiding long and complicated procedures for carrying out tasks Design interfaces that promote recognition rather than recall 45  Provide users with various ways of labelling digital information to help them easily identify it again ▪ For example, folders, categories, color, flagging, and time stamping Learning Involves the accumulation of skills and knowledge involving memory Two main types: ▪ Incidental learning (for example, recognizing people’s faces, what you did today) ▪ Intentional learning (for instance, studying for an exam, learning to cook) ▪ Intentional learning is much harder! ▪ Many technologies have been developed to help (for example, multimedia, animations, VR) People find it hard to learn by following instructions in a manual People prefer to learn by doing Design implications Design interfaces that encourage exploration Design interfaces that constrain and guide learners Dynamically linking concepts and representations can facilitate the learning of complex material Reading, speaking, and listening The ease with which people can read, listen, or speak differs: Many prefer listening to reading Reading can be quicker than speaking or listening Listening requires less cognitive effort than reading or speaking Dyslexics have difficulties understanding and recognizing written words Applications Voice user interfaces allow users to interact with them by asking questions ▪ For example, Google Voice, Siri, and Alexa ▪ Speech-output systems use artificially-generated speech ▪ For instance, written text-to-speech systems for the visually impaired Natural-language systems enable users to type in questions and give text-based responses ▪ Such as, chatbots Design implications Speech-based menus and instructions should be short 46  Accentuate the intonation of artificially generated speech voices ▪ They are harder to understand than human voices ▪ Provide opportunities for making text large on a screen Problem-solving, planning, reasoning, and decision-making All these processes involve reflective cognition ▪ For example, thinking about what to do, what the options are, and the consequences Often involves conscious processes, discussion with others (or oneself), and the use of artifacts ▪ Such as maps, books, pen and paper May involve working through different scenarios and deciding which is best option Weighing up alternatives Design implications Provide information and help pages that are easy to access for people who wish to understand more about how to carry out an activity more effectively (for example, web searching) Use simple and memorable functions to support rapid decision-making and planning Dilemma The app mentality is making it worse for people to make their own decisions because they are becoming risk averse (Gardner and Davis, 2013) ▪ Instead, they now rely on a multitude of apps ▪ This makes them increasingly anxious ▪ They are unable to make decisions by themselves ▪ They need to resort to looking up info, getting other’s opinions on social media, and comparing notes Do you agree? Did it happen to you when deciding which university/school to attend? Cognitive frameworks These are used to explain and predict user behavior at the interface ▪ Based on theories of behavior ▪ Focus is on mental processes that take place ▪ Also use of artifacts and representations Most well known are: ▪ Mental models 47  ▪ Gulfs of execution and evaluation ▪ Distributed cognition ▪ External and embodied cognition Mental models Users develop an understanding of a system through learning about and using it Knowledge is sometimes described as a mental model: How to use the system (what to do next) What to do with unfamiliar systems or unexpected situations (how the system works) People make inferences using mental models of how to carry out tasks More mental models Craik (1943) described mental models as: ▪ Internal constructions of some aspect of the external world enabling predictions to be made Involves unconscious and conscious processes ▪ Imagery and analogies are activated Deep versus shallow models ▪ For example, how to drive a car and how it works Everyday reasoning and mental models (a) You arrive home on a cold winter’s night to a cold house. How do you get the house to warm up as quickly as possible? Set the thermostat to be at its highest or to the desired temperature? (b) You arrive home starving hungry. You look in the fridge and find all that is left is an uncooked pizza. You have an electric oven. Do you warm it up to 375 degrees first and then put it in (as specified by the instructions) or turn the oven up higher to try to warm it up quicker? Heating up a room or oven that is thermostat-controlled Many people when asked (a) choose the first option Why? ▪ They think it will heat the room up quicker ▪ General valve theory, where ‘more is more’ principle is generalized to different settings (for instance, gas pedal, gas cooker, tap, radio volume) ▪ But it is a wrong mental model for thermostats based on on-off switch model Many people when asked (b) choose the first option ▪ Electric ovens work on the same principle as thermostats 48  Most of us have erroneous mental models (Kempton, 1996) Erroneous mental models Lots of people hit the button for elevators and pedestrian crossings at least twice ▪ Why? Think it will make the lights change faster or ensure that the elevator arrives! What kinds of mental models do users have for understanding how interactive devices work? ▪ Poor, often incomplete, easily confusable, based on inappropriate analogies and superstition (Norman, 1983) How can UX be designed to help people build better mental models? Clear and easy to use instructions Appropriate tutorials and contextual sensitive guidance Provide online videos and chatbot windows when needing help Transparency: to make interfaces intuitive to use Affordances of what actions an interface allows ▪ For example, swiping, clicking, or selecting Gulfs of execution and evaluation The ‘gulfs’ explicate the gaps that exist between the user and the interface The gulf of execution ▪ The distance from the user to the physical system ▪ The gulf of evaluation ▪ The distance from the physical system to the user Bridging the gulfs can reduce cognitive effort required to perform tasks Can reveal whether interface increases or decreases cognitive load and whether it is obvious what to do next (Norman, 1986; Hutchins et al, 1986) Bridging the Gulf 49 Information processing Conceptualizes human performance in metaphorical terms of information processing stages Limitations Based on modeling mental activities that happen exclusively inside the head Do not adequately account for how people interact with computers and other devices in real world Distributed cognition Concerned with the nature of cognitive phenomena across individuals, artifacts, and internal and external representations (Hutchins, 1995) Describes these in terms of propagation across representational state Information is transformed through different media (computers, displays, paper, heads) A cognitive system for ATC 50 What’s involved The distributed problem-solving that takes place The role of verbal and non-verbal behavior The various coordinating mechanisms that are used (for example, rules and procedures) The communication that takes place as the collaborative activity progresses How knowledge is shared and accessed External cognition Concerned with explaining how we interact with external representations (such as maps, notes, and diagrams) What are the cognitive benefits and what processes involved How they extend cognition What technologies can we develop to help people carry out complex tasks (for example, learning, problem solving, and decision-making)? Externalizing to reduce memory load Examples include the use of diaries, reminders, calendars, notes, shopping lists, to-do lists 51  ▪ Written to remind us of what to do Post-its, piles, marked emails are used to: ▪ Where placed indicates priority of what to do External representations: ▪ Remind us that we need to do something (for example, to buy something for mother’s day) ▪ Remind us of what to do (for instance, buy a card) ▪ Remind us when to do something (for example, send a card by a certain date) Computational offloading When a tool is used in conjunction with an external representation to carry out a computation (for instance, pen and paper) Try doing the two sums below (a) in your head, (b) on a piece of paper, and (c) with a calculator. 234 ×456 = ?? CCXXXIIII×CCCCXXXXXVI = ??? Which is easiest and why? Both are identical sums Annotation and cognitive tracing Annotation involves modifying existing representations through making marks ▪ For example, crossing off, ticking, and underlining Cognitive tracing involves externally manipulating items into different orders or structures ▪ For instance, playing Scrabble or cards Design implication Provide external representations at the interface that can reduce memory load and facilitate computational offloading ▪ For example, information visualizations have been designed to allow people to make sense and rapid decisions about masses of data Embodied Interaction The practical engagement with the social and physical environment (Dourish, 2001) Creating, manipulating and making meaning through our interaction with things How our bodies and active experiences shape how we perceive, feel, and think (Hornecker et al., 2017) They enable us to develop a sense of the world at both a concrete and abstract level Can provide new ideas about interaction and better design principles ▪ For example, we think with our bodies not through them (Kirsh, 2013) 52 Summary Cognition involves many processes including attention, memory, perception, and learning The way an interface is designed can greatly affect how well users can perceive, attend, learn, and remember how to do their tasks Theoretical frameworks, such as mental models and external cognition, provide ways of understanding how and why people interact with products This can lead to thinking about how to design better products In-depth activity Write down how you think a contactless card or smartphone app like Apple Pay works What information is sent between the card/smartphone and the card reader when it is placed in front of it? What is the maximum amount you can pay for something using a contactless card, Apple Pay or Google Pay? Why is there an upper limit? How many times can you use a contactless card or Apple/Google Pay in a day? What happens if you have two contactless cards in the same wallet/purse? What happens when your contactless card is stolen and you report it to the bank? What does the bank do? 53 Chapter 4 Social Interaction Objectives 1. Explain what is meant by social interaction; 2. Describe the social mechanisms that are used by people when communicating and collaborating; 3. Discuss how social media have changed the ways in which we keep in touch, make contact, and manage our social and working lives. 4. Explain what is meant by tele-presence; and 5. Give an overview of shareable technologies and some of the studies showing how they can facilitate collaboration and group participation. Introduction If you will be deprived for a week without internet or cell phone access, how else would you deal with that? Will you get bored, start trembling, or even go nuts? You might even feel isolated as well as constantly thinking what's going on in your online community? A lot of people can't go for a long period of time without having to check for notifications, the latest posts on their social media accounts, etc. – even on leave and rest day. To most, consistently checking and monitoring their smart devices is the first thought they're going to do when they start waking up. It's becoming an indispensable daily routine of most person's social lives. It is not really unusual because people live together, coexist, gain knowledge together, play together, and are inherently social. Being Social "Sociality" has different types and ways of learning. The focus in this chapter is to comprehend and observe how individuals socialize and communicate together in their working life, civic work and personal life. We glance at how a variety of communications technology evolves and how people's lives has changed – the way of staying in touch, of forming friendships and of managing their social life and working connections. Social life is a central part of daily life – connecting with one another, we unconsciously or consciously update other people, we either often “have to interact with” or “someone close to us”, about other's life on different aspects. For instance, families and loved ones catch up each about what's going on at work, at school, at the bar, at the club, next door, in soap operas, and other trends. Likewise, employees who work together keep one another notified about their social lives and everyday occurrences, including about what's going on at work, such as when a task is about to be accomplished, intentions for a new venture, difficulties reaching targets, reports of changes, and so on. Although face-to-face discussions remain essential to most of our social experiences, use of such social media platforms significantly skyrocketed. Many of us now regularly spend a couple of hours a day interacting online. The core concern that raises is how do we deal with the drastic rise in networking in our everyday lives? How fast the way we communicate with others, now that technology has shifted? Have the standard norms, and rules established in face-to-face interactions to maintain social order been adopted into social media platforms? 54 Face to Face conversations Speaking is a trait that most individuals often find natural and simple. But it is still the art of maintaining a conversation that is a regarded as highly qualified integrative achievement. Let us note the example given below: A: Kamusta na? B: Hi! Kmusta din C: Hi. Kamusta kayo? A: Ayos lang ba kayo? C: Ou, Ayos lang ako. Ikaw ba? How is it going with your life lately? A: I’m Fine, how about you? C: Ok naman ako. B: Good to know. So, how's life treating you? Such mutual pleasantries are generic. There could then be a conversation in which the person takes turns discussing stuff, answering questions, and making statements. After which, when one or more of the respondents want to take the discussion to a close, they do so either by offering subtle signals implicitly or explicitly. An example of a "implicit cue" is when the respondent stares at his watch, attempting to adversely signal to the other participants that he/she wants to close the conversation. The other participants may choose to acknowledge and ignore this or continue to do so. On the other hand, "explicit cue" is a straightforward reason to impose the conversation on the other participant that you want to stop. Such as simply stating, "Well, I need to go back to work now, it's already past 12 noon," or "Oh dear, I'm late." It's nice to chat with you and see you next time These interactional structures enable people to collaborate with each other in their conversations, allowing others to understand how to start or stop. Even further processes are necessary throughout the chat, allowing people to understand when to listen, when to speak, or whenever it's time for any of them to stop again to allow others to interact throughout, even further procedures are needed, allowing participants to know when to listen, when to speak, or when it is time for them to stop again to allow others to react. Sacks et al (1978) has formulated a famous work on conversation analysis that are being describe in the following: “Rule 1: the current speaker chooses the next speaker by asking a question, inviting an opinion, or making a request.” “Rule 2: another person decides to start speaking.” “Rule 3: the current speaker continues talking” The rules are assumed to be enforced in the attempt referred to above, so that Rule 1 is applied if there is an opportunity for a transition of the person speaking to occur, e.g. whenever someone reaches the conclusion of a statement. If the agreement to take the floor may not be agreed to by another listener to whom the query or demand is addressed, the second rule would apply, and someone else who takes part in the conversation can often take the moment and provide an opinion on this matter. If that doesn't, it will impose the third rule if it doesn't happen, and so the current speaker will keep talking. But unless someone decides to speak again, the norms are iteratively cycled. 55 Individuals use a variety of options to imply how lengthy they will be speaking and what topic it is to improve the follow-up norm. For example, a person speaking could perhaps say that he has three words to discuss at the beginning of his turn. A speaker also could explicitly suggest an alternative in the person talking to the listeners by saying,' Okay, that's actually what I'd like to conclude. What more do you know of that, then? More subtle clues to let anyone know that their turn in the chat is approaching its end involve reducing or increasing the tone to imply the conclusion of the debate or the use of phrases such as 'Do you know what I'm saying? 'Or, just,' All right? Rear-channeling (uhhuh, mmm), body orientation (e.g. moving away) People do not know that they're doing conversational mechanisms much of the time, so it'd be hard to explain why they can maintain a conversation flowing. Furthermore, people do not necessarily follow the rules all the time. Even if the present speaker clearly stated an effort to bring the floor for another few minutes to complete the statement, they can interrupt or chat with each other. Remote Conversations Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone back in the late 19th century, allowing the two individuals to communicate to each other at a remote location at the same time. A large number of all of the other techniques have since been developed that maintain sequential remote conversations, such as synchronous distant interactions like video calling, video chat, VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol). With this, new generations of media spaces were explored at the end of the 1980s and 1990s. The aim was to see whether it was possible for people to meet and collaborate with each other, split over time - distance, as if they were physically present. Voice, multimedia and computer systems have been integrated to enhance the society of office desk, chairs, ceilings and walls (Harrison, 2009) There are now many technologies and messaging apps used worldwide for synchronous and asynchronous communication since then, such as video calls, text messaging, and chat groups. Despite the increasing ubiquity and popularity of social media interactions (via phone, texting, chatting, and/or video conferencing), they still have to match the environment simulation and richness of face-to-face conversations. People now have adjusted the way they hold discussions to fit in with the constr