Fundamentals of Computer Science PDF by Toronto Academic Press

CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE...

CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE UNIT INTRODUCTION Fundamentals of Computer Science refers to the basic principles and concepts underlying computer systems and their applications. It covers a wide range of topics such as computer hardware, software, algorithms, data structures, programming languages, computer networks, and database systems. Computer hardware covers the physical components of a computer system such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices, and Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. storage devices. Understanding the hardware is essential for optimizing the performance of a computer system. Software refers to the programs and applications that run on a computer system (Schwill, 1994). It includes operating systems, system software, and application software. Operating systems are the backbone of a computer system, providing an interface between the hardware and the software. System software includes device drivers, utilities, and programming tools. Application software includes programs used for specific purposes such as word processing, spreadsheets, and gaming. Algorithms are step-by-step procedures for solving problems, while data structures refer to ways of organizing and storing data efficiently. These concepts are fundamental to computer science and are used in developing programs and applications (Shackelford & LeBlanc, 1997). Programming languages are used to create computer programs, and they are essential in software development. Some popular programming languages include Python, Java, C++, and JavaScript. Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  2 Introduction to Computer Science Computer networks are used to connect computers and devices, enabling them to communicate and share resources. Network protocols such as TCP/IP and HTTP are used to ensure reliable and efficient communication (Loui, 1995). Database systems are used to organize and store large amounts of data. Concepts such as database design, data modeling, and database management are essential in creating and maintaining effective database systems. In summary, Fundamentals of Computer Science covers the basic principles and concepts of computer systems and their applications. It is a broad field that encompasses hardware, software, algorithms, data structures, programming languages, computer networks, and database systems. Understanding these fundamentals is essential for anyone interested in computer science or software development. Learning Objectives At the end of this chapter, readers will be able to: Understand information representation, including data representation and multimedia. Explore the basics of communication and how it relates to computer science. Learn about computer hardware, including memory and storage, and logic gates and circuits. Examine processor fundamentals, including CPU architecture, assembly language, and bit manipulation. Understand system software, including operating systems and language translators. Learn about security, privacy, and data integrity, including data validation and verification. Explore database concepts, including DBMS, DDL, and DML. Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. Understand algorithm design and problem-solving, including computational thinking skills and algorithms. Learn about data types and structures, including arrays and ADTs. Explore programming basics, including constructs, built-in functions, and structured programming. Key Terms Data Representation Multimedia Hardware Memory and Storage CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 3 Logic Gates and Circuits CPU Architecture Assembly Language Operating System Language Translators Security, Privacy, and Data Integrity Database Management Systems (DBMS) Data Definition Language (DDL) Data Manipulation Language (DML) Algorithms Arrays Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. CHAPTER Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45. 1  4 Introduction to Computer Science 1.1. INFORMATION REPRESENTATION Information representation is a fundamental concept in computer science, as it involves the translation of data into a format that can be processed and stored by a computer system. There are various techniques used for information representation, including data representation, multimedia, and file compression (Kosslyn, 1975). 1.1.1. Data Representation Data representation involves the translation of information into a format that can be processed by a computer system. One of the most common techniques for data representation is binary code. Binary code is a system of representing numbers and letters using a series of 0s and 1s, which can be processed by digital devices. For example, the number 9 can be represented in binary as 1001 (Figure 1.1). Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. Figure 1.1. Binary Digits data representation in computer science (Source: Java T Point, Creative Commons License). Another important data representation technique is hexadecimal code. Hexadecimal code is a system of representing numbers and letters using a combination of 0–9 and A-F. Hexadecimal code is commonly used in computer systems for representing colors in graphics and images. CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 5 ASCII code is another technique used for data representation. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, and it is a system of representing letters, numbers, and symbols using a 7-bit binary code. ASCII code is used in many computer systems for representing text and other types of data (Wang, 1990). In addition to these techniques, data encoding and decoding is also used for data representation. Data encoding involves the process of transforming data into a standardized format, while data decoding involves the process of transforming the standardized data back into its original format. 1.1.2. Multimedia Multimedia refers to the use of different types of media, such as text, images, audio, and video, in computer applications. Multimedia data can be challenging to represent, due to its size and complexity. There are various types of multimedia, including text, images, audio, video, and animation (Figure 1.2). Figure 1.2. Types or elements of the Multimedia (Source: Gupta Tree Point, Creative Commons License). Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. Text is one of the simplest forms of multimedia, and it can be represented using ASCII code. Images, on the other hand, are more complex and require specialized representation techniques, such as JPEG and PNG formats. Audio data can be represented using various audio formats, such as WAV and MP3, while video data can be represented using various video formats, such as MPEG and AVI (Stemler, 1997). The challenge with representing multimedia data is that it can take up a significant amount of storage space. For example, a single high-resolution image can take up several megabytes of storage space. To address this challenge, multimedia data can be compressed using various techniques, which we will cover in the next section (Mayer, 2017). CHAPTER Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45. 1  6 Introduction to Computer Science 1.1.3. File Compression File compression is the process of reducing the size of a file, while preserving its content. File compression is essential for reducing the storage space required for multimedia data and other large files. There are two main types of file compression: lossless compression and lossy compression. Lossless compression involves compressing a file without losing any data. This means that when the file is decompressed, it is exactly the same as the original file. Lossless compression techniques include ZIP and GZIP. Lossy compression, on the other hand, involves compressing a file by removing some of the data. This means that when the file is decompressed, it is not exactly the same as the original file. Lossy compression techniques include JPEG and MP3. Overall, file compression is an important technique for reducing the storage space required for large files, particularly multimedia data (Rubin, 1976). In conclusion, information representation is a fundamental concept in computer science, as it involves the translation of data into a format that can be processed and stored by a computer system. This chapter has covered various techniques used for information representation, including data representation, multimedia, and file compression. By understanding these techniques, computer scientists can efficiently store, process, and communicate different types of data, which is essential in modern computing environments. Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. Keep your hardware dust-free to prevent 1.2. COMMUNICATION overheating and Communication is the exchange of information between two or maximize its lifespan. more entities. In the context of computer science, communication refers to the exchange of data between computer systems. There are various types of computer networks used for communication, including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and the internet (Leach et al., 2017). A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that can exchange data with each other. There are various types of computer networks, including LANs, WANs, and the internet (Figure 1.3). CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 7 A LAN is a network that covers a small geographic area, such as a home or office building. LANs are often used for sharing resources, such as printers and files, and for connecting devices, such as computers and smartphones. A WAN is a network that covers a larger geographic area, such as a city or a country. WANs are often used for connecting LANs in different locations and for providing internet access. Figure 1.3. Illustration of the LAN and WAN (Gateway Firewall, Creative Commons License). The internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks. It allows users to access a vast array of resources, such as websites, email, and social media. The internet is based on the TCP/IP protocol, which is a set of rules and standards for communication between computer systems (Aakhus, 2007). The internet has revolutionized the way people communicate and access information. It has made it possible for people to communicate and collaborate across different geographic locations, Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. and it has provided access to a vast array of information and resources. However, the internet also poses various security and privacy risks. Cybersecurity threats, such as hacking and malware, can compromise the security of computer networks and the data they contain. Privacy concerns, such as data breaches and online tracking, can compromise the privacy of users’ personal information. To address these concerns, various security and privacy measures have been developed, such as firewalls, encryption, and virtual private networks (VPNs). These measures help to protect computer networks and the data they contain from unauthorized access and use. In conclusion, communication is an essential aspect of computer science, and CHAPTER Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45. 1  8 Introduction to Computer Science it involves the exchange of data between computer systems. Networks, including LANs, WANs, and the internet, provide the infrastructure for communication between computer systems. The internet has revolutionized the way people communicate and access information, but it also poses various security and privacy risks. To address these risks, various security and privacy measures have been developed, which help to protect computer networks and the data they contain from unauthorized access and use (McLeod, 2007). 1.3. HARDWARE Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system, including the components that process and store data. This section of the chapter covers two essential hardware components: memory and storage, and logic gates and logic circuits. 1.3.1. Memory and Storage Memory and storage are two critical hardware components that are essential for processing and storing data in a computer system. Memory is a temporary storage location where data and instructions are stored for processing by the CPU. There are various types of memory used in computer systems, including random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM) (Mottier, 2005). Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. Figure 1.4. Memory and storage devices in hardware (Source: Daniel Horowitz, Creative Commons License). RAM is a type of memory that is used for temporary storage of data and instructions that are currently being processed by the CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 9 CPU. RAM is volatile, which means that its contents are lost when the computer is turned off. ROM, on the other hand, is a type of memory that is used for permanent storage of data and instructions that are essential for the operation of the computer system. ROM is non-volatile, which means that its contents are not lost when the computer is turned off. Storage refers to the long-term storage of data on a computer system. There are various types of storage devices used in computer systems, including hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and optical storage devices. HDDs use spinning disks to store data, while SSDs use flash memory to store data. Optical storage devices, such as CD-ROMs and DVDs, use lasers to read and write data (Erbas-Cakmak et al., 2018) (Figure 1.4). 1.3.2. Logic Gates and Logic Circuits Logic gates and logic circuits are essential components of digital electronics. Logic gates are basic building blocks that perform logical operations, such as AND, OR, and NOT. There are various types of logic gates, including AND gates, OR gates, NOT gates, NAND gates, and NOR gates (Figure 1.5). Figure 1.5. Logic gate symbols Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. (Source: TJ Byers, Creative Commons License). Logic circuits are built using combinations of logic gates to perform complex logical operations. There are various types of logic circuits, including adders, multiplexers, and demultiplexers. Logic circuits are used in computer systems for performing arithmetic operations, logical operations, and memory operations (Zhilyaev & Langdon, 2008). In conclusion, hardware is a critical component of computer systems, and it includes components that process and store data. Memory and storage are two essential hardware CHAPTER Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45. 1  10 Introduction to Computer Science components that are used for temporary and long-term storage of data. Logic gates and logic circuits are essential components of digital electronics, and they are used in computer systems for performing complex logical and arithmetic operations. By understanding these hardware components, computer scientists can design and develop more efficient and powerful computer systems. 1.4. PROCESSOR FUNDAMENTALS The central processing unit (CPU) is the “brain” of a computer system, and it performs the bulk of the data processing operations. This section of the chapter covers three essential aspects of processor fundamentals: CPU architecture, assembly language, and bit manipulation. 1.4.1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) Architecture The CPU architecture refers to the design and organization of the various components that make up the CPU, including the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, and the registers. The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on data, while the control unit manages the flow of data within the CPU and between the CPU and other components of the computer system (Thostenson & Chou, 1999) (Figure 1.6). Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. Figure 1.6. Schematic of the CPU architecture (Source: MacKenty, Creative Commons License). There are various types of CPU architectures, including the von Neumann architecture and the Harvard architecture. The von Neumann architecture is a type of CPU architecture where the same memory and bus system are used for both data and instructions. CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 11 The Harvard architecture, on the other hand, uses separate memory and bus systems for data and instructions, which allows for faster data access and processing (Taylor et al., 2003). 1.4.2. Assembly Language Assembly language is a low-level programming language that is used to write programs that can be executed by the CPU. Assembly language is specific to a particular CPU architecture, and it consists of a set of instructions that the CPU can execute. Assembly language is considered a low-level language because it provides a direct mapping between the instructions written by Remember the programmer and the machine code executed by the CPU. The CPU Assembly language programs are often used for low-level system architecture is programming, such as device drivers and operating systems. the foundation upon which all computational tasks 1.4.3. Bit Manipulation are built, like the scaffolding that Bit manipulation is the process of manipulating individual bits in supports a towering skyscraper. a binary number to perform logical and arithmetic operations. Bit manipulation is an essential concept in computer science and is used in various areas, including cryptography, compression algorithms, and digital signal processing (PVSSR, 2008). Bit manipulation operations include bitwise AND, bitwise OR, bitwise XOR, bitwise NOT, bit shifting, and bit masking. Bit manipulation can be used to perform various operations, including counting the number of set bits in a binary number, reversing the Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. bits in a binary number, and checking if a binary number is a power of two. In conclusion, processor fundamentals are essential for understanding the inner workings of a computer system. The CPU architecture defines the organization and design of the various components that make up the CPU, while assembly language provides a low-level programming language for writing programs that can be executed by the CPU. Bit manipulation is an essential concept in computer science and is used in various areas, including cryptography and compression algorithms. By understanding these concepts, computer scientists can design and develop more efficient and powerful computer systems (Dey et al., 2012). CHAPTER Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45. 1  12 Introduction to Computer Science 1.5. SYSTEM SOFTWARE System software is a collection of programs that are designed to manage and control the operation of computer hardware. This section of the chapter covers two essential aspects of system software: operating systems and language translators. 1.5.1. Operating System An operating system (OS) is a software program that manages and controls the hardware resources of a computer system. The OS provides a user interface that allows users to interact with the computer system and the applications installed on it. The OS is responsible for managing the CPU, memory, input/output devices, and storage devices (Figure 1.7) Figure 1.7. Schematic of different operating systems (Source: Rose Carson, Creative Commons License). There are various types of operating systems, including Windows, MacOS, Linux, and UNIX. Each operating system has its own set of features and capabilities, and the choice of an operating system depends on the specific requirements of the user or organization (Stonebraker, 1981). The operating system plays a crucial role in the security and Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. stability of a computer system. The OS provides various security features, such as user authentication, access control, and encryption, to protect the computer system from unauthorized access and use (Tanenbaum & Van Renesse, 1985). 1.5.2. Language Translators Language translators are programs that translate source code written in a high-level programming language into machine code that can be executed by the CPU. There are various types of language translators, including compilers, interpreters, and assemblers. Compilers are programs that translate source code into object code, which is a form of machine code that can be executed by the CPU. The object code is then linked with other object code CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 13 and libraries to create an executable program (Vanjani & Aiken, 2020). Interpreters are programs that execute source code directly, without the need for a separate compilation step. The interpreter reads each line of source code and executes it immediately. Assemblers are programs that translate assembly language code into machine code that can be executed by the Did you Know? CPU. Assembly language is a low-level programming language that is specific to a particular CPU architecture. The System Software of a computer, which In conclusion, system software is an essential component of a includes the operating computer system, and it includes programs that manage and control system and device the operation of computer hardware. Operating systems provide a drivers, plays a crucial user interface and manage the resources of the computer system, role in ensuring optimal while language translators translate source code into machine p e r f o r m a n c e and code that can be executed by the CPU. By understanding these stability of the machine. concepts, computer scientists can design and develop more efficient and powerful computer systems (Temple & Edwards, 2002). 1.6. SECURITY, PRIVACY, AND DATA INTEGRITY Security, privacy, and data integrity are critical concerns in the design and implementation of computer systems. This section of the chapter covers two essential aspects of security, privacy, and data integrity: first one includes the security, privacy, data integrity, and the second one includes data validation and data verification. 1.6.1. Data Security, Data Privacy, and Data Integrity Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. Security, privacy, and data integrity are closely related concepts that are essential for protecting computer systems and data from unauthorized access, use, and modification. Security refers to the protection of computer systems and data from threats such as malware, viruses, and hackers. Privacy refers to the protection of personal and sensitive data from unauthorized access and use. Data integrity refers to the accuracy, consistency, and completeness of data (Wang et al., 2019). There are various techniques and technologies used to ensure security, privacy, and data integrity in computer systems, including encryption, firewalls, access control, and data backup and recovery. CHAPTER Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45. 1  14 Introduction to Computer Science Figure 1.8. Organization of data security and privacy in computer science (Source: Yunchuan Sun et al., Creative Commons License). 1.6.2. Data Validation and Data Verification Data validation and data verification are essential processes for ensuring the accuracy and completeness of data. Data validation refers to the process of checking whether the data entered into a computer system is valid, while data verification refers to the process of checking whether the data in a computer system is accurate and complete. Data validation and data verification are critical for preventing errors and inconsistencies in data. They are used in various areas, including data entry, database management, and data analysis. There are various techniques and technologies used for data validation and data verification, including data cleaning, data profiling, and data quality tools (Hirano et al., 2020). Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. In conclusion, security, privacy, and data integrity are essential concerns in the design and implementation of computer systems. Data validation and data verification are critical for ensuring the accuracy and completeness of data. By understanding these concepts and using the appropriate techniques and technologies, computer scientists can design and develop computer systems that are secure, private, and reliable. 1.7. ETHICS AND OWNERSHIP Ethics and ownership are important considerations in the design and implementation of computer systems. This section of the chapter covers three essential aspects of ethics and ownership: CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 15 legal, moral, ethical, and cultural implications; copyright issues; and artificial intelligence (AI). 1.7.1. Legal, Moral, Ethical, and Cultural Implications Computer systems and technology have significant impacts on society, and there are various legal, moral, ethical, and cultural implications associated with their use. The development and use of computer systems can raise ethical issues such as privacy, data protection, and data ownership (Huff & Martin, 1985). There are also cultural and social implications associated with the development and use of computer systems, including the impact on employment, social inequality, and access to technology. Computer scientists need to be aware of these issues and work to develop computer systems that are socially responsible and ethically sound. 1.7.2. Copyright Issues Copyright issues are an important consideration in the development and use of computer systems. Copyright laws protect the rights of creators and owners of intellectual property, including software, music, and other digital content. Computer scientists need to be aware of copyright laws and ensure that their work does not infringe on the rights of others. They also need to be aware of open-source software and other forms of collaborative development, which can provide opportunities for innovation and creativity while respecting the rights of creators and owners of intellectual property. 1.7.3. Artificial Intelligence (AI) Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing field of computer science that involves the development of computer systems that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, and decision-making. The development of AI raises ethical issues related to the use of technology, including issues of privacy, data protection, and data ownership. AI also raises questions about the impact of automation on employment and social inequality (Vaishya et al., 2020). Computer scientists need to be aware of the ethical and social implications of AI and work to develop AI systems that are socially responsible and ethically sound. In conclusion, ethics and ownership are important considerations in the design and implementation of computer systems. Computer scientists need CHAPTER Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45. 1  16 Introduction to Computer Science to be aware of the legal, moral, ethical, and cultural implications of their work and work to develop computer systems that are socially responsible and ethically sound. Copyright issues and the development of AI also raise important ethical issues that computer scientists need to be aware of and work to address (Makridakis, 2017). 1.8. DATABASES Databases are collections of data that are organized and stored in a way that allows for efficient retrieval and manipulation of information. This section of the chapter covers three essential aspects of databases: database concepts, database management systems (DBMs), and data definition language (DDL) and data manipulation language (DML) (Figure 1.9). Figure 1.9. Schematic of the databases (Source: Nexus, Creative Commons License). Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. 1.8.1. Database Concepts Database concepts refer to the fundamental principles and concepts that underlie the design and implementation of databases. These include the entity-relationship (ER) model, normalization, data modeling, and data indexing. The ER model is a data model that is used to represent the relationships between different entities in a database. Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to eliminate redundancy and improve data consistency. Data modeling is the process of defining the structure and constraints of data in a database, while data indexing is the process of creating indexes on database tables to improve query performance (Saeed, 2017). CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 17 1.8.2. Database Management Systems (DBMS) A database management system (DBMS) is a software system that is used to manage and manipulate databases. A DBMS provides tools and utilities for creating, modifying, and querying databases, as well as for managing data security and integrity. There are various types of DBMSs, including relational, object- oriented, and NoSQL DBMSs. Each type of DBMS has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of a DBMS depends on the specific requirements of the user or organization (Zhulin, 2015) (Figure 1.10). Figure 1.10. Schematic of the database management system (DBMS) (Source: ERP, Creative Commons License). Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. 1.8.3. Data Definition Language (DDL) and Data Manipulation Language (DML) Data definition language (DDL) and data manipulation language (DML) are two types of programming languages used to create, modify, and manipulate databases. DDL is used to create and modify the structure of a database, including creating tables, defining indexes, and creating constraints. DML is used to manipulate the data in a database, including inserting, updating, and deleting records. SQL (Structured Query Language) is a popular programming language used for managing databases. SQL includes both DDL and DML statements, making it a powerful tool for managing and CHAPTER Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45. 1  18 Introduction to Computer Science manipulating databases (Özsu & Valduriez, 1996). In conclusion, databases are an essential component of many computer systems, and they are used to store and manage large amounts of data efficiently. Understanding the fundamental principles and concepts of databases, as well as the different types of DBMSs and programming languages used to manage them, is critical for computer scientists working in this field. By applying these concepts and using the appropriate tools and technologies, computer scientists can design and develop efficient and effective database systems. 1.9. ALGORITHM DESIGN AND PROBLEM-SOLVING Algorithm design and problem-solving are essential skills for computer scientists. This section of the chapter covers two essential aspects of algorithm design and problem-solving: computational thinking skills and algorithms. 1.9.1. Computational Thinking Skills Computational thinking refers to a problem-solving approach that involves breaking down complex problems into smaller, more manageable components. This involves identifying patterns, creating algorithms, and developing strategies for managing and manipulating data (Durak & Saritepeci, 2018). Computational thinking skills include abstraction, decomposition, pattern recognition, and algorithmic design. These skills are essential for designing and developing efficient and effective computer systems. 1.9.2. Algorithms Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. An algorithm is a set of instructions that can be followed to solve a problem or perform a task. Algorithms are used in various computer applications, including search engines, social networks, and online shopping. Designing efficient algorithms requires an understanding of data structures, programming languages, and computational complexity. Good algorithms are efficient, correct, and easy to understand. There are various techniques used to design and analyze algorithms, including brute-force algorithms, divide-and-conquer algorithms, and dynamic programming. These techniques can be used to solve various types of problems, including sorting, searching, and graph problems (Fox et al., 1987). In conclusion, algorithm design and problem-solving are essential skills for computer scientists. Computational thinking skills and algorithm design techniques are used to develop efficient and effective computer systems that can solve CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 19 complex problems and perform tasks efficiently. Understanding the principles and techniques of algorithm design is critical for computer scientists working in this field. By applying these techniques and developing efficient algorithms, computer scientists can design and develop computer systems that are efficient, effective, and reliable. 1.10. DATA TYPES AND STRUCTURES Data types and structures refer to the different ways that data can be organized and represented in a computer system. This section of the chapter covers four essential aspects of data types and structures: data types and records, arrays, files, and an introduction to abstract data types (ADTs) (Figure 1.11). Figure 1.11. Schematic of the data structure (Source: Analytix Labs, Creative Commons License). Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. 1.10.1. Data Types and Records Data types are the basic building blocks of a programming language. They define the range of values that a variable can take, and the operations that can be performed on those values. Common data types include integers, floats, characters, and Boolean values (Roehrs et al., 2017). Records are a way of grouping related data together into a single data structure. A record is made up of fields, each of which contains a separate piece of data. Records are commonly used in database systems to store and retrieve information. CHAPTER Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45. 1  20 Introduction to Computer Science 1.10.2. Arrays An array is a data structure that consists of a collection of elements, each of which can be accessed using an index. Arrays can be used to store and manipulate large amounts of data efficiently, and they are commonly used in many computer applications, including numerical analysis and image processing. 1.10.3. Files Files are a way of storing data permanently on a computer system. They can be used to store text, images, sound, and other types of data. File systems provide a way of organizing and managing files on a computer system, and they provide mechanisms for accessing and manipulating files. 1.10.4. Introduction to Abstract Data Types (ADTs) An abstract data type (ADT) is a way of defining a data type in terms of its properties and the operations that can be performed on it, rather than in terms of its implementation. ADTs provide a way of abstracting away the details of how a data type is implemented, making it easier to reason about and use in a program (Fürst et al., 2016). Examples of ADTs include stacks, queues, and trees. These data types provide a way of organizing and manipulating data in a way that is consistent and easy to understand (Figure 1.12). Copyright © 2024. Toronto Academic Press. All rights reserved. Figure 1.12. Abstract data type in data structure (Source: java t point, Creative Commons License). In conclusion, understanding data types and structures is essential for computer scientists. Data types provide the building CHAPTER 1 Oluyide, M. (2024). Introduction to computer science. Toronto Academic Press. Created from elac on 2025-04-29 18:50:45.  Fundamentals of Computer Science 21 blocks for programming languages, while data structures provide a way of organizing and manipulating data efficiently. By understanding the different types of data types and structures, computer scientists can develop efficient and effective computer systems that can manipulate and process data in a variety of w