India State Of Forest Report 2023 Volume 1 PDF

INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT 2023 VOLUME I FOREST SURVEY OF INDIA Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change Photo: Subharanjan Sen, IFS INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT 2023 Volume I Forest Survey of India...

INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT 2023 VOLUME I FOREST SURVEY OF INDIA Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change Photo: Subharanjan Sen, IFS INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT 2023 Volume I Forest Survey of India Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change Government of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) ISBN 978-81-950073-9-4 © Forest Survey of India Published by Forest Survey of India (Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change) Kaulagarh Road, P.O. IPE Dehradun – 248195, Uttarakhand. India Phone : (91) 0135-2756139 2754507 2755037 Fax: (91) 0135-2759104 2754507 2755037 Website: www.fsi.nic.in Edition 18, 2023 Printed at Dehradun, India 2024 The contents of the bulletin may be used for non- commercial purposes with due acknowledgment All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Application for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of reproduction, should be addressed to the Director General, Forest survey of India, P.O.-IPE, Dehradun, India. Maps are based on the Survey of India maps with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured form the appropriate baseline. Design & Layout: Asian Paper Products [email protected] Front Cover Photo: Subharanjan Sen, IFS iii Forest Survey of India Photo: Subharanjan Sen, IFS  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) FOREWORD HkwisUæ ;kno Bhupender Yadav i;kZoj.k] ou ,oa tyok;q ifjorZu ea=h Minister for Environment, Forest and Climate Change Hkkjr ljdkj Government of India India is one of the few countries in the world that regularly carries out assessment of its forest and tree resources, situated inside and outside the forested area. The result of this assessment is published as “India State of Forest Report (ISFR)”. Forest Survey of India (FSI) has been carrying out countrywide monitoring and assessment of forest resources, biennially, since 1987. Over time, FSI has devised, developed and implemented novel technologies to improve precision and accuracy in assessment. I am delighted to release the “India State of Forest Report 2023”, based on 18th cycle of biennial assessment of forest and tree resources in the country. In order to assess the precise impact of execution of government policies for protecition, conservation and augmentation of forest resources, a regular assessment and monitoring of country’s forest resources is required. ISFR plays an important role in reporting the progress made by the county towards meeting the goals and commitments at the national and international level. In these times of Amrit kaal, we all are committed to make India a developed nation by 2047, In the Nationally Determined Contriution (NDC) commitments made at the Paris Climate Change Agreement, India has resolved to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tones of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030. We have also pledged to bring in 26 million hectares of degraded land under restoration by 2030, as part of Bonn Challenge. The present report reveals an increasing trend in forest and tree cover and in sequestered carbon, which is in line with our commitment to meet the NDC goals. It gives me a profound sense of pride to look at our progress. Despite innumerable pressures on our forests, we have been able to protect and enhance them over the years. I congratulate Director General, FSI and his team for bringing out ISFR 2023. I am sure that the information given in the report will be highly useful for the planners, policy makers and other stakeholders alike. (Bhupender Yadav) v Forest Survey of India  FOREWORD dhfrZ o/kZu flag Kirti Vardhan Singh i;kZoj.k] ou ,oa tyok;q ifjorZu jkT; ea=h Minister of State for Environment, Forest and Climate Change Hkkjr ljdkj Government of India India’s forests support the livelihoods of about 17% of the global human population and 18% of the world’s total livestock. Since ancient times, India has been managing its forest in a sustatinable manner with people’s participation. Due to meticulous planing and pro-active Goverment policies, the country has managed to manitain an upward trend in extent of forest cover. As per Global Forest Resource Assessment (GFRA, 2020) published by FAO, India is ranked amongst the top 10 countries of the world, in terms of forest area and holds 3rd postion for highest annual net gain in forest cover between 2010-2020. Accordingly, India’s forests act as a net sink of corbon. This shows the commitment of our country towards climate change mitigation and adaptaion. At national level, Forest Survey of India under the Ministry of Enviornment, Forest and Climate Change, is doing a commendable job since last six decades and generating valuable information on status of forest resources of the country. Periodic assessments of the country’s forest resources help in analysing the effectiveness of forest policies and provide valuable information on the status of forest cover, growing stock, carbon stock, agroforestry and many other important characteristics of our forests. The data given in the ISFR is crucial for reporting the greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory of forest land to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and at other international fora. I congratulate the Director General, Forest Survey of India, and his team for the hard work in bringing out the ISFR 2023. I am confident that FSI will continue to work with same energy for scientific management of forests in the country. (Kirti Vardhan Singh) vi Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) yhuk uanu MESSAGE Leena Nandan, lfpo Secretary i;kZoj.k] ou ,oa tyok;q ifjorZu ea=ky; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Hkkjr ljdkj Government of India I am happy to note that the Forest Survey of India, a premier organisation of the Ministry for Environment, Forest and Climate Change, is releasing the biennial report “India State of Forest Report 2023”. Forest Survey of India has been carrying out the massive task of nation-wide biennial forest cover monitoring and assessment since 1987, FSI has established its excellence in the specialized field of forest cover mapping by keeping pace with the advancement of technology for such assessment, and validating it by widespread ground truthing. FSI also implements the National Forest Inventory involving survey and enumeration of more than 16,000 sample plots, distributed all over the country, every year. The findings of these two major activites, along with several others, are published in the biennial India State of Forest Report 2023. In today’s era of climate change, the importance of conserving the environment and living in harmony with nature cannot be overemphasised. The ISFR 2023 provides forset cover information for each district and forest division of the country. Besides this, the ISFR also provides information on mangroves, growing stock of trees within and outside forests, and also contains dedicated chapters of forest fires, carbon stock, important characteristics of India’s forests, agroforestry, decadal change in forests, etc. It is thus a storeouse of useful data for meeting the information needs of different stakeholders of the forestry sector. I congratulate the Director General of Forest Survey of India and his team for bringing out this comprehensive Report. I am confident that in the years to come, FSI will continue to fulfil its mandate efficiently and meticulously. (Leena Nandan) vii Forest Survey of India  ftrsaæ dqekj MESSAGE Jitendra Kumar, egkfuns’kd ou ,oa fo’ks”k lfpo Director General of Forests & Special Secretary i;kZoj.k] ou ,oa tyok;q ifjorZu ea=ky; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Hkkjr ljdkj Government of India The India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023 is a biennial publication by Forest Survey of India which is a primary information document on Forest Resources of the country. The release of the ISFR 2023 is an important event for the forestry sector in India. The present document is 18th biennial assessment report, and with this the country has completed more than thirty-five years of regular assessment of its forest resources. FSI has attained an exceptional niche through various initatives including enhancing forest cover mapping methods and forest fire alerts. Analzing data over different administrative units like Districts, Divisions, Municipal areas, Mega cities, Protected areas, Tiger reserves, etc., has made the report more useful. The updated data regrading recorded forest areas and forest cover distribution across districts, forest divisions, various slope classes etc., as outlined in this report, offers valuable insights for State Forest Department. The Forest Fire Alert System at FSI has become the backbone of forest fire control in the country. Due to improvement in Forest fire models, and using Indian meteorological predictions for Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, the accurance of pre-fire alerts has been enhanced manifold. Country-level burnt area mapping is a new achievement of FSI. FSI deserves commendation for completing first cycle of five year of Nationwide grid based National Forest Inventory of Forest and TOF areas. Similar to previous ISFRs. data from the grid based NFI design (2016-2022) has been used for assessment of growing stock, forest carbon stock, and several other parameters reported in the ISFR 2023. It is a matter of pleasure that the digitized forest boundaries of 25 States and UTs have been used in the current ISFR to assess the extent of forest cover within the recorded forest areas. This will help the states to plan appropriately for areas within and outside recorded forest areas. In additon, this report will also fulfill information needs of different stakeholders of the forestry sector. Finally, I take this opportunitily to congratulate the Director General, Forest Survey of India and his entire team for an excellent job done and hope that they will continue to enrich information content on forest resources of the conntry in future also. (Jitendra Kumar) viii Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) vuwi flag] egkfuns’kd PREFACE Anoop Singh, Director General Hkkjrh; ou losZ{k.k Forest Survey of India i;kZoj.k] ou ,oa tyok;q ifjorZu ea=ky; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Hkkjr ljdkj Government of India The India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023 is the 18th report in the series of biennial assessment reports published by the Forest Survey of India (FSI). The report gives comprehensive assessment of the forest resources of the country based on interpretation of satellite data and field based National Forest Inventory (NFI). While satellite data gives forest cover, NFI provides Growing Stock and Carbon. The data period of the satellite used for this assessment is in general October 2021 to December 2021 and NFI used for this assessment is 2017-22. Forest cover mapping/assessment is a biennial exercise in which wall to wall mapping is done using Indian remote sensing satellite data (IRS-LISS III sensor with 23.5 m resolution) as provided by NRSC. The report gives information on forest cover of country at state, district, and forest division level; and changes in forest cover in respect of the previous assessment of 2021. Information on forest cover inside and outside the recorded forest area, forest cover in hills districts, forest cover in North Eastern States, mangrove is also provided. For the first time, forest cover change matrix inside and outside forest areas have been provided separately for clarity in analysis. In the present report, FSI has given forest cover information for 751 districts including those created in the recent past, as against 636 districts given in ISFR 2021. Latest district boundaries were received from the Survey of India. In addition, to making the report more relevant to the Divisional Forest Officers, who are the primary administrative heads in forest administration, for the first time Division wise forest cover information has also been given for those States from where digitized division boundaries were received. FSI has perfected forest cover mapping methods, by enhancing ground truthing (GT). Data of National Forest inventory, as a ready to use KML file, has also been provided to the analysts carrying out Forest Cover mapping for improving quality of mapping. Concurrent monitoring of FCM work by supervisors and frequent visits to the field after every few scenes improved the perception of analysts. PDA based application for GT ensured data fidelity. Contemporary issues have also been attempted e.g. Forest Cover change in Western Ghats. The report also contains estimates of tree cover, growing stock, carbon stock and important characteristics of forests derived from the data collected from sample plots spread over the entire country under NFI. As another first, the trees between 5-10 cm have been included in the analysis for Tree Cover and Growing stock as they are a major contributor to paper and pulp industry. Bamboo cover has also been estimated for the first time and included in Tree cover. Agroforestry has been analyzed separately as it accounts for 1,27,590 km2 of tree cover and 1,292 M m3 of Growing stock and serves as livelihood enhancer. It has gained further importance due to earning carbon credits in Agroforestry. ix Forest Survey of India  An analysis on Forest cover degradation between 2011-2021 has been carried out for identifying 93,000 km2 potential areas for upgradation of density and additionally sequestering 636 Mt of Carbon. Forest fire alerts has become one of the most important activities of FSI. Pre-Fire alerts, near- real time alerts are being sent for several years. In the forest fire chapter we have given information on forest fires in 705 Protected areas for the first time. Similarly Burnt area assessment has been done for the first time at national level and can support course-correction for the policy makers. A separate chapter has been given on decadal changes, highlighting changes in forest cover and other parameters over a decade. The information given in the report will also be very useful for forest planners and to monitor the NDC targets and making policy changes. FSI has always endeavored to keep pace with the advancements in tools and technologies, and kept the methodology and sampling design of NFI abreast to meet the data requirement of the forestry sector both at national and international level. The data processed for the report is also used as inputs for GHG inventory of the forest land under the LULUCF sector, and reporting of country data to FAO for Global Forest Resource Assessment. I take this opportunity to express my heartfelt thanks for the continuous support and guidance received from Shri Bhupender Yadav, Hon’ble Minister, EF&CC; Shri Kirti Vardhan Singh, Hon’ble Minister of State, EF&CC; Smt Leena Nandan, Secretary, MoEF&CC, Govt. of India and Shri C.P. Goel, former Director General of Forests & Special Secretary, and Shri Jitendra Kumar, present Director General of Forests & Special Secretary, Government of India. On behalf of the organization, I reiterate our commitment to serve the nation by making available the most reliable and unbiased latest comprehensive information on the forest resources of the country that would enable the Government and other stakeholders to view this precious natural resource on a firm scientific footing. (Anoop Singh) x Forest Survey of India xi India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) Photo: Subharanjan Sen, IFS Forest Survey of India  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We express our deep gratitude to all the individuals and organizations who contributed to the preparation of the “India State of Forest Report 2023.” This comprehensive report would not have been possible without the collaborative efforts of the Forest Survey of India (FSI) and the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India. We extend our sincere thanks to all the state forest departments for the technical and logistical help provided to the team of FSI in field validation of forest cover mapping and field works of National Forest Inventory. Their commitment and support were instrumental in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data presented in this report. We also acknowledge the contributions of various scientific institutions and research organizations for their insights, recommendations, and technical expertise. Their guidance has enriched the analysis and findings of this report, helping to highlight the state of forests and green cover in India. The information and assistance provided by National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, related to satellite data and forest fire detections; National Statistical Office, for providing the UFS block maps for the urban inventory; Survey of India, for providing the boundaries of newly created districts; J & K forest Department for data collection of NFI in J & K; Forest Research Institute, for providing the wood density and list of invasive species; Botanical Survey of India for providing the taxonomical guidance, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmer’s Welfare, for providing the information on Land use Statistics and Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology for providing weather forecast are thankfully acknowledged. We are grateful for the valuable advice of Dr. Devendra Pandey IFS Retd., in making the agroforestry chapter concise and precise. The contribution of Shri Arijit Banerjee IFS and Shri Noyal Thomas IFS Retd., in reviewing textual matters of few crucial chapters is highly appreciated. The contributions of Sr. Consultants at FSI headquarters, all the officers and staff of FSI headquarters and zonal offices are gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful to the team of experts and professionals at the Forest Survey of India who worked tirelessly to analyze satellite imagery, conduct ground surveys, and compile the data that forms the foundation of this report. Their dedication and professionalism have been critical in maintaining the high standards of this publication. This report was thoroughly and critically reviewed by Mr. Krishna Bahadur Singh, IFS, IG Forest, MoEF&CC; and his review was very helpful in improving the readability of the report. His efforts are really appreciated. The quality photographs provided by Shri Anant Shukla, Shri Dharam Singh Meena, Shri Arun Kumar Thyadi, Shri Saurabh Kalia, Shri Arijit Banerjee, IFS, Shri Debal Ray IFS, Shri Subharanjan Sen IFS, Shri Sanjay Shukla IFS, and Shri Padmabhushan Rajguru, IFS are gratefully accredited. xii Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Periodic assessment of forest resources of the country based on robust scientific methodologies is a pre-requisite for monitoring of these resources and better planning for the forestry sector. Forest Survey of India, an organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, has been mandated to carry out a regular assessment of forest resources of the country using satellite data and field based information and publish the results in a biennial report named as India state of Forest Report (ISFR). The first report was published by FSI in 1987 and since then 17 such reports have been published by FSI. The ISFR 2023 is 18th in the series. The information on various forestry parameters given in the ISFR are very useful for monitoring of the resources, evaluation of the various polices and making better planning for optimum utilization of the forest resources. In addition, the inputs given in the report are very useful for monitoring of NDC targets, reporting of Green House Gas (GHG) inventory to UNFCCC for the forest land under the LULUCF sector, and country reporting to FAO for the Global Assessment of Forest Resources. The first major input that goes into the ISFR is forest cover mapping of the country based on nationwide forest cover mapping using satellite data. The forest cover is defined as “all lands, more than one hectare with a tree canopy density of more than or equal to 10% irrespective of ownership, legal status and land use. Such lands may not necessarily be a recorded forest area. It also includes orchards, bamboo and palm”. In the current cycle, Forest Cover Mapping has been carried out using medium-resolution indigenous satellite data, with a spatial resolution of 23.5 m sourced from the Indian Space Research Organization’s (ISRO) indigenous LISS-III sensor, part of the IRS Resourcesat satellite series, at a scale of 1: 50,000. This satellite data was acquired for all states within the timeframe of October 2021 to December 2021. In certain regions of the country, such as the North Eastern region, the coastal belt, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, additional satellite images were procured for the period from January 2022 to April 2022, to obtain better-quality satellite imagery. This specific time window was chosen because it typically offers cloud-free satellite data and full vegetation foliage, resulting in enhanced reflectance and precise satellite image interpretation. The classification of forest cover used in the present report is based on tree canopy density, viz., Very Dense Forest (VDF) having canopy density equal to or more than 70%, Moderately Dense Forest (MDF) having canopy density equal to or more than 40% but less than 70%, and Open Forest (OF) having canopy density equal to or more than 10% but less than 40%. The Forest Cover is assessed using an approach involving satellite digital image processing; visual image analysis; ground verification by the analysts and State Forest Departments; incorporation of post-field corrections; quality checks xiii Forest Survey of India including ground validation by officers; followed by generation of output in the form of maps and area statistics. Over the years, this methodology has continuously evolved and improved to keep pace with advancing technology and the latest image interpretation techniques. Since the initial forest assessment report in 1987, the methodology for Forest Cover Mapping has been consistently refined and updated. To ensure consistency, uniformity, and a high level of accuracy in the Forest Cover Mapping exercise, all steps of the methodology have been standardized. To minimize subjectivity, a comprehensive manual has been developed to guide and facilitate these processes, helping to maintain the quality and reliability of the mapping results. The second major input that goes into ISFR is based on the inventory of Forests and Trees Outside Forests (TOF) under the National Forest Inventory (NFI) Programme of FSI. FSI launched a National Forest Inventory in 2002, with the onset of the 10th five-year plan, by developing a sampling design, to generate the national level estimates of growing stock and other parameters. Under this NFI design, the country was stratified into 14 physiographic zones and 60 districts were selected for the detailed inventory for a cycle of 2 years. About 3,500 sample plots were inventoried in the forest areas and 5000 sample plots were inventoried in TOF every year. FSI modified the sampling design of NFI in 2016, considering the data requirements at National and International level, to generate the precise estimates at the State level and to reduce the revisit time from 20 years to 5 years. Under the modified design, FSI has switched over to a grid based design having uniform grids of size 5 km x 5 km and selecting specified grids each year for the detailed inventory. Under this design, FSI is laying about 6,000 plots in forest area and 10,000 plots in TOF areas every year. The information of growing stock, tree cover, bamboo stock, carbon stock, agroforestry and important characteristics are derived from the field inventory data collected from forest and TOF. The ISFR 2023 has been produced into two volumes considering the wealth of information generated from forest cover mapping and NFI. The Volume-I gives the national level assessment such as forest cover, mangrove cover, forest fires, growing stock, carbon stock, agroforestry, important characteristics of forest and decadal change. The Volume-II gives information about forest cover for each State/UT of the country, districts and divisions and state wise information derived from the field inventory. Salient findings The key findings of the ISFR 2023 are as follows: The total forest and tree cover of the country is 8,27,356.95 km2 which is 25.17% of the geographical area of the country. The total Forest Cover has an area of 7,15,342.61 km2 (21.76%) whereas the Tree Cover has an area of 1,12,014.34 km2 (3.41%). xiv Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) The current assessment shows an increase of 156.41 km2 in the Forest Cover at national level as compared to the previous assessment. The total forest and tree cover of the country has increased by 1445.81 km2 as compared to the last assessment of 2021. The maximum increase in forest and tree cover has been observed in the States of Chhattisgarh (683.62 km2) followed by Uttar Pradesh (559.19 km2), Odisha (558.57 km2) and Rajasthan (394.46 km2). The maximum decrease in forest and tree cover has been noticed in the state of Madhya Pradesh (612.41 km2) followed by Karnataka (459.36 km2), Ladakh (159.26 km2) and Nagaland (125.22 km2). The States showing maximum increase of Forest Cover inside the RFA/GW are Mizoram (192.92 km2) followed by Odisha (118.17 km2), Karnataka (93.14 km2), West Bengal (64.79 km2) and Jharkhand (52.72 km2), whereas the States showing the maximum decrease of Forest Cover inside the RFA/GW are Tripura (116.90 km2) followed by Telangana (105.87 km2), Assam (86.66 km2), Andhra Pradesh (83.47 km2) and Gujarat (61.22 km2). The forest cover outside RFA has been shown maximum increase in the state of Gujarat (241.29 km2) followed by Bihar (106.85 km2), Kerala (95.19 km2), Uttar Pradesh (79.27 km2) and Assam (74.90 km2). The states showing decrease in the forest cover outside RFA are Madhya Pradesh (344.77 km2) followed by Rajasthan (110.65 km2), Andhra Pradesh (55.19 km2), Arunachal Pradesh (45.32 km2) and Maharashtra (41.07 km2). The extent of TOF (forest cover outside the RFA & GW and tree cover) has been found to be 30.70 M ha, which is 37.11% of the total forest and tree cover in the country. The maximum tree cover has been found in the State of Maharashtra (14,524.88 km2) followed by Rajasthan (10,841.12 km2) and Uttar Pradesh (8,950.92 km2). The maximum positive change as compared to ISFR 2021 has been observed in Chhattisgarh (702.75 km2) followed by Rajasthan (478.26 km2) and Uttar Pradesh (440.76 km2). In general, twenty-one States and UTs have shown an increasing trend in tree cover, which indicates that agroforestry, is being promoted in these States Western Ghats Eco-Sensitive Areas (WGESA) occupies an area of approximately 60,285.61 km2 based on the digital boundary provided by MoEF & CC. Forest cover in all districts under WGESA has been estimated as 44,043.99 km2 (73%). FSI has carried out a decadal changes analysis of forest cover of WGESA and observed that there has been an overall loss of 58.22 km² in forest cover during the xv Forest Survey of India last 10 years. Very Dense forest increased by 3,465.12 km², whereas Moderately Dense Forest and Open Forest decreased by 1,043.23 km² and 2,480.11 km². Forest cover in the hills districts of the country is 2,83,713.20 km2, which is 40% of the total geographical area of these districts. In the current assessment, Forest Cover has in hill districts of the country has increased by 234.14 km2. The total forest and tree cover in the North Eastern region is 1,74,394.70 km2, which is 67% of geographical area of these states. The current assessment shows a decrease of forest cover of 327.30 km2 in the region. The total Mangrove cover of the country is 4,991.68 km2, which accounts for 0.15 % of the country’s total geographical area. Among this, Very Dense Mangrove comprises 1,463.97 km2 (29.33%) of the total Mangrove cover, Moderately Dense Mangrove is 1,500.84 km2 (30.07%) while Open Mangroves constitute an area of 2,026.87 km2 (40.60%). In comparison to the 2021 assessment, there has been a net decrease of 7.43 km2 in the country’s Mangrove coverage. Gujarat has a notable decrease of 36.39 km2. Notable increase in Mangrove forest cover is observed in Andhra Pradesh (13.01 km2), followed by Maharashtra (12.39 km2). During the fire season 2023-24, the number of fire hotspots detected by SNPP-VIIRS sensor were 2,03, 544 as against 2,23,333 in 2021-22 seasons and 2,12,249 in 2022-23 season. Top three Stares where fire incidences have been observed the most in 2023- 24 season are Uttrarakhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. The total growing stock of wood in the country is estimated at 6,429.64 M m3, which comprises of 4,478.89 M m3 inside forest areas and 1,950.75 M m3 outside recorded forest areas (TOF). There is a total increase of 262.32 M m3 (4.25%) in the growing stock of the country as compared to the estimates reported in ISFR 2021. Out of this, the increase in growing stock is 90.92 M m3 (2.07%) inside the forests, and 171.40 M m3 (9.63%) outside the forest areas. It is observed that the growing stock at the national level has been estimated as 86.10 m3 per ha in forest areas. Arunachal Pradesh has maximum growing stock (457.83 M m3) in forests, followed by Uttarakhand (400.02 M m3), Chhattisgarh (398.54 M m3) and Madhya Pradesh (387.18 M m3). In TOF, Maharashtra has maximum growing stock (213.93 M m3) followed by Karnataka (137.62 M m3), Madhya Pradesh (130.46 M m3) and Chhattisgarh (129.04 M m3). xvi Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) Among the States, the highest per ha growing stock in forest is in Himachal Pradesh (219.46 m3) followed by Kerala (179.78 m3) and Uttarakhand (164.39 m3). Among the UTs, the highest per ha growing stock in forest is in Jammu & Kashmir (296.22 m3) followed by A&N Islands (246.61 m3) and Chandigarh (78.64 m3). Inside the forests, Shorea robusta has the maximum contribution in total volume (11.43%), followed by Tectona grandis (4.46%), Pinus roxburghii (4.43%) and Terminalia tomentosa (3.59%). In the Trees Outside Forests, Mangifera indica contributes maximum volume of 13.25% to total volume followed by Azadirachta indica (7.00%), Madhuca latifolia / Madhuca longifolia / Madhuca indica (4.37 %) and Cocos nucifera (4.16 %). The potential production of industrial wood from TOF has been estimated as 91.51 M m3 per year. There is an increase of 22.47 M m3 in the potential production of industrial wood as compared to the estimates reported in ISFR 2017. The total bamboo bearing area of the country has been estimated to be 1,54,670 km2. There is an increase of 5,227 km2 in the bamboo bearing area of the country as compared to the previous assessment reported in ISFR 2021. Madhya Pradesh has maximum bamboo bearing area of 20,421 km2, followed by Arunachal Pradesh (18,424 km2), Maharashtra (13,572 km2), and Odisha (12,328 km2). It has been observed that bamboo-bearing area in Arunachal Pradesh has shown the highest increase of 2,685 km2 followed by Madhya Pradesh (2,027 km2). Similarly, Karnataka has shown the highest decrease of 1,290 km2 in the bamboo bearing area, followed by Manipur (860 km2). Total tree green cover under agroforestry at the national level has been estimated at 1,27,590.05 km2 in 2023. There is a total increase of 21,286.57 km2 (20.02%) in the total tree green cover under agroforestry of the country as compared to the estimates reported in ISFR 2013. The total growing stock under agroforestry in the country is estimated at 1,291.68 M m3 in 2023. There is a total increase of 286.94 M m3 (28.56 %) in the growing stock under agroforestry of the country as compared to the estimates reported in ISFR 2013. Among the States, the highest growing stock in agroforestry is observed in Maharashtra (136.45 M m3) followed by Karnataka (98.31 M m3), Odisha (88.53 M m3) and Rajasthan (86.26 M m3). Among the UTs, the highest growing stock is observed in Jammu & Kashmir (29.59 M m3) followed by A&N Islands (0.90 M m3) and Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu (0.53 M m3). xvii Forest Survey of India  Top five prevalent species in agroforestry as given in ISFR 2013 were Mangifera indica, followed by Areca catechu, Cocos nucifera, Azadirachta indica, and Acacia arabica / Acacia nilotica. On the other hand, as per ISFR 2023 the top five prevalent species in agroforestry are Mangifera indica, followed by Azadirachta indica, Prosopis juliflora / Neltuma juliflora, Areca catechu, and Eucalyptus species. The carbon stock for 2023 has been estimated as 7,285.5 Mt. There is an increase of 81.5 Mt of carbon stock as compared to the estimates of previous assessment. The annual increase of carbon stock is estimated as 40.75 Mt, which is 149.42 Mt of CO2 equivalent. Soil organic carbon is the largest pool of forest carbon accounting for (55.06%) followed by AGB (32.69%), BGB (10.09%), Litter (1.48%) and Dead Wood (0.78%). Arunachal Pradesh has maximum carbon stock of 1,021 Mt followed by Madhya Pradesh (608 Mt), Chhattisgarh (505 Mt) and Maharashtra (465 Mt). The per hectare carbon stock among different States/UTs indicates that Jammu & Kashmir is contributing maximum per hectare carbon stock of 174.10 t/ha, followed by Sikkim (169.20 t/ha), Himachal Pradesh (163.68 t/ha) and, Andaman & Nicobar Islands (161.62 t/ha). Regarding the monitoring of the target of NDC, the current assessment shows that India has reached to 30.43 billion tonnes of CO2 eq, which indicates that as compared to the base year of 2005, we have already reached to 2.29 billion tonnes of additional carbon sink. During the decades 2013-2023, the changes in different forestry parameters are positive and encouraging as given follows: The forest cover of the country has shown an increase of 16,630.25 km2 out of which increase inside RFA/GW is 440.47 km2 and increase outside RFA/GW is 16,189.78 km2. In the hill districts of the country, the forest cover has increased by 2,649.04 km2. Mangrove cover of the country has increased by 296.33 km2. The tree cover has shown an increase of 20,747.34 km2. The tree green cover in the agroforestry has increased by 21,286.57 km2 and growing stock in agroforestry has increased by 286.94 M m3. The growing stock in forest and TOF has increased by 305.543 M m3 and 466.07 M m3 respectively. xviii Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) The important characteristics of forests have been analyzed for forest enabling conditions, disturbances in forests area, and status of forest vegetation; and given in a separate chapter. Some of the highlights are given as follows: There is a general improvement in soil health (87.16% of shallow to deep soil as against 83.53% in 2013) reflected by improvement in humus (18.04% medium to deep humus as against 11.43% in 2013) which is, in turn, reflected in better grass cover (17.21% dense to very dense grass cover as against 15.64% in 2013) and better undergrowth (25.58% dense to very dense undergrowth as against 20.32% in 2013). The soil organic carbon has also increased marginally during this period from 55.85 tonnes per hectare to 56.08 tonnes per hectare. The load of moderate to heavy grazing has come down to 35.79% as compared to 41.04% in 2013. Biotic influences on forests have also come down to 26.66% from 31.28% in 2013. All this has reflected in increase in forest areas under mixed size classes (38.11% as against 21.12% in 2013), which indicates improved floral biodiversity, and improved surroundings for faunal biodiversity. Table: Forest and Tree Cover of India in km2 Class Area Percentage of GA Forest Cover 7,15,342.61 21.76 Tree Cover 1,12,014.34 3.41 Total Forest and Tree Cover 8,27,356.95 25.17 Scrub 43,622.64 1.33 Non Forest 24,16,489.29 73.50 Geographical Area of the country 32,87,468.88 100.00 xix Forest Survey of India  ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS ACZ - Agro-Climatic Zones AFOLU - Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use AFP - Agroforestry products AGA - Alert Generating Agency AGB - Above Ground Biomass AICRP - All India Coordinated Research Project APFC - Asia Pacific Forestry Commission AWiFS - Advanced Wide Field Sensor BGB - Below Ground Biomass BTR Biennial Transparency Reports BUR - Biennial Update Reports CAFRI - Central Agroforestry Research Institute CAMPA - Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority CAP - Common Alerting Protocol CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity CFFDRS - Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System CIFOR - Center for International Forestry Research CNFA - Culturable Non-Forest Area CO2 - Carbon Dioxide CO2eq - Carbon Dioxide equivalent COP - Conference of the Parties CSV - Comma-separated Values DBH - Diameter at Breast Height DEM - Digital Elevation Model DNH - Dadra & Nagar Haveli ESA - Ecologically Sensitive Area FAO - The Food & Agriculture Organization FC - Forest Cover FCC - False Colour Composite FCM - Forest Cover Mapping FI - Forest Inventory FSI - Forest Survey of India FTG - Forest Type Group FWI - Fire Weather Index GA - Geographical Area GEOS - Goddard Earth Observing System GFRA - Global Forest Resource Assessment GFWED - Global Fire Weather Database GHG - Green House Gas GIS - Geographical Information System GOI - Government of India GDP - Gross Domestic Product GPG - Good Practices Guidance GT - Ground Truth xx GW - Green Wash Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) HLWG - High Level Working Group ICAR - Indian Council of Agriculture Research ICFRE - Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education ICRAF - International Centre for Research in Agroforestry INC - Initial National Communication IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change IRS - Indian Remote Sensing (Satellite) ISFR - India State of Forest Report ISODATA - Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique ISRO - Indian Space Research Organization IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature J&K - Jammu and Kashmir JFM - Joint Forest Management KHAT - Cohen's kappa coefficient KML - Keyhole Markup Language LANDSAT Land Satellite LFF - Large Forest Fire LiFE - Lifestyle for Environment LISS - Linear Imaging and Self-scanning Sensor LULC - Land Use Land Cover LULUCF - Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry MDF - Moderately Dense Forest MGNREGS - Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme MISHTI - Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes MLE - Maximum Likelihood Estimator MMU - Minimum Mappable Unit MODIS - Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer MoEFCC - Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change MSS - Multi Spectral Scanner NAP - National Agroforestry Policy NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration NATCOM - National Communication NBSSLUP - National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning NDC - Nationally Determined Contributions NDMA - National Disaster Management Authority NDMP - National Disaster Management Plan NDVI - Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NESAC - North Eastern Space Applications Centre NF - Non-Forest NFI - National Forest Inventory NMSA - National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture NP - National Park NPFFM - National Programme on Forest Fire Management NRCAF - National Research Centre for Agroforestry NRSC - National Remote Sensing Centre NSO - National Statistical Office NTFP - Non-Timber Forest Products NWFP - Non-wood Forest Products xxi Forest Survey of India NYDF - New York Declaration on Forests OF - Open Forest PA - Protected Area PDA - Personal Digital Assistant PDF - Plot Description Form PF - Protected Forest PISFR - Pre-Investment Survey of Forest Resources QCQA - Quality Check & Quality Assurance REDD+ - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Plus RF - Reserved Forest RFA - Recorded Forest Area RGI - Registrar General of India SBSTA - Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice SDG - Sustainable Development Goals SDMA - State Disaster Management Authority SE - Standard Error SFD - State Forest Department SFR - State of Forest Report SMAF - Sub-Mission on Agroforestry SNC - Second National Communication SNPP - Suomi National Polar orbiting Partnership SOC - Soil Organic Carbon SOI - Survey of India SRTM - Shuttle Radar Topography Mission ToA - Top of Atmospheric TOF - Trees Outside Forests TSFDC - Telangana State Forest Development Corporation UFS - Urban Frame Survey UN - United Nations UNCCD - United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFCCC - United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change UT - Union Territory UTM - Universal Transverse Mercator VDF - Very Dense Forest VIIRS - Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite WFS - Web Feature Service WGEEP - Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel WGESA - Western Ghats Eco-Sensitive Areas WGS - World Geodetic System WMS - Web Map Service xxii Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) km2 - square kilometre ‘000 t - thousand tonne cm - centimetre FY - financial year gm - gram Mha - million hectare M m3 - million cubic meter m3 - cubic meter m3/ha - cubic meter per hectare Mt - million tonne per ha - per hectare t C/yr - tonne carbon per year t/ha - tonnes per hectare xxiii Photo: FSI Repository Forest Survey of India  GLOSSARY Above-ground All biomass of living vegetation, both woody and herbaceous, above the soil, including biomass stems, stumps, branches, bark, seeds, and foliage. (Source – 2006 IPCC Guidelines for (vegetation) National Greenhouse Gas inventories) Aerial photographs A photograph taken from an air-borne platform using a precision camera. Afforestation Establishment of forest through planting and/or deliberate seeding on land that, until then, was under a different land use, implies a transformation of land use form non-forest to forest. Agroforestry A land use system which integrates trees and shrubs on farm lands and rural landscapes to enhance productivity, profitability, diversity, and ecosystem sustainability. (Source – National Agroforestry Policy, 2014) Anthropogenic Resulting from or produced by human activities. Bamboo density Pure: 151 and more clump/ha for clump forming bamboo or 9001 and more culms / ha for non-clump forming. Dense: 51 to 150 clump/ha for clump forming or 3001 to 9000 culms / ha for non-clump forming. Scattered: 1 to 50 clump/ha for clump forming or 1 to 3000 culms / ha for non-clump forming. Below-ground All biomass of live roots. Fine roots of less than 2 mm diameter are excluded because these biomass often cannot be distinguished empirically from soil organic matter or litter. (Source – 2006 (vegetation) IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas inventories) Biodiversity Biodiversity, or, “Biological diversity” means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. (Source – Convention on Biological Diversity) Biomass Biomass is the organic material that comes from plants or animal. Biomass can be above- ground, or below-ground, as defined above. Biomass equations Biomass equations are the regression equations which are mathematical functions that relate biomass per tree as a function of a single or a combination of tree dimensions such as dbh, tree height, etc. Biotic influences Any influence of living organisms. Usually restricted to the influence of animals including man. Usually in forests, the biotic influences could include grazing, browsing, man-made fire, pollarding, illicit felling, and lopping. Block (of trees) Patch of trees outside RFA, of size 0.1 ha or more Canopy The cover of branches and foliage formed by crown of trees. Canopy density Percent area of land covered by canopy of trees. It is expressed as a decimal coefficient, taking closed canopy as unity. Carbon dioxide (CO2) It is a metric measure used to compare the emissions from various greenhouse gases equivalent (eq.) based on their global-warming potential, by converting amounts of other gases to the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide with the same global warming potential. Carbon pools Carbon pools are major components of an ecosystem that can either accumulate or release carbon. Carbon It is a natural or artificial process by which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere sequestration and held in solid or liquid form. Carbon stock Carbon in all living and non-living biomass including Above Ground Biomass, Below Ground Biomass, Deadwood, Litter, and Soil carbon xxiv Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) Change matrix It presents change in land use/forest cover classes for a given area during the period of two consecutive assessments in a tabular form by showing the changes of area from one class to another. Climate change Climate change means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. (Source – UNFCCC) Coral reefs Corals are colonial marine invertebrates. A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterised by structure-building stony corals. Correlation The correlation between two variables is the degree of association between two variables. This degree of association is expressed by a single value called a correlation coefficient (r), which can take values ranging between -1 and +1. Crop composition It refers to the type of species or group of species, which are contained in a forest. According to crop composition, forest can be either pure or mixed. Culturable Non It is the net geographical area, lying outside recorded forest, which can support tree Forest Area vegetation (thus, excluding areas under waterbodies, riverbeds, perennial snow covered mountains, Alpine pastures, Sand dunes etc.). CNFA is the area over which the sample data on TOF is aggregated for the assessment. Dead wood All non-living woody biomass not contained in the litter, either standing, lying on the ground, or in the soil. Dead wood includes wood lying on the surface, dead roots, and stumps larger than or equal to 5 cm in diameter. (Source – 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas inventories) Decomposition It is the process by which dead organic material are broken down into simpler organic or inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water, simple sugars, and minerals. Deforestation The conversion of forest to other land use independently whether human-induced or not. It includes areas of forest converted to agriculture, pasture, water reservoirs, mining, and urban areas. (Source – GFRA, 2020) Desertification Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. ( Source - https://catalogue.unccd. int/1195_Desertification.pdf, 26.07.2024) Ecological Ecological (Ecosystem) restoration means assisting in the recovery of ecosystems that restoration have been degraded or destroyed, as well as conserving the ecosystems that are still intact. (source - www.decadeonrestoration.org - What is Ecosystem Restoration? | UN Decade on Restoration, 26.07.2024) Edaphic factors A condition of the soil, whether physical, biological or chemical, that influences the organisms and processes that occur in the soil. Emission The release of greenhouse gases and/or their precursors into the atmosphere over a specified area and period of time. (UNFCCC Article 1.4) (Source - 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories – Glossary) Emission factor A coefficient that quantifies the emissions or removals of a gas per unit activity. Emission factors are often based on a sample of measurement data, averaged to develop a representative rate of emission for a given activity level under a given set of operating conditions. (Source - 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories – Glossary) Exotic species Exotic species are organisms that have been introduced into an area outside their normal distribution. Forest area The area recorded as a forest in the Government records. It is also referred to as “Recorded Forest Area”. Forest Cover All lands, more than or equal to one hectare in area, with a tree canopy of more than or equal to 10%, irrespective of ownership and legal status; and includes orchards, bamboo, and palm Forest ecosystem A forest ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their abiotic environment interacting as a functional unit, where trees are a key component of the system. Humans, with their cultural, economic and environmental needs, are an integral part of many forest ecosystems. xxv Forest Survey of India Forest health From the Utilitarian standpoint, forest health is defined as the production of forest conditions which directly satisfy human needs. From an Ecosystem standpoint, it is defined by resilience, recurrence, perseverance, and biophysical processes which lead to sustainable ecological conditions (Kolb et al., 1994) (detailed citation may be seen under chapter 8) Forest Inventory Forest inventory is the systematic collection of data on the forestry resources within a given area. It allows assessment of the current status and lays the ground for analysis and planning, constituting the basis for sustainable forest management. (Source - fao.org/ sustainable-forest-management/toolbox/modules/forest-inventory/basic-knowledge/ en/?type=111, 26.07.2024) Forest management A system of practices for stewardship and use of forestland aimed at fulfilling relevant ecological (including biological diversity), economic and social functions of the forest in a sustainable manner. Forest phenology The science that deals with time of appearance of characteristic periodic events, such as leaf shedding, etc., in the life cycle of organisms in nature; especially as those events are influenced by environmental factors. (Source – Glossary of Technical Terms, FRI&C, Dehradun, 1983) Forest productivity Forest productivity refers to the total biomass of the given forest area at a specific time, per unit area. Forest resources Forest resources encompass all the assets and elements derived from forests, including timber, non-timber products, biodiversity, clean water, recreational opportunities, and ecosystem services. Forest stand Forest stand is an aggregation of tree or other growth, possessing sufficient uniformity in composition, constitution, age arrangement or structure and to be distinguished from adjacent crops forming a silvicultural unit. Geographic A computer based system for capturing, storing, manipulating, analysing and displaying Information System data, which are spatially referenced to the earth. Geospatial The geospatial technology is an emerging technique to study real earth geographic technologies information using Geographical Information System (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) and other ground information from various devices and instruments. Girdling The complete removal of a strip of bark (consisting of cork cambium or “phellogen”, phloem, cambium and sometimes going into the xylem) from around the entire circumference of either a branch or trunk of a woody plant. Global Forest It is led by Forestry Department of FAO of UN, for an assessment of status and trends Resource of the global forest resources. It contains information on various thematic elements of Assessment sustainable forest management and conservation. Green wash area The extent of wooded areas generally shown in light green colour on the Survey of India topographic sheets. Greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is the process through which heat is trapped near Earth’s surface by substances known as ‘greenhouse gases.’ (Source - https://science.nasa.gov/climate- change/faq - What is the greenhouse effect? - NASA Science, 26.07.2024) Greenhouse gas Gases that has the property of absorbing infrared radiation (net heat energy) emitted from Earth’s surface and reradiating it back to Earth’s surface, thus contributing to the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases consist of carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and water vapour. Water vapour, which reacts to temperature changes, is referred to as a ‘feedback’, because it amplifies the effect of forces that initially caused the warming. (Source - https://science.nasa.gov/climate-change/faq - What is the greenhouse effect? - NASA Science, 26.07.2024) Growing stock The sum (by number or volume) of all the trees growing/living in the forest or a specified part of it. Habitat A physical portion of the environment that is inhabited by an organism or population of organisms. A habitat is characterized by a relative uniformity of the physical environment and fairly close interaction of all the biological species involved. Herbs Herb is a plant with no persistent stem (non-woody) above ground and usually not xxvi exceeding 1 meter in height. Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) Humus The decomposed organic matter which remains associated with soil minerals is usually referred to as humus. Illicit felling Any felling of trees done in a state forest, without permission granted by authorized bodies. Indicator species An indicator species is a species or group of species chosen as an indicator of, or proxy for, the state of an ecosystem or of a certain process within that ecosystem. Infiltration Infiltration refers to the entry of water into the soil. Invasive species Species that are non-nature to a particular eco-system and whose introduction and spread causes, or is likely to cause socio-cultural, economic or environmental harm (including forest eco system) or harm to human health. Land Use, Land-Use Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF), also referred to as Forestry and other Change and Forestry land use (FOLU) or Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU), is defined as a (LULUCF) greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use such as settlements and commercial uses, land-use change, and forestry activities. (Source: Glossary of Climate Change Acronyms and Terms, UNFCCC, 2006) Landscape An area of distinct character with significant ecological, biological, cultural and scenic value: and where safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital to protecting and sustaining the area and its associated nature conservation and other values Large forest fire Alert generated when fire is detected in 3 Contiguous Pixels Connected in the Side or alert Corner, in any geometry Linear (patch of Trees on a strip along the road, railway, and canal side having width between 10m to 20m trees) (by and large) and length more than 150m Litter Woody material of trees having diameter 2mm, which is not decomposed. Lopping The repeated removal of side branches on a short cycle, leaving just a tuft at the top of the tree. Mangroves Salt tolerant evergreen forest ecosystem found mainly in tropical and subtropical coastal and/or inter-tidal regions. Microclimate Local climate at or near the Earth’s surface. Minimum Mappable The MMU is the size of the smallest feature of a class that can be reliably mapped (2mm x Unit (MMU) 2mm) which corresponds to 1 ha on 1:50,000 scale for LISS III. Moderately Dense All lands with forest cover having a canopy density between > 40, and less than 70 percent. Forest NATCOM National Communication to UNFCCC Nationally NDC articulates commitments by each country to reduce its national emissions and adapt Determined to the impacts of climate change. Countries across the globe adopted this international Contribution climate agreement at UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP21) in Paris in December 2015. Natural forest Natural forests are forests composed of indigenous trees, not planted by man. In other words forests excluding plantations. Natural resources Assets present in a particular area (below, surface or above) and available for potential use and utilization by its owners. These resources include renewable (reproducible) and non- renewable (non-reproducible, mined) resources, although many resources can be included in both, depending on region or specific conditions. Niche Niche is the role or job of a species in a habitat. The word niche comes from the French word nicher, which means “to nest.” An ecological niche describes how a species interacts with, and lives in, its habitat. Nutrient cycling Biogeochemical cycle, in which inorganic nutrients move through the soil, living organisms, air and water. It refers to the return of nutrients absorbed by plants from the xxvii soil, back to the soil. Forest Survey of India Open Forest Lands with forest cover having a canopy density between >10 and 50 ha for the period of ISFR 2011 to ISFR 2021, in which VDF, MDF, OF, scrub has been degraded to NF. The details of which are given in Table 2.21. Table 2.21 Identification of lands where canopy density has degraded from VDF, MDF, OF, Scrub to Non Forest inside RFA Area Number of Polygons Total area of polygons (km²) 0-10 ha 45,12,581 31,709.83 10-50 ha 52,178 9,531.09 More Than 50 ha 4,661 5,466.19 Total 45,69,420 46,707.11 The state-wise information on land where canopy density has degraded from VDF, MDF, OF, Scrub to Non Forest is given in Table 2.22. 72 Photo: FSI Repository Forest Survey of India  Forest and Tree Cover Table 2.22 State/UT wise information on land where canopy density has degraded from VDF, MDF, OF to Non Forest inside RFA (in km²) SI. State/UT 0-10 ha 10-50 ha More Than 50 ha Total No. Number Area Number Area Number Area Number Area of Poly- of Poly- of Poly- of Poly- gons gons gons gons 1 Andhra Pradesh 1,97,832 1,679.80 4,323 823.30 404 410.03 2,02,559 2,913.13 Arunachal 2 1,98,836 1,532.87 1,975 351.77 138 142.98 2,00,949 2,027.62 Pradesh 3 Assam 1,48,269 1,244.76 1,862 329.36 107 129.77 1,50,238 1,703.89 4 Bihar 15,835 162.34 497 95.88 37 39.81 16,369 298.03 5 Chhattisgarh 3,77,377 2,343.86 2,467 410.12 93 79.80 3,79,937 2,833.78 6 Delhi 1,294 4.56 1 0.11 0 0.00 1,295 4.67 7 Goa 6,542 51.72 26 3.29 0 0.00 6,568 55.01 8 Gujarat 1,71,245 695.53 919 169.92 75 74.05 1,72,239 939.50 9 Haryana 3,202 22.33 44 8.62 0 0.00 3,246 30.95 Himachal 10 1,68,197 1,099.95 686 107.65 16 9.64 1,68,899 1,217.24 Pradesh 11 Jharkhand 1,44,014 813.63 867 152.72 38 27.36 1,44,919 993.71 12 Karnataka 1,17,359 1,072.27 2,185 398.14 179 165.81 1,19,723 1,636.22 13 Kerala 62,555 647.33 1,457 260.58 83 78.94 64,095 986.85 14 Madhya Pradesh 6,53,493 3,994.77 5,448 980.30 407 378.15 6,59,348 5,353.22 15 Maharashtra 6,09,498 3,314.28 3,165 546.04 194 192.65 6,12,857 4,052.97 16 Manipur 75,275 667.81 1,801 348.35 219 207.80 77,295 1,223.96 17 Meghalaya 1,09,240 928.13 1,123 180.69 21 14.65 1,10,384 1,123.47 18 Mizoram 1,36,202 953.57 2,474 483.39 548 892.81 1,39,224 2,329.77 19 Nagaland 66,359 552.41 1,197 233.25 125 114.61 67,681 900.27 20 Odisha 2,12,264 1,534.63 1,910 322.30 57 43.20 2,14,231 1,900.13 21 Punjab 7,324 37.98 26 4.70 0 0.00 7,350 42.68 22 Rajasthan 2,11,078 1,588.55 3,880 749.21 505 558.67 2,15,463 2,896.43 23 Sikkim 14,027 128.33 347 69.79 70 114.63 14,444 312.75 24 Tamil Nadu 87,810 831.49 1,882 347.99 116 98.46 89,808 1,277.94 25 Telangana 1,70,449 1,397.47 3,516 675.18 474 557.64 1,74,439 2,630.29 26 Tripura 60,836 275.55 120 19.11 2 2.12 60,958 296.78 27 Uttar Pradesh 80,307 600.57 1,533 294.46 206 240.68 82,046 1,135.71 28 Uttarakhand 1,04,791 889.54 1,642 293.79 92 83.05 1,06,525 1,266.38 29 West Bengal 56,343 491.75 1,035 185.10 59 53.08 57,437 729.93 Andaman & 30 24,699 181.25 171 28.20 7 6.70 24,877 216.15 Nicobar 31 Chandigarh 228 0.75 0 0.00 0 0.00 228 0.75 DNH and 32 4,631 21.31 11 1.59 1 0.77 4,643 23.67 Daman & Diu Jammu and 33 2,07,932 1,858.99 3,187 574.70 249 235.82 2,11,368 2,669.51 Kashmir 34 Ladakh 7,204 89.45 401 81.49 139 512.51 7,744 683.45 35 Puducherry 34 0.30 0 0.00 0 0.00 34 0.30 Total 45,12,581 31,709.83 52,178 9,531.09 4,661 5,466.19 45,69,420 46,707.11 73 The information for the UT of Lakshadweep has not been provided as there is no RFA. Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) 2.22.4 Summary of Findings It can be concluded that the total area available for density upgradation is approximately 92,989 km2, with a Carbon sequestration potential of 636.50 Million Tonnes Total area available for upgradation of density from OF to MDF is 40,709 km2 Total area available for upgradation of density from Scrub to OF is 5,573 km2 Total area available for upgradation of density from Non Forest to OF is 46,707 km2 Its breakup is given below: Additional Carbon Degradation Category Area available (km²) Upgradation category Sequestration Potential (Million Tonnes) VDF to OF 3,484 OF to MDF 16.04 MDF to OF 37,225 OF to MDF 171.34 VDF to Scrub 75 Scrub to OF 0.58 MDF to Scrub 1,056 Scrub to OF 8.16 OF to Scrub 4,442 Scrub to OF 34.33 VDF to Non Forest 1,816 NF to OF 15.79 MDF to Non Forest 14,073 NF to OF 122.34 OF to Non Forest 25,304 NF to OF 219.98 Scrub to Non Forest 5,514 NF to OF 47.94 Grand Total 92,989 636.50 74 Forest Survey of India  CHAPTER 03 Mangrove Cover Photo: Arijit Banerjee, IFS Photo: Anant Shukla  03 MANGROVE COVER MANGROVE COVER Introduction 3.1 ‘Mangrove’ is a term used to describe a community of salt-tolerant plants that thrive in tropical and sub-tropical intertidal regions around the world. These plants serve as a natural barrier against ocean dynamics along coastlines. The range of occurrence of these plant communities spans from 30° North to 30° South latitude. These plants thrive in areas with high rainfall, typically ranging from 2,100 to 6,400 mm (Kathiresan and Qasim, 2005)1. Mangrove species are considered facultative halophytes, meaning they can tolerate saltwater ecologically while requiring freshwater physiologically. To survive in waterlogged soils, high salinity, and the frequent challenges of cyclonic storms and tidal surges, mangrove species have developed various adaptations in their morphology, anatomy, and physiology. Mangroves, second only to coral reef ecosystems, are regarded as one of the most significant providers of ecosystem services for coastal communities. These unique coastal forests deliver a wide range of ecosystem goods and services, including essential protection to the tropical and subtropical coastlines worldwide. Recent research has unveiled additional valuable functions of mangroves, including their capacity to act as buffers against ocean acidification and coastal eutrophication, as well as their role as repositories for micro-plastics, further underscoring their ecological significance. Mangroves also foster rich biodiversity, both in plant and animal life, while offering a diverse array of resources to the communities residing along these coasts. Large populations, primarily in rural areas, rely on mangrove ecosystems for various livelihood activities that depend on biomass resources. In recent years, the role of mangroves in carbon storage and fisheries production also has garnered substantial recognition among the scientific community and policymakers. Global and National Status of Mangrove 3.2 3.2.1 Global Status In Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA 2020), the FAO examined worldwide mangrove coverage, revealing that mangrove forests span 14.72 Mha across 113 countries. This distribution is notably skewed. South and Southeast Asia dominate, accounting for 36.2% (5.33 Mha) of global mangrove cover, followed by South America with 2.12 Mha, Western and Central Africa at 2.30 Mha, North and Central America at 2.55 Mha, and Oceania with 1.26 Mha. The global status of mangroves as discussed above is summarized in Table 3.1. 1 Kathiresan K. and Qasim S.Z. (2005) Biodiversity of Mangrove Ecosystems, Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India) New Delhi. pp 10-11, 19  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) Table 3.1 Global Status of Mangrove Region/Sub-region Mangrove area (‘000 ha) Annual change (‘000 ha/yr) 1990 2000 2010 2020 1990 2000 2010 - - - 2000 2010 2020 Eastern and Southern Africa 929 902 883 905 -2.7 -1.9 2.2 Northern Africa 34 31 32 31 -0.3 0.1 -0.1 Western and Central Africa 2,436 2,400 2,349 2,304 -3.6 -5.1 -4.5 Total Africa 3,398 3,332 3,264 3,240 -6.6 -6.9 -2.3 East Asia 24 22 25 32 -0.2 0.3 0.7 South and Southeast Asia 6,117 6,108 5,713 5,330 -0.8 -39.6 -38.3 Western and Central Asia 190 190 190 184 0.0 0.0 -0.7 Total Asia 6,331 6,320 5,928 5,545 -1.0 -39.3 -38.2 Total Europe 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Caribbean 787 789 774 891 0.2 -1.6 11.7 Central America 492 482 483 466 -1.0 0.1 -1.8 North America 1,152 1,167 1,190 1,195 1.5 2.3 0.5 Total North and Central America 2,431 2,439 2,447 2,552 0.8 0.8 10.5 Total Oceania 1,447 1,150 1,314 1,255 -29.6 16.4 -5.9 Total South America 2,152 2,050 1,976 2,124 -10.2 -7.4 14.8 WORLD 15,759 15,292 14,928 14,717 -46.7 -36.3 -21.2 Source: FRA 2020, FAO According to the FAO’s 2020 report, the global mangrove area witnessed a decline of approximately 1.04 Mha between 1990 and 2020. Interestingly, the rate of this reduction demonstrated a significant slowdown over the course of three decades. Initially, during 1990-2000, the annual loss stood at 46,700 ha, which subsequently decreased to 36,300 ha per year in 2000-2010. The most recent decade, from 2010- 2020, saw the rate further drop to 21,200 ha annually. There have been substantial gains, particularly in river mouths and deltas. Contrary to above, an alarming trend emerged in Asia, where the average annual rate of mangrove loss surged dramatically. In the earlier period of 1990-2000, the region experienced an average loss of 1,030 ha per year. In contrast, during the 2010-2020 span, Asia faced a considerable loss of 3,83,000 ha, primarily attributed to Indonesia, which reported an annual average loss of 6,800 ha in 1990-2000, surging to 21,100 ha per year in the most recent decade. This increased rate of decline underscores the urgency of addressing mangrove conservation and restoration efforts in Asia. The primary driver of mangrove loss continues to be the conversion of mangrove areas for aquaculture and agriculture purposes, leading to the transformation of 2,193.92 km2 of mangroves between 2000 and 2016. Erosion is the second most significant cause of mangrove loss, resulting in the disappearance of 927.87 km2 of mangroves during the same period (Adame et al., 2021)2. 2 Adame M.F., Connolly R.M., Turschwell M.P., Lovelock C.E., Fatoyinbo T., Lagomasino D., Goldberg L.A., Holdorf J., Friess D.A., Sasmito S.D., Sanderman J., Sievers M., Buelow C., Kauffman J.B., Bryan-Brown D. and Brown C.J.(2021). Future carbon emissions 78 from global mangrove forest loss. Global Change Biology. 27(12):2856-2866. doi: 10.1111/gcb.15571. Epub 2021 Mar 17. PMID: 33644947; PMCID: PMC8251893. Forest Survey of India  Mangrove Cover 3.2.2 National Status of Mangroves The mangrove ecosystem, teaming with a multitude of plant and animal species, serves as a vital reservoir of biodiversity. India stands as the world’s third richest nation in terms of mangrove diversity. According to the Champion & Seth (1968)3 Classification, mangroves are categorized under Type Group-4, which includes Littoral & Swamp Forests. Within this classification, mangroves find their place in various types: 4A/L1 Littoral forest, 4B/TS1 Mangrove scrub, 4B/TS2 Mangrove forest, 4B/TS3 Saltwater mixed forest, and 4B/TS4 Brackish water mixed forest. These classifications highlight the ecological significance of mangroves and their vital role in India’s diverse landscape. In India, the entire mangrove habitat is broadly divided into three main regions: (i) the East Coast, (ii) the West Coast, and (iii) the islands of Andaman & Nicobar, along with the Lakshadweep atoll (Dagar et al., 1991)4. The East Coast has an impressive 40 mangrove species spanning 14 families and 22 genera. On the West Coast, there are 27 species from 11 families and 16 genera. The Andaman & Nicobar Islands host 38 species from 13 families and 19 genera. Lakshadweep has a limited presence of Mangroves, represented by 3 species. Among the 13 States/Union Territories, the highest mangrove diversity is found in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, where unique species like Rhizophora lamarckii, Lumnitzera littorea, Sonneratia ovata, S. lanceolata, S. urama, and S. gulngai thrive exclusively (Ragavan et al., 2021)5. India harbors two globally threatened mangrove species, Heritiera fomes and Sonneratia griffithii, out of a total of 11 species listed on the IUCN Red List. These two species are on the brink of local extinction due to challenges such as low seed viability and slow growth rates. The Sundarbans region in India derives its name from the splendid-looking ‘Sundari’ species (H. fomes), which, unfortunately, faces a looming threat of extinction in this very region. Additionally, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are home to eight exclusive mangrove species, including Lumnitzera littorea, Rhizophora lamarckii, Rhizophora mohanii, Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora apiculata, Sonneratia urama, Sonneratia gulngai, Sonneratia griffithii, Sonneratia lanceolata, Sonneratia alba and Sonneratia ovata. 3 Champion H.G. and Seth S.K. (1968). A revised survey of: The Forest Types of India. Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. 4 Dagar J.C., Mongia A.D. and Bandyopadhyay A.K. (1991). Mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Mohan Primlani for Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. Pp 3. 79 5 Ragavan P., Kathiresan K., Rana T.S., Saxena A., Mohan P.M., Jayaraj R.S.C., Ravichnadran K. and Mageswaran (2021). Indian Man- grove: A photographic field identification guide. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. Pp 33 Forest Survey of India  India State of Forest Report 2023 (Volume 1) A brief account of ecosystem benefits rendered by Mangroves in the country is given under figure 3.1. Figure 3.1 Mangrove Ecosystem Benefits (Source: https://www.insightsonindia.com) Since 1987, FSI has been consistently assessing the extent of mangrove cover using remote sensing data. The initial assessment was conducted on a 1:1 million scale. Following that, from 1989 to 1999, the assessment of mangrove cover occurred biennially and was synchronized with the country’s forest cover mapping, but on a more detailed 1:2,50,000 scale. Starting in 2001 and continuing thereafter, the assessment of mangrove cover has been conducted at a finer scale of 1:50,000. This progressive approach allows for more precise monitoring of the dynamic mangrove ecosystems across India. 3.3 Conservation of Mangroves Rapid coastal development and the consequences of climate change, such as rising sea levels and increasing frequency of natural disasters, have significantly contributed to mangrove degradation. Consequently, prioritizing efforts to enhance the ecological well-being of mangroves has become imperative to ensure their long-term sustainability. India stands as a commendable example of natural ecosystem conservation and restoration at a regional level, particularly its dedication in preserving and managing mangrove ecosystems. 80 Forest Survey of India  Mangrove Cover Figure 3.2 (A) – A coastline in Sundarbans (B) – Pneumatophores Photos – Debal Ray, IFS As already mentioned, India ranks as the world’s third richest nation in terms of mangrove plant diversity, trailing behind Indonesia and Australia. India has 46 genuine mangrove species spanning 14 families and 22 genera. Notably, nine of these species hold global significance as “species of conservation importance,” including Sonneratia griffithii, Heritieria fomes, Excoecaria indica, Aglaia cucullata, Aegialitis rotundifolia, Brownlowia tersa, Ceriops decandra, Phoenix paludosa, and Sonneratia ovata. Furthermore, 188 plant species associated with mangroves often expand their range into the hinterland mangrove environments. India has the world’s highest recorded biodiversity within mangrove forests, with a total of 4,107 species, encompassing 23% of floral and 77% of faunal species. Bhitarkanika in the State of Odisha is renowned as the ‘Mangrove Genetic Paradise’ on a global scale. Indian mangrove conservation initiatives have achieved notable success through innovative approaches. These include Canal Bank planting using the Fish Bone technique in areas with low tidal amplitude like Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Maharashtra has established a dedicated “Mangrove Cell” to oversee conservation and management efforts. Furthermore, Maharashtra has declared “Sonneratia alba” as the State Mangrove Tree. Kerala’s Kannuar Mission focuses on mangrove restoration. Gujarat employs the Raised Bed method for mangrove affores