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This document covers different learning strategies that can be used for effective learning, and problem solving. It introduces the concept of metacognition, including its importance. The document explores how to teach strategies to students.

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Final Term Coverage Prepared by: Renz Wally Amualla, RPm Chapter 9 Metacognition Metacognition is consisting of knowledge and skills. Knowledge about our own information-processing capabilities and the cognitive tasks you face, and the strategies needed t...

Final Term Coverage Prepared by: Renz Wally Amualla, RPm Chapter 9 Metacognition Metacognition is consisting of knowledge and skills. Knowledge about our own information-processing capabilities and the cognitive tasks you face, and the strategies needed to cope with those tasks, as well as the skills involved in applying those strategies. Metacognition involves all three kinds of knowledge: Declarative knowledge about yourself as a learner, the factors that influence your learning and memory, and the skills, strategies, and resources needed to perform a task—knowing what to do. Procedural knowledge or knowing how to use the strategies. Self-regulatory knowledge to ensure the completion of the task—knowing the conditions, when and why, to apply the procedures and strategies. There are three essential metacognitive skills: Planning involves deciding how much time to give to a task, which strategies to use, how and where to start, which resources to gather, what order to follow, and so on. Monitoring is the real-time awareness. Evaluating involves making judgments about the processes and outcomes of thinking and learning. Individual differences in metacognition People differ in how well and how easily they use metacognitive strategies. Some differences in metacognitive abilities are the result of development. Younger children, for example, may not be aware of the purpose of a lesson—they may think the point is simply to finish. They also may not be good at gauging the difficulty of a task—they may think that reading for fun and reading a science book are the same. As children grow older, they are more able to exercise executive control over strategies. For example, they are more able to determine if they have understood instructions or if they have studied enough to remember a set of items. Metacognitive abilities begin to develop around ages 5 to 7 and improve throughout school. Researchers have identified several important principles: 1. Students must be exposed to a number of different strategies, not only general learning strategies but also very specific strategies for particular subjects. 2. Students should be taught self-regulatory (conditional) knowledge about when, where, and why to use various strategies. Although this may seem obvious, teachers often neglect this step. A strategy is more likely to be maintained and employed if students know when, where, and why to use it. 3. Students may know when and how to use a strategy, but unless they also develop the desire to employ these skills, general learning ability will not improve. 4. Students need to believe that they can learn new strategies, that the effort will pay off, and that they can “get smarter” by applying these strategies. 5. Students need background knowledge and useful schemas in the area being studied to make sense of learning materials. Different Learning Strategies: Deciding what is important - learning begins with focusing attention—deciding what is important. Summaries - Creating summaries can help students learn, but students have to be taught how to summarize Underlining and Highlighting - Underlining and note taking are probably two of the most frequent but ineffectively used strategies among college students because they highlight or underline too much. Taking Notes - You have to hold the lecture information in working memory; select, organize, and transform the important ideas and themes before the information “falls off” your working memory workbench; and write down the ideas and themes—all while you are still following the lecture Problem Solving is usually defined as formulating new answers, going beyond the simple application of previously learned rules to achieve a goal. For example, you can’t afford new brakes for the car that skidded on the way to the beach Defining Goals and Representing the Problem To represent the problem and set a goal, you have to focus attention on relevant information, understand the words of the problem, and activate the right schema to understand the whole problem. Focusing attention on what is relevant – representing the problem often requires finding the relevant information and ignoring the irrelevant details. For example, what information was relevant in solving the sock problem in Stop & Think? Did you realize that the information about the four-to-five ratio of black socks to white socks is irrelevant? As long as you have only two different colors of socks in the drawer, you will have to remove only three socks before two of them match. Understanding the words – The second task representing the problem is understanding the meaning of the words, sentences, and factual information in the problem. So, problem solving requires comprehension of the language and relations in the problem. For example, the main stumbling block in representing many word problems and problems with fractions is the students’ understanding of part–whole relations. Students have trouble figuring out what is part of what, as is evident in this dialogue between a teacher and a first-grader Understanding the whole problem – The third task in representing a problem is to assemble all the relevant information and sentences into an accurate understanding or translation of the total problem. This means that students need to form a conceptual model of the problem—they have to understand what the problem is really asking. For example, two train stations are 50 miles apart. At 2 p.m. one Saturday afternoon, two trains start toward each other, one from each station. Just as the trains pull out of the stations, a bird springs into the air in front of the first train and flies ahead to the front of the second train. When the bird reaches the second train, it turns back and flies toward the first train. The bird continues to do this until the trains meet. If both trains travel at the rate of 25 miles per hour and the bird flies at 100 miles per hour, how many miles will the bird have flown before the trains meet? Your interpretation of the problem is called a translation because you translate the problem into a schema that you understand. Translation – is the interpretation of the problem because you translate into a schema that you understand. FOUR DIFFERENT WAYS TO REPRESENT A PROBLEM 1. Translation and schema training: Direct Instruction in schemas. 2. Translation and schema training: Worked Examples 3. Worked Examples and Embodied Cognition 4. The Results of Problem Representation SEARCHING FOR POSSIBLE SOLUTION STRATEGIES Algorithms – is a step-by-step prescription for achieving a goal. Heuristics – is a general strategy that might lead to the right answer. SOME PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS Availability heuristics – When judgements are based on the availability of information in our memories. Belief perseverance – The tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Confirmation Bias – The tendency to search for an information that confirms our ideas and beliefs. EXPERTS KNOWLEDGE AND PROBLEM SOLVING 1. KNOWING WHAT IS IMPORTANT 2. MEMORY PATTERNS AND ORGANIZATION 3. PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE 4. PLANNING ANG MONITORING Critical thinking - is a kind of thinking in which you question, analyze, interpret, evaluate and make a judgement about what you read, hear, say or write. The term critical comes from the Greek word kritikos meaning “able to judge or discern”. Good critical thinking is about making reliable judgements based on reliable information. - Critical thinking example: for students, they can apply critical thinking in their science lesson to work out the best way to approach their group project. And they will make decisions such as who will complete the task, in what time frame. Critical thinking skills include: defining and clarifying the problem- In almost every problem-solving methodology the first step is defining or identifying the problem. making judgments about the consistency and adequacy of the information related to a problem and drawing conclusions- it’s like to read in between the lines. You probably already realize that in your daily life you draw conclusions on a regular basis. For instance, you go out with your friend for dinner, and four hours later, your stomach hurts and you feel nauseous, and you will probably conclude that there is a problem with the food. Argumentation - a series of statements that try to prove a point. The statement that the arguer tries to prove is called the conclusion. It's the main point the arguer is trying to prove. The statements that try to prove the conclusion are called premises. - An argument is a work of persuasion. You use it to convince them to agree with your claim or viewpoint if they have doubts or disagree. There are two styles or argumentation: disputative and deliberative Disputative argumentation - is supporting your position with evidence and understanding and then refuting your opponent’s claims and evidence. It is a competitive process where the goal is to convince an opponent to switch sides. The basic question is who is right. Deliberative argumentation - the goal is to collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives, then arrive at a constructive conclusion. The basic question is which idea is right. Transfer is doing something new, not just reproducing a previous application of the information. - Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive (not reproductive) uses of cognitive tools and motivations. - It can be positive or negative transfer. - Teaching for transfer is about making sure that what you learn isn't just for one specific situation but can be applied to all sorts of different situations throughout your life. For example, if you learned how to write well in school, you can still use those writing skills years later when you're creating an application letter or a resume for a job. More recently, researchers have distinguished between the automatic, direct use of skills such as reading or writing in everyday applications and the thoughtful transfer of knowledge and strategies to arrive at creative solutions to problems. Automatic transfer probably benefits from practice in different situations, but thoughtful transfer requires more than practice. Two-processes of Thoughtful transfer Initial learning and reusing or applying what was learned. LESSONS FOR TEACHERS: SUPPORTING TRANSFER. For basic skills, greater transfer can also be ensured by overlearning, practicing a skill past the point of mastery. For higher-level transfer, students must first learn and understand. Positive transfer is encouraged when skills are practiced under authentic conditions, similar to those that will exist when the skills are needed later. the transfer of the learning strategies STAGES OF TRANSFER FOR STRATEGIES Acquisition Phase- students should not only receive instruction about a strategy and how to use it but also rehearse the strategy and practice being aware of when and how they are using it. Retention phase- more practice with feedback helps students hone their strategy use. Transfer phase- students should be given new problems that they can solve with the same strategy, even though the problems appear different on the surface. What Is Robust Knowledge? Three important characteristics of robust knowledge: Deep- means understanding the fundamental principles or ideas behind something Connected- This is when lots of pieces of information are linked together. Coherent- your knowledge is consistent and doesn't have any conflicting or contradictory parts. Teaching for Robust Knowledge Four strategies that can be incorporated into most teaching approaches: Practice- Overlearning, or practicing even after you can do a skill or procedure, makes performance smooth, fast, and automatic—with little drain at all on working memory. Retrieval practice or testing is better than restudying for remembering information. Worked examples- Worked examples can support the development of robust knowledge by managing cognitive load so that students’ working memory is not overwhelmed. Analogies- Using analogies can support transfer as students apply what they know to recognize similar processes at work in seemingly different situations. Self-explanation- Explaining each step in a worked example, drawing a model, explaining to a peer, providing evidence, telling why, justifying an answer—these self-explanations are better than detailed explanations by the teacher in building robust knowledge. Chapter 10 Cognitive and Social Constructivism Constructivism/ Constructivist approach - View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information. Constructivism is a broad and much-debated term. Constructivism is more a philosophy about knowledge than a scientific theory of learning. Constructivist perspectives do agree on two central ideas: Central Idea 1: Learners are active in constructing their own understanding—they create knowledge by going beyond the information they are given (Chi & Wylie, 2014). Central Idea 2: Social interactions are important in this knowledge-construction process. (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011; Schunk, 2016) Cognitive constructivists - focus on how individuals use information, resources, and even help from others to build understanding Social constructivists - view learning as increasing our abilities to participate with others in activities that are meaningful in the culture. Cognitive Constructivism - states knowledge is something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development. Radical constructivism - Knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong. Social Constructivism - learning means belonging to a group and participating with that group in the social construction of knowledge (Central Idea 2) (Dohn, 2016; Mason, 2007) - Vygotsky emphasized the second idea, that social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning. Appropriating - being able to reason, act, and participate using cultural tools—for example, using conceptual tools such as “force” and “acceleration” to reason in physics (Mason, 2007). How Is Knowledge Constructed? Situated Learning - The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings. - Situated learning is often described as “enculturation,” or forming an identity within a particular community by adopting its norms, behaviors, skills, beliefs, language, and attitudes. Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered Five conditions for learning: 1. Embed learning in complex, realistic, and relevant learning environments. 2. Provide for social negotiation and shared responsibility as a part of learning. 3. Support multiple perspectives, and use multiple representations of content. 4. Nurture self-awareness and an understanding that knowledge is constructed. 5. Encourage ownership in learning. (Driscoll, 2005; H. H. Marshall, 1992) COMPLEX LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AND AUTHENTIC TASKS. Complex Learning Environments - Problems and learning situations that mimic the ill-structured nature of real life. Social Negotiation - Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives. Intersubjective attitude - A commitment to build shared meaning with others by finding common ground and exchanging interpretations. Multiple representations of content - Considering problems using various analogies, examples, and metaphors. Spiral curriculum - Bruner’s design for teaching introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time. Understanding the Knowledge Construction Process - Constructivist approaches emphasize making students aware of their own role in constructing knowledge. Students Ownership Learning - Student ownership does not mean that the teacher abandons responsibility for instruction. ASSUMPTIONS TO GUIDE THE DESIGN OF LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS (Sawyer, 2006) Experts have deep conceptual knowledge. Learning comes from the learner. Schools must create effective learning environments. Prior knowledge and beliefs are key. Reflection is necessary to develop deep conceptual knowledge. FACILITATING IN A CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM Elicit students’ ideas and experiences in relation to key topics then fashion learning situations that help students elaborate on or restructure their current knowledge. Provide students with a variety of information resources as well as the tools (technological and conceptual) necessary to mediate learning. Make their own thinking processes explicit to learners and encourage students to do the same through dialogue, writing, drawings or other representations. Encourage students’ reflective and autonomous thinking in conjunction with the conditions listed above. Employ a variety of assessment strategies to understand how students’ ideas are evolving and then give feedback on the processes as well as the products of their thinking. Scaffolding - a powerful conception of teaching and learning in which teachers and students create meaningful connections between teachers’ cultural knowledge and the everyday experience and knowledge of the student (McCaslin & Hickey, 2001, p. 137). Motivational scaffolding - includes recruiting the students’ interests and enthusiasm to engage with the learning activity, maintaining the students’ attention and redirecting when the students stray off task, and helping students control their emotions if learning gets frustrating. scaffolding: 1. Contingency Support - The teacher is constantly adjusting, differentiating and tailoring responses to the students. 2. Fading - The teacher gradually withdraws support as the students’ understanding and skills deepen. 3. Transferring Responsibility - Students assume more and more responsibility for their own learning. Advance Organizers As Scaffolding - This is the provision of introductory material broad enough to encompass all the information that will follow. The organizers can serve three purposes: *They direct your attention to what is important in the upcoming material. *They highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented. *They remind you of relevant information you already have. Advance Organizer: 1. Comparative Organizers - activate already existing schemas. 2. Expository Organizers - provide new knowledge that students will need in order to understand the upcoming information. Two conditions that are needed to be met: 1. To be effective, the students must understand the organizer. 2. The organizer must really be an organizer. Facilitating Through Asking And Answering Deep Questions - Studies with students from fourth grade through college in subjects as diverse as science, mathematics, history and literature show that teachers can facilitate learning by training students to ask and answer deep questions when they read, listen to a lecture, or participate in class discussions. INQUIRY AND PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING The teacher presents a puzzling event, question, or problem. Elements: formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem, collect data to test the hypotheses, draw conclusions, and reflect on the original problem and the thinking processes needed to solve it. Erin Furtak and her colleagues (2012) categorized the actual activities and processes in inquiry as being procedural (hands-on, posing scientific questions, doing science procedures, collecting data, graphing or charting data), epistemic (drawing conclusions based on evidence, generating and revising theories), conceptual (connecting to students’ prior knowledge, eliciting students’ mental models and ideas), or social (participating in class discussions, arguing and debating ideas, giving presentations, working collaboratively). Examples Of Inquiry - Shirley Magnusson and Annemarie Palincsar developed a teachers’ guide for planning, implementing and assessing different phases of inquiry science units called guided inquiry supporting multiple literacies. 1. The teacher first identifies a curriculum area and some general guiding questions, puzzles or problems. 2. To engage students in the inquiry. 3. The students conduct both first-hand and second-hand investigations. Problem-Based Learning - students develop knowledge that is useful and flexible, not inert. Problem-Based Learning - students work in groups to confront a real-world, ill-structured problem that has no single correct solution. (1) initial problem discussion, the students identify and analyze the problem based on the facts from the scenario then determine what they already know. (2) individual research on the learning issues and (3) finally reflect on the knowledge and skills they have gained. True Problem-Based Learning - the problem is real and the students' actions matter. 1. The cycle begins with an intriguing challenge to the whole class. 2. Next, students generate ideas to compile what they currently know and believe and what they need to know. 3. Students research the topic individually. Multiple perspectives are added to the process in the form of outside experts. 4. Students go deeper to research and revise. 5. Students test their mettle by getting feedback from other students or the teacher about their tentative conclusions. 6. Students come back to their groups, discuss conclusions, and go public with their final conclusions and solutions. Being Smart About Problem- Based Learning Eva Toth, David Klahr and Zhe Chen (2000) tested a balanced approach for teaching fourth graders how to use the controlled variable strategy in science to design good experiments. The method had three phases: (1) In small groups, students conducted exploratory experiments to identify variables that made a ball roll farther down a ramp; (2) the teacher led a discussion, explained the controlled variable strategy and modeled good thinking about experiment design; and (3) the students designed and conducted application experiments to isolate which variables caused the ball to roll farther. Clearly, scaffolding supports are key factors in successful inquiry and problem-based learning. As Rich Mayer (2004) has observed, students need enough freedom and exploration to get mentally active and engaged, combined with the right amount of guidance to make the mental activity productive. The bottom line is that problem-based learning can be effective for helping students learn to solve ill-structured problems if appropriate scaffolding and teacher facilitation are available. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIPS AND RECIPROCAL TEACHING By working alongside a master and perhaps other apprentices, young people have learned many skills, trades and crafts. With guided participation in real tasks comes participatory appropriation—students appropriate the knowledge, skills and values involved in doing the tasks. Six features of Cognitive Apprenticeships: Students observe an expert model the performance. Students get external support through coaching or tutoring. Students receive conceptual scaffolding. Students continually articulate their knowledge. Students reflect on their progress. Students are required to explore new ways to apply what they are learning. Cognitive Apprenticeships In Reading: Reciprocal Teaching The goal of reciprocal teaching is to help students understand and think deeply about what they read. Strategies: (1) summarizing the content of a passage, (2) asking a question about the central point, (3) clarifying the difficult parts of the material, (4) and predicting what will come next. Applying Reciprocal Teaching Palincsar has identified three guidelines for effective reciprocal teaching: 1. Shift gradually. 2. Match demands to abilities. 3. Diagnose thinking. Collaboration, Group work, and Cooperative learning COLLABORATION AND COOPERATION ·They both focus heavily on the importance of teamwork. Other educators claim that collaboration is a means for learning academic material so we could say the two goals are learning to collaborate and collaborating to learn. It is even argued that cooperative learning experiences are crucial in preventing many of the social problems that plague children and adolescents. However, there is a major difference between the two terms. Collaboration, Group work, and Cooperative learning -The terms collaboration, group work, and cooperative learning often are used as if they mean the same thing. Collaboration -is a philosophy about how to relate to others, how to learn and work. -is a way of dealing with people that respects differences, shares authority, and builds on the knowledge that is distributed among other people. Cooperation -is a way of working with others to attain a shared goal. Collaborative learning has roots in the work of British teachers who wanted their students to respond to literature in more active ways as they learned. Cooperative learning has American roots in the work of psychologists John Dewey and Kurt Lewin. You could say that cooperative learning is one way to collaborate in schools. Group work -On the other hand, simply several students working together may or may not be cooperating. Many activities can be completed in groups. Beyond Groups to Cooperation. David and Roger Johnson, two of the founders of cooperative learning in the United States, define formal cooperative learning as “students working together, for one class period to several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks and assignments”. The Johnson brothers describe five elements that define true cooperative learning groups: Group members experience positive interdependence. The members believe they can attain their goals only if the others in the group attain their goals as well, so they need each other for support, explanations, and guidance. Promotive interaction means that group members encourage and facilitate each other’s efforts. They usually interact face- to-face and close together, not across the room, but they also could interact via digital media around the world. Even though they feel a responsibility to the group to work together and help each other, students must ultimately demonstrate learning on their own; they are held individually accountable for learning, often through individual tests or other assessments. Collaborative and social skills are necessary for effective group functioning. These skills include paying attention and listening even if you don’t agree, disagreeing and sharing your ideas respectfully, taking turns, doing your fair share, working with partners even if they are not your choice, asking for/providing help, giving constructive feedback, reaching consensus, involving every member, encouraging, and praising, con- trolling emotions and frustrations, cheering up partners, and admitting mistakes, among other skills. Finally, members monitor group processes and relationships to make sure the group is working effectively and to learn about the dynamics of groups. They take time to ask, “How are we doing as a group? Is everyone working together? What should we do more or less next time? As group members question and explain, they have to organize their knowledge, make connections, and review all processes that support information processing and memory. What can go wrong: Misuses of group learning. Students often value the process or procedures over the learning. Speed and finishing early take precedence over thoughtfulness and learning. Socializing and interpersonal relationships may take precedence over learning. Students may simply shift dependency from the teacher to the “expert” in the group; learning is still passive, and what is learned can be wrong. Status differences may be increased rather than decreased. Some students learn to “loaf” because the group progresses with or without their contributions. Others become even more convinced that they are unable to understand without the support of the group. Tasks for Cooperative Learning Highly structured, Review, and Skill Building Task- A relatively structured task such as reviewing previously learned material for an exam might be well served by a structured technique such as student teams achievement divisions (STAD), in which teams of four students compete to determine which team’s members can amass the greatest improvement over previous achievement levels. Praise, recognition, or extrinsic rewards can enhance motivation, effort, and persistence under these conditions, and thus increase learning. Focusing the dialogue by assigning narrow roles also may help students stay engaged when the tasks involve practice or review. Ill-structured, Conceptual, and Problem Solving Task- If the task is ill structured and more cognitive in nature, then an open exchange and elaborated discussion will be more helpful. Thus, strategies that encourage extended and productive interactions are appropriate when the goal is to develop higher order thinking and problem solving. In these situations, a tightly structured process, competition among groups for rewards, and rigid assignment of roles are likely to inhibit the richness of the students’ interactions and to interfere with progress toward the goal. Open-ended techniques such as reciprocal questioning, reciprocal teaching, or Jigsaw should be more productive because, when used appropriately, they encourage more extensive interaction and elaborative thought in situations where students are being exposed to complex materials. Social Skills and Communication Task- When the goal of peer learning is enhanced social skills or increased intergroup understanding and appreciation of diversity, the assignment of specific roles and functions within the group might sup- port communication. In these situations, it can be helpful to rotate leadership roles so that minority group students and females could demonstrate and develop leadership skills; in addition, all group members can experience the leadership capabilities of everyone. Rewards probably are not necessary, and they may get in the way because the goal is to build community, a sense of respect, and responsibility for all team members. Setting Up Cooperative Groups Assigning roles- Some teachers assign roles to students to encourage cooperation and full participation. If you use roles, be sure that they support learning. In groups that focus on social skills, roles should support listening, encouragement, and respect for differences. In groups that focus on practice, review, or mastery of basic skills, roles should support persistence, encouragement, and participation. In groups that focus on higher-order problem solving or complex learning, if you assign roles, they should encourage thoughtful discussion, sharing of explanations and insights, probing, brainstorming, and creativity. Giving and receiving explanations- In practice, the effects of learning in a group vary, depending on what happens in the group and who is in it. If only a few people take responsibility for the work, these people will learn, but the nonparticipating members probably will not. Students who ask questions, get answers, and attempt explanations are more likely to learn than students whose questions go unasked or unanswered. Giving good explanations appears to be even more important for learning than receiving explanations. In order to explain, you have to organize the information, put it into your own words, think of examples and analogies (which connect the information to things you already know), and test your understanding by answering questions. Designs for Cooperation Reciprocal questioning- Reciprocal questioning requires no special materials or testing procedures and can be used with a wide range of ages. After a lesson or presentation by the teacher, students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about the material. The teacher provides question stems, and then students are taught how to develop specific questions about the lesson material using the generic question stems. The students create questions and then take turns asking and answering. This process has proved more effective than traditional discussion groups because it seems to encourage deeper thinking about the material as well as forming connections between the lesson and previous knowledge or experience. Jigsaw- In Jigsaw, each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “experts” on their piece. Because students have to learn and be tested on every piece of the larger “puzzle,” everyone’s contribution is important and the students truly are interdependent. A more recent version, Jigsaw II, adds expert groups in which the students who are responsible for the same material from each learning group confer to make sure they understand their assigned part and then plan ways to teach the information to their learning group members. Next, students return to their learning groups, bringing their expertise to the sessions. In the end, students take an individual test covering all the material and earn points for their learning team score. Teams can work for rewards or simply for recognition. Constructive/structured controversies- Constructive conflict resolution is essential in classrooms because conflicts are inevitable and even necessary for learning. Piaget’s theory tells us that developing knowledge requires disequilibrium cognitive conflict. Sidney D’Mello and his colleagues suggest that confusion can stimulate complex learning if students engage to resolve the conflict. One study of tenth graders found that students who were wrong, but for different reasons, were sometimes able to correct their misunderstandings if they argued together about their conflicting wrong answers. Individuals trying to exist in groups will have interpersonal conflicts, too, which also can lead to learning. In fact, research over the last 40 years demonstrates that constructive/structured controversy in classrooms can lead to greater learning, open-mindedness, seeing the perspectives of others, creativity, motivation, engagement, and self-esteem. Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice Designing Learning Environments in a Digital World Stop and Think: How many digital devices are you using right now? - According to Graesser (2013), students are at least as expert at using technology as their teachers and most of this expertise was acquired outside of school. Technology and Learning Computers are more likely to increase achievement if they support the basic processes that lead to learning: - active engagement; - frequent interaction with feedback; - authenticity and real-word connection; and - productive group work Three kinds of uses for technology in schools: - designing technology-based activities for classrooms (for teachers) (e.g., virtual learning environments, or for blended models using both in-class and virtual) - student interaction with technologies (e.g., cloud computing) - tracking teaching, class, and student information in school, district, or statewide systems (for admin) Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) - a broad term that describes many ways if learning in virtual systems. the most traditional VLE is referred to as learning management systems (LMS) which deliver e-learning using applications like Moodle, Blackboard, RCampus, and D2L. (e.g. Betty’s Brain) Personal Learning Environments (PLE) a framework that provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations personal learning network (PLN) is a framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. - consist both synchronous (real-time) and asynchronous technologies Immersive Virtual Learning Environments (IVLE) - the most complex VLE - is a simulation of real-world environment that immerses students in tasks like those required in a professional practicum Games (What about educational games?) - Many researchers suggest games provide a natural, engaging form of learning and that “combining games with educational objectives could not only trigger students’ learning motivation, but also provide them with interactive learning opportunities” (Sung & Hwang, 2013, p. 44) Computational Thinking and Coding Computational Thinking: defined as “knowing how to use data, models, simulations, and algorithmic thinking to formulate and solve problems” (Malby et al., 2017, p. 160), in other words, thinking like a computer scientist. Media/Digital Literacy - Today, to be literate—to be able to read, write, and communicate—children have to read and write in many media, not just printed words. Films, videos, DVDs, computers, photographs, artwork, magazines, music, TV, billboards, and more communicate through images and sounds. The Flipped Classroom - Salman Khan’s TED talk about reinventing education - In a flipped classroom what usually happens in class—lessons, lectures, note taking, worksheets, direct teaching—is moved outside class, and what usually happens at home—homework, projects, practice—happens in class under the teacher’s supervision and support. Chapter 12 MOTIVATION IN LEARNING AND TEACHING MOTIVATION -The term motivation describes why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. TWO KINDS OF MOTIVATIONS INTRINSIC MOTIVATION- is the natural human tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise our capabilities. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION- when we do something to earn a grade, avoid punishment, please the teacher, or for some other reason that has very little to do with the task itself, we experience extrinsic motivation. NEEDS AND SELF DETERMINATION -Three of the main needs studied extensively in this earlier work were the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Maslow (1968) called the four lower-level needs—for survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem—deficiency needs. When these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He labeled the three higher-level needs— cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and finally self-actualization—being needs. SELF-DETERMINATION: NEED FOR COMPETENCE, AUTONOMY, AND RELATEDNESS Self-determination theory suggests that we all need to feel competent and capable, to have a sense of autonomy and control over our lives, and to be connected to others In relationships. SELF-DETERMINATION IN THE CLASSROOM Student self-determination is influenced by several factors. For instance, research in both U.S. and Korean schools demonstrated that students’ motivational profiles for learning were influenced by both classroom goal structure (teachers’ messages about autonomy and demonstrating competence) and the level of autonomy support offered by parents. INFORMATION AND CONTROL. Explains how students’ experiences such as being praised or criticized, reminded of deadlines, assigned grades, given choices, or lectured about rules can influence. Their intrinsic motivation by affecting their sense of self-determination and competence. THE NEED FOR RELATEDNESS. -Students who feel a sense of connection and relatedness to teachers, parents, and peers are more emotionally engaged in school and more intrinsically motivated. GOALS AND GOAL ORIENTATIONS Goals motivate people to act in order to reduce the discrepancy between “where they are” and “where they want to Be.” TYPES OF GOALS AND GOAL ORIENTATIONS SPECIFIC, ELABORATED GOALS provide clear standards for judging performance. If performance falls short, we keep going. MODERATE DIFFICULTY provides a challenge, but not an unreasonable one. Finally, goals that can be reached fairly soon are not likely to be pushed aside by more immediate concerns. FOUR ACHIEVEMENT GOAL ORIENTATIONS IN SCHOOL. 1. MASTERY GOAL- A personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers. 2. PERFORMANCE GOAL- A personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others. 3. WORK-AVOIDANT LEARNERS-Students who don’t want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work. 4. SOCIAL GOALS- A wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group. FEEDBACK, GOAL FRAMING, AND GOAL ACCEPTANCE In addition to having specific goals and creating supportive social relationships, three factors make goal setting in the classroom effective. FEEDBACK- To be motivated by a discrepancy between “where you are” and “where you want to be,” you must have an accurate sense of both your current status and how far you have to go. GOAL FRAMING- When activities are linked to students’ intrinsic goals of becoming more competent, self directed, and connected with others, then the students process information more deeply and persist longer to gain a conceptual (not superficial) understanding. GOAL ACCEPTANCE- Commitment matters: The relationship between higher goals and better performance is strongest when people are committed to the goals (Locke & Latham, 2002). If students reject goals set by others or refuse to set their own goals, then their motivation will suffer. EXPECTANCY-VALUE-COST EXPLANATIONS Expectancy x value theories Explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals’ expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal. Cost Values have to be considered in relation to the cost of pursuing them. Value An individual’s belief about the extent to which a task or assignment is generally useful, enjoyable, or otherwise important. Task value as having five possibilities: 1. Importance- significance of doing well on the task. 2. Interest- enjoyment we get from the activity itself. 3. Utility- The contribution of a task to meeting one’s goals. 4. Pleasing others- task might be valuable because the activity is a way of pleasing others—friends, family, teachers, coaches, and so on. 5. Cost- negative consequences that might follow from doing the task such as not having time to do other things or looking awkward as you perform the task. ATTRIBUTIONS AND BELIEFS ABOUT KNOWLEDGE, ABILITY, AND SELF-WORTH Attribution theories - Descriptions of how individuals’ explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior. Successes or failures can be characterized in terms of three dimensions: 1.)Locus - Location of the cause—internal or external to the person. 2.)Stability - The cause of the event is the same across time and in different situations. 3.)Controllability - The person can control the cause. Attribution in the Classroom Self-efficacy -A person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation. Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions -When a teacher attributes student failure to forces beyond the student’s control, the teacher tends to respond with sympathy and avoid giving punishments. Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs Epistemological beliefs - Beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned. Mindsets and Beliefs About Ability Fixed mindset -A personally held belief that abilities are stable, uncontrollable, set traits. Growth mindset -A personally held belief that abilities are unstable, controllable, and improvable. Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers -If students believe they lack the ability to understand higher mathematics, they will probably act on this belief even if their actual abilities are well above average Belief About Self Worth Learned Helplessness- the expectation based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all of one’s efforts will lea to failure. Self handicapping – students may engage in behavior that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability. Failure accepting students- students who believed their failures are due to low ability and there is a little they can do about it. Appears to cause three types of deficits: 1.MOTIVATIONAL - Students who feel hopeless, like Hopeless Geraldo described earlier, expect to fail—why should they even try? So motivation suffers. 2.COGNITIVE - these students miss opportunities to practice and improve skills and abilities, so they develop cognitive deficits. 3.AFFECTIVE - they often suffer from affective problems such as depression, anxiety, and listlessness. Three kinds of motivational sets: 1. Mastery oriented -Students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable. 2. Failure avoiding -Students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance. 3. Failure accepting -Students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it. Self-Worth: Lesson for teachers -If students believe that failing means they are stupid, they are likely to adopt many self-handicapping, self-defeating strategies. And teachers who stress performance, grades, and competition encourage self-handicapping without realizing they are doing so. TWO KINDS OF INTEREST: Individual Interest - are more long- lasting aspects of the person. Situational Interest - are more short-lived aspects of activity. Flow - a mental state in which you are fully immersed in a task with deep concentration and focused attention. Two components of anxiety: Cognitive component - includes worry and negative thoughts. Affective Component - involves physiological and emotional reactions such as sweaty palms, upset stomach, racing heartbeat and fear. HOW DOES ANXIETY INTERFERE WITH ACHIEVEMENT? Preparation phase - learners with anxiety tend to have difficulty focusing attention on the relevant material, employing quality study tactics, and maintaining a positive self-worth orientation toward the learning event. Performance phase - anxiety blocks retrieval of what was (often poorly) learned. Reflection phase - learners with anxiety build attributions for failure that further impede their future performance by developing beliefs that they are simply incapable of succeeding at the task, determining that they have no control over the situation, and setting ineffective goals for future situations. MOTIVATION TO LEARN IN SCHOOL: ON TARGET THREE MAJOR GOALS 1. Immediate Goal -get students productively engaged with the work of the class. -catch their interest and create a state of motivation to learn. 2. Longer-term Goal - develop in our students enduring individual interests and the trait of being motivated to learn so they will be able to educate themselves for the rest of their lives. 3. Cognitively Engaged - to think deeply about what they study, not just finish it TARGET MODEL - six areas where teachers make decisions that can influence student motivation to learn. TARGET MODEL T – Task that students are asked to do A – Autonomy or authority students are allowed in working R – Recognition for accomplishments G – Grouping practices E – Evaluation procedures T – Time in the classroom Authentic Tasks - relates to students’ lives and requires them to use the tools of the discipline they are studying (say biology or history) to solve a problem. - Solving the authentic problem immerses the students in the culture of the discipline. Problem-based Learning - one way to use authentic tasks in teaching. Supporting Choices - Choices should provide a range of selections that allow students to follow their interests and pick an option that is important and relevant to them. Bounded Choice - giving students a range of options that set valuable tasks for them but also allow them to follow personal interests Cognitive Autonomy Support - the most important kind of autonomy support teachers can provide - giving students opportunities to discuss different cognitive strategies for learning, approaches to solving problems, or positions on an issue Recognizing Accomplishment - students should be recognized for improving on their own personal best, for tackling difficult tasks, for persistence, and for creativity Grouping and Goal Structures - Motivation can be greatly influenced by the ways we relate to the other people who are also involved in accomplishing a particular goal. Goal structures Cooperative - believe their goal is attainable only if other students will also reach the goal. Competitive - believe they will reach their goal if and only if other students do not reach the goal. Individualistic - believe that their own attempt to reach a goal is not related to other students’ attempts to reach the goal. Evaluation - The greater the emphasis on competitive evaluation and grading, the more students will focus on performance goals rather than mastery. Time - Experienced teachers know that there is too much work and not enough time in the school day. - Even if they become engrossed in a project, students must stop and turn their attention to another class when the bell rings or when the teacher’s schedule indicates it’s time to move on to a new subject. Block Scheduling - teachers work in teams to plan larger blocks of class time. HOW MOTIVATIONAL ELEMENTS COME TOGETHER IN REAL CLASSROOMS Low – Engagement Classes - restless and chatty as they faced their easy, undemanding seatwork. The class atmosphere was generally negative. Moderately Engaged Classes – organized to be student friendly with reading areas, group work areas, posters, and student artwork. Management routines were smooth and organized, and the class atmosphere was positive, but had trouble holding attention because tasks were too easy. HOW MOTIVATIONAL ELEMENTS COME TOGETHER IN REAL CLASSROOMS Highly Engaging Classes - had all the positive qualities of student-friendly classrooms. - added more challenging tasks along with the support the students needed to succeed. FOUR BASIC CONDITIONS FOR EVERY STUDENT IN EVERY CLASSROOM 1. The classroom must be relatively organized and free from constant interruptions and disruptions. 2. The teacher must be a patient,supportive person who never embarrasses the students because they made mistakes. 3. The work must be challenging, but reasonable. If work is too easy or too difficult, students will have little motivation to learn. They will focus on finishing, not on learning. 4. The learning tasks must be authentic. BUILDING CONFIDENCE AND POSITIVE EXPECTATIONS 1. Begin work at the students’ level, and move in small steps 2. Make sure learning goals are clear, specific, and possible to reach in the near future. 3. Stress self-comparison, not comparison with others. 4.. Communicate to students that academic ability is improvable and specific to the task at hand. 5. Model good problem solving, especially when you have to try several approaches Attainment and Intrinsic Value - To establish attainment value, we must connect the learning task with the needs of the students. It must be possible for students to meet their needs for safety, belonging, and achievement in our classes. STRATEGIES FOR ENCOURAGING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION: 1. Tie class activities to student interests 2. Arouse curiosity 3. Make the learning task fun 4. Make use of novelty and familiarity HOW TO SUCCEED IN MAKING STUDENTS STAY FOCUSED ON A TASK 1. Give students frequent opportunities to respond 2. Have students create a finished product. 3. Avoid heavy emphasis on grades and competition. 4. Reduce the task risk without oversimplifying it. Chapter 13 Classroom Management These are Techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free from behavior problems. Why classrooms are challenging? 1. Classrooms are multidimensional. 2. events occur simultaneously. 3. events are unpredictable. 4. classrooms are public. 5. classrooms have histories. The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation  Gaining student cooperation means planning activities, having materials ready, making appropriate behavioral and academic demands on students, giving clear signals, accomplishing transitions smoothly, foreseeing problems and stopping them before they start, selecting and sequencing activities so that flow and interest are sustained, maintaining positive relationships with students based on mutual respect—and much more. The Goals of Classroom Management The aim of classroom management is to maintain a positive, productive learning environment. 1. Access to learning  Participation Structures – the formal and informal rules for how to take part in a given activity. 2. More time for learning  Engaged time or Time on task – time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand.  Academic learning time – time when students are actually learning. 3. Management means relationship 4. Self-Management - managing your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions Routines and Rules Required Routines and Procedures - Prescribes steps for an activity Carol Weinstein and her colleagues (Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015; Weinstein & Romano, 2015) suggest that teachers establish routines to cover the following areas: 1. Administrative routines, such as taking attendance 2. Student movement, such as entering and leaving or going to the bathroom 3. Housekeeping, such as watering plants or storing personal items 4. Lesson-running routines, such as how to collect assignments or return homework 5. Interactions between teacher and student, such as how to get the teacher’s attention when help is needed 6. Talk among students, such as giving help or socializing Rules - Statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors; dos and don’ts. Consequences Natural/logical consequences - Instead of punishing, have students redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions Planning Spaces for Learning personal territory is your own (usually assigned) seat. Question: Can the physical setting influence teaching and learning in classroom organized by territories? Personal territories and seating arrangement -A personal territory is your own (usually assigned) seat. Can the physical setting influence teaching and learning in classrooms organized by territories? Interest areas The design of interest areas can influence the way the areas are used by students. Creating an Encouraging Environment 1. Increase in Teacher Supervision 2. Task that provides continuous cues about what to do next 3. Complete task materials 4. Authentic task 5. Challenging task Guidelines in Keeping Students Engaged 1. Make basic work requirements clear 2. Communicate the specifics of assignment 3. Monitor work in progress 4. Give frequent academic feedback Strategies in Preventing Ineffective Classroom Management 1. Withitness – communicating to students that you are aware of everything that is happening in the classroom. 2. Overlapping and Group Focus- overlapping means supervising several activities at once, group focus is the ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities. 3. Movement Management – keeping lessons and the group at an appropriate and flexible pace with smooth transitions and variety. Caring Relationships: Connections with School 1. Teacher Connections – Students respect teacher who maintain their authority, honest, caring, and fair. 2. School Connections – Students who feel connected with school are happier, more engaged in school work, and less-likely to participate in dangerous behaviors. Bullying 1. Physical Bullying – any unwanted physical contact in which one participant exerts power or force over another. 2. Verbal Bullying- any comment considered offensive and threatening to the victim. 3. Social Relational Bullying – intentional manipulation of people’s social lives, friendships, and interaction. 4. Cyber Bullying – using an electronic platform to bully. 5. Identity Bullying – leaving people out or treating them harshly because of their disability, ethnicity, or background. 6. Sexual Bullying – treating individual badly because of their sex. The Need for Communication Communication between teacher and students is essential when problems arise. Com-munication is more than “teacher talks—student listens.” It is more than the words exchanged between individuals. We communicate in many ways. Our actions, move-ments, voice tone, facial expressions, and many other nonverbal behaviors send mes-sages to our students. Many times, the messages we intend to send are not the messages our students receive (Jones & Jones, 2016). Paraphrase rule - policy whereby listeners must accurately summarize what a speaker has said before being allowed to respond. Empathetic listening - hearing the intent and emotions behind what another says and reflecting them back by paraphrasing. Empathetic, active listening is more than a parroting of the student’s words; it should capture the emotions, intent, and meaning behind them. Sokolove, Garrett, Sadker, and Sadker have summarized the components of active listening: (1) blocking out external stimuli; (2) attending carefully to both the verbal and nonverbal messages; (3) differentiating between the intellectual and the emotional content of the message; and (4) making inferences regarding the speaker’s feelings. Restorative Justice - Restorative justice focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships while giving a voice to victims, offenders, and the community. - a problem behavior is harmful not because it “breaks a rule,” but rather because the negative action adversely affects members of the classroom and school community. Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management Culturally responsive management - taking cultural meanings and styles into account when developing management plans and responding to students. 5 dimensions: (1) understanding and addressing your own beliefs, biases, values, and stereotypes that are grounded in your own ethnic culture; (2) developing a knowledge of your students’ cultural backgrounds; (3) understanding the broader social, economic, and political context of classroom teaching—schools often reflect and reinforce the discriminatory practices of the larger society; (4) an ability and willingness to use culturally appropriate management strategies; and (5) a commitment to building caring classrooms (Sikba et al, 2016). Culturally responsive management is simply a part of the larger concept of culturally relevant teaching. Warm demanders - teachers who are especially effective with African American students; they show both high expectations and great caring for their students.

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