Introduction to Civil Engineering (22ESC241) PDF

Sub: Introduction to Civil Engineering (22ESC241) Module-1 Notes Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science (Dr.M.B.ANANTHAYYA, Prof. & HOD, Dept.of.Civil Eng. SVIT, Bangalore) Introduction to Civil Engineering: Fields of Civil...

Sub: Introduction to Civil Engineering (22ESC241) Module-1 Notes Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science (Dr.M.B.ANANTHAYYA, Prof. & HOD, Dept.of.Civil Eng. SVIT, Bangalore) Introduction to Civil Engineering: Fields of Civil Engineering 1. Surveying: Scope of surveying are For preparing the contour map to determine the best possible route and amount of earthwork required For preparing the engineering map showing engineering details like highways, railways, canals, dams, reservoirs, etc. Maps prepared for marking boundaries of countries, states, districts etc., avoid disputes For preparing the contour map to determine the best possible route and amount of earthwork required For preparing the engineering map showing engineering details like highways, railways, canals, dams, reservoirs, etc. Maps prepared for marking boundaries of countries, states, districts etc., avoid disputes 2. Geotechnical Engineering: Scope of Geotechnical Engineering are To assess the quality and strength of soil to construct civil engineering structure To design retaining walls for soil retainment. To decide type of foundations for different type of structures. For design of underground structures such as Tunnels, Shafts, Conduits. Design of earthen dams for storage of water. For design of Roads for transportation facilities. 3. Structural Engineering: Scope of structural Engineering are Analysis and design of Dams, Bridges, Stadiums, Auditoriums, Multi - storied buildings. Analysis and design of power generation stations Analysis and design of steel industrial structures Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance of structures Design of nuclear Power plants. Design of structural reinforcement for different type of structural components 4. a)Hydraulics Engineering: Scope of Hydraulic Engineering are To measure the discharge of water in rivers for design of bridges Design of hydro power plants for generation of electricity. Design of Pumps and turbines Design of water supply schemes for the city which includes design of pipes and pumps. Design of canals to carry water to irrigation land from dams. Design of Weirs for Dams. b) Water Resource Engineering: Scope of water resource engineering are To arrive the total discharge of water from catchment areas To design the reservoir capacity to store the water For water quality management and pollution control. Supply of water for garden and recreational centers. Design of water supply systems for the cities and industries. To measure the total rainfall 5. Transportation Engineering: Scope of Transportation engineering are It involves planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of transportation facility.  Planning and design of runways, roads, harbors and railways Maintenance and up gradation of harbors, airports, railway system based on requirements. It contributes economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country. Design of traffic signals for control of traffic. 6. Environmental Engineering: Scope of Environmental Engineering are Involves collection of water, Purification and supply for drinking. Waste water collection, treatment and disposal Air pollution control and treatments. Solid waste management and control E-Waste management control and Treatment Construction waste management and control 7. Construction planning and Project Management: Scope of Construction planning and Project Management are It involves the choice of technology, the estimation of the required resources and durations for individual tasks etc,. A good construction plan is the basis for developing the budget and the schedule for work In is the master plan that ensures a construction project runs smoothly and meets all its deadlines, budget constraints, and quality standards. It involves the material storage, labours and equipment's required for the completion of the Project. Critical Path Method (CPM) is used to execute the work in a planned manner such that the project is completed within specified time and allotted budget.  Basic Materials of Construction Following are the basic materials of construction: 1. Brick: Brick is a small rectangular block typically made of fired or sun-dried clay, used in construction. Good qualities of Bricks: The bricks should be table-moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper-coloured, free from cracks and with sharp and square edges. The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size. The bricks should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other. The brick should not absorbs water more than 20% by weight, for first class bricks and 22% by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in water for a period of 24 hours. No impression should be left on brick surface, when it is scratched with finger nail. The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one meter. The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof. The bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salt when allowed to dry in shade. Types of Bricks 1. Sun-dried bricks Unburnt bricks or sundried bricks are the most basic example for bricks. They are not so strong, have reduced fire and water resistance, and hence they are used in temporary structures 2. Burnt Clay Bricks Burnt bricks are good quality bricks and burnt bricks are classified into four types and they are First class bricks: They are table-molded and burnt in large kilns. So, these bricks contain standard shape, sharp edges and smooth surfaces. Second class bricks: Second class bricks are moderate quality bricks and they are molded by ground-molding process. These bricks are also burnt in kilns. But because of ground molding, they do not have smooth surfaces as well as sharp edges Third class bricks: Third class bricks are poor quality bricks which are generally used for temporary structures like unburnt bricks. Fourth class bricks: Fourth class bricks are very poor quality bricks and these are not used as bricks in the structure. They are crushed and used as aggregates in the manufacturing of concrete. 3. Fly Ash Bricks Fly ash bricks are manufactured using fly ash and water. These bricks have better properties than clay bricks and great resistant to freeze thaw cycles 4. Concrete Bricks Concrete bricks are manufacturing using concrete with ingredients as cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water. These bricks can be manufactured in sizes as required. 5. Sand Lime or Calcium Silicate Bricks  Calcium silicate bricks are made of sand and lime and popularly known as sand lime bricks. These bricks are used for several purposes in construction industries such as ornamental works in buildings, masonry works etc. Tests on Bricks: 1. Absorption Test on Bricks Absorption test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture content absorbed by brick under extreme conditions. For a good quality brick the amount of water absorption should not exceed 20% of weight of dry brick. 2. Crushing Strength or Compressive Strength Test on Bricks: Crushing strength of bricks is determined by placing brick in compression testing machine. Minimum crushing strength of brick is 3.50N/mm2, if it is less than 3.50 N/mm2, then it is not useful for construction purpose. 3. Hardness Test on Bricks A good brick should resist scratches against sharp things. So, for this test a sharp tool or finger nail is used to make scratch on brick. If there is no scratch impression on brick then it is said to be hard brick. 4. Shape and Size Test on Bricks Shape and size of bricks are very important consideration. All bricks used for construction should be of same size 5. Color Test of Bricks A good brick should possess bright and uniform color throughout its body 6. Soundness Test of Bricks In this test, 2 bricks are chosen randomly and struck with one another. Then sound produced should be clear bell ringing sound and brick should not break. Then it is said to be good brick. 7. Efflorescence Test on Bricks A good quality brick should not contain any soluble salts in it. If soluble salts are there, then it will cause efflorescence on brick surfaces. Advantages of Brick Masonry: Bricks are having uniform shape and size. Handling is easy with brick as the bricks are light in weight. Brick is easily available and transportation cost is less Construction cost can be reduced in brick masonry as mortar joints are thin. Disadvantages of Brick Masonry Not as strong as other materials such as stone. Not as durable compared to stone. Brick masonry needs plastering to protect from weathering. Brick absorbs water which will cause dampness and damage to the structure. Less aesthetic view with brick as there is limited sizes and colors. 2) Cement: Cement is a powder of alumina, silica, lime, iron oxide, and magnesium oxide burned together in a kiln and finely powdered and used as binding material in mortar and concrete. Uses of Cement The most significant use of cement is production of concrete and mortar It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars etc. It can be used for preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc. It can be used for manufacturing precast pipes, garden seats, flower pots, dust bins, fencing posts, etc. It is used in the construction of water Tanks Different types of cements Ordinary Portland cement: This cement is used in general concrete construction where there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or in groundwater Portland pozzolana cement: PPC is used for the structures having direct contact with water such as marine structure, dams, bridge piers, sanitation system like Sewers and thick foundation where mass concrete is used. Rapid hardening Portland cement: It is generally used in road work and bridge construction where the time factor is very important. Portland slag cement: It can be used in mass concrete structures such as retaining walls, foundation, and dams. Sulphate resisting Portland cement: Since ordinary Portland cement is susceptible to attack of sulphate hence sulphate resisting Cement is developed to use where the soil is infected with sulphates Quick setting Cement: Quick setting cement sets very fast. This cement is used for foundation where pumping of water is needed Requirements of good cement: 1) Fineness of Cement The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. Fineness of cement should not be more than 10% 2) Soundness of Cement Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Soundness should not be more than 10mm 3) Consistency of Cement  The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency. It is measured by Vicat Test. Generally the consistency of cement is 29%. 4) Strength of Cement Compressive Strength: It is the most common strength test on cement. The test specimen of 50mmx50mmx50mm are casted and after curing the specimens are tested under compressive loads until failure Tensile strength: Split tensile test is conducted for determining the tensile strength of cement. Flexural strength: This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed on a 40 x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its centre point until failure. 5) Setting Time of Cement Cement sets and hardens when water is added. Initial setting time: When the paste begins to stiffen which is typically occurs within 30- 45 minutes Final setting time: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load which occurs in between6 to 10 hours 6) Specific Gravity (Relative Density) Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has a Specific gravity of 3.15 3 Mortars Mortar is a bonding agent which is generally produced by mixing cementing or binding material Types of Mortar 1) Cement Mortar Cement mortar is a type of mortar where cement is used as binding material and sand is used as fine aggregate. Depending upon the desired strength, the cement to the sand proportion of cement mortar varies from 1:2 to 1:6. like Lime or Cement and fine aggregate sand or surkhi with water. 2) Lime Mortar Lime mortar is a type of mortar where lime (fat lime or hydraulic lime) is used as binding material and sand is used as fine aggregate. 3. Surkhi mortar Surkhi mortar is a type of mortar where lime is used as binding material and surki is used as fine aggregate. 4. Mud Mortar Mud mortar is a type of mortar where mud is used as binding material and sawdust, or cow-dung is used as fine aggregate. Mud mortar is useful where lime or cement is not available. Qualities of good mortar: The main quality that mortar should possess is adhesion. Good mortar should provide good adhesion to building units (bricks, Stones etc). Mortar should be water resistant. It should have the capability of resisting the penetration of water. Deformability of mortar should be low. Mortar should be easily workable in the site condition. It should possess high durability Cracks should not be developed in the joint formed by mortar. Functions/uses of Mortar in Construction: Mortar is used to bind together the bricks or stones in brick or stone masonry.  It is used to give a soft even bed between different layers of brick or stone masonry for equal distribution of pressure over the bed. It is used to fill up the spaces between bricks or stones for making walls tight It is used to fill up the spaces between bricks or stones for making walls tight It is used in pl astering works to hide the joints and to improve appearance 5. Plain Cement Concrete Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate without steel. Material Used in Plain Cement Concrete: 1. Coarse Aggregate Coarse aggregate used in the PCC must be of hard broken stone of granite or similar stone, free from dust, dirt and other foreign matter. The stone ballast shall be 20 mm in size and smaller. 2. Fine Aggregate Fine aggregate shall be of coarse sand consisting of hard, sharp and angular grains and free from dust, dirt and organic matter. 3. Cement Portland Pozzolana cement (P.P.C) is normally used for plain cement concrete. 4 Water Generally, potable water shall be used having a pH value not less than 6. Uses of Plain cement concrete As bed concrete below the wall footings, column footings As sill concrete to get a hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills. As to coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.  It is used in rigid pavement construction for transportation Storm/ Sewer at drains, small retaining walls. To make tennis courts, basketball courts etc 6. RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is a composite building material consisting of concrete reinforced with steel. Advantages of Reinforced Cement Concrete: Fresh concrete will be in the form of fluid and so it can be poured and casted into any shape. It gives easiness to the engineer to decide the shape of structure based on architectural aspects. RCC with proper cover will withstand to fire for about 3 – 4 hours. RCC will also resist any type of weathering. After the completion of work low maintenance is needed for concrete structures compared to the other (steel and timber) type of structures. Steel and Concrete are a commonly used construction material and so it is easily available to prepare reinforced cement concrete. Reinforced Concrete members are good in rigidity due to their stiffness. Disadvantages of RCC: RCC sections are heavier comparatively to the sections made with other construction materials like Steel, wood, etc. It requires lots of formwork, centring and shuttering to be fixed RCC takes time to gain its full strength, because cement gains strength very slowly. RCC needs too much maintenance during its construction, like proper curing, checking of cracks, prevention from direct sunlight, etc. RCC sections consume more space than other sections made with construction materials like Steel. Uses of RCC  Reinforced concrete is used for the construction of roof slabs, columns, beams and footings in residential and commercial structures. Reinforced concrete is used for construction of bridges of small, medium and long spans resulting in aesthetically superior and economical structures in comparison with steel bridges Reinforced concrete is used in the construction of roads that is designed to carry heavy traffics loads. Pipes and conduits have been constructed from reinforced concrete Electric poles are made from reinforced cement concrete. For construction of bunkers the reinforced concrete is used. 7. PSC (Pre-stressed concrete) Pre-stressed concrete is a structural material in which predetermined, engineering stresses are introduced in to resist the stresses that occur when the material is subject to loading. Following are the uses of PSC: 1) Construction of Bridges: Pre-stressed concrete has applications in the construction of bridges. This type of bridge is very strong and durable and is often used in the construction of long-span bridges. 2) Construction of Buildings: Pre-stressed concrete is a construction material that is commonly used in the construction of buildings. Pre-stressed concrete is often used for beams and columns, as well as for floor and roof slabs in pre-stressed concrete buildings 3. Construction of Storage Tanks: Pre-stressed concrete is commonly used in the construction of storage tanks. The advantage of using pre-stressed concrete tanks is that they can be designed to resist the internal pressure of the tank contents. This results in a lighter and thinner wall, which reduces the overall weight of the tank 4. Railway sleepers:  Pre-stressed concrete sleepers are used in rail tracks. The PSC sleepers are extremely strong and durable and is less likely to be damaged by weathering or other environmental factors. 5. Concrete Pavements: Pre-stressed concrete is used in concrete pavements to improve their strength and durability. 8. Structural steel: Steel is a kind of metal alloy that's made of iron and carbon. Due to its high strength it is often used to build the framework of high rise buildings. Uses of structural steel: 1) To Build High Rise Buildings Structural steel is resistant to external forces such as wind and earthquakes. Hence the high rise buildings are constructed using steel members. 2) To Build Industrial Sheds Another benefit of structural steel is that it is cost effective and hence it is used in the construction of industrial sheds 3) To Build Bridges Steel has a high strength to weight ratio, which means, steel is a tensile metal and is used in construction of bridges 4) To Build Parking Garages Structural steel is useful to build parking garages. Due to light weight of structural members it easier to construct structures. 5) To Build Residential Buildings They should be able to withstand external forces such as wind, earthquakes, and storms hence used in residential buildings  Classification of steel 1) Low-carbon steel – This class of steel contains up to 0.30% C. Low carbon steel is used for automobile body panels, tin plates and wire products. 2) Medium-carbon steel – This class is similar to low carbon, except it ranges from 0.30% – 0.60% C. Medium carbon steel is mainly used for shafts, axles, gears, crankshafts, couplings and forgings. 3) High-carbon steel– This of steel ranges from 0.60% – 1.00% C. High carbon steel is used for spring materials and high-strength wires. 4) High-strength low-alloy steel – This steel alloy is designed to provide better mechanical properties and greater resistance to atmospheric corrosion. 5) Low-alloy steels – This alloy’s primary function is to increase its strength and toughness after heat treatment. 8. Construction Chemicals: 1. Concrete Admixtures Admixture is a material which is one of the ingredients of concrete apart from cement, water and aggregates. It is added to the batch immediately before or during mixing. In some conditions, ordinary concrete fails to give the required quality performance or durability. In such situations, admixtures are used to modify the properties of ordinary concrete so as to match the requirement, thereby making it more suitable for the situation. Some of the admixtures are given below: i) Plasticizers (Water Reducers) The organic substances or the combinations of organic and inorganic substances, which offer a higher workability at the same water content, are known as plasticizing admixtures. ii) Super Plasticizers Use of super plasticizers allows the reduction of water to the extent up to 30 % without reducing workability iii) Retarders and Retarding Plasticizers  Retarders are admixtures that slow down the chemical process of hydration so that concrete remains in the plastic state and it remains workable for a longer time than concrete without the retarder. iv). Accelerators and Accelerating Plasticizers Accelerating admixtures are added in the concrete to increase the rate of early strength development in concrete so as to Permit earlier removal of formwork and reduces the required period of curing v) Bonding Admixtures: Bonding admixtures are water emulsions of several organic materials that are mixed with cement or mortar grout for applying on an old concrete surface just prior to patching with mortar or concrete. 2. Concrete Curing Compounds Liquid membrane curing compounds are used to reduce the loss of water from concrete during the early period of setting and hardening. 3. Polymer Bonding Agents The use of bonding agents improves the adhesion of new concrete or mortar to old surface. The mixing of bonding agents with concrete or mortar improves the workability even at lower water cement ratio and thereby reduces the shrinkage property. 4. Mould Releasing Agent Wooden planks, ordinary plywood, shuttering plywood, steel plates etc. are used as shuttering materials. Concrete when set and hardened, adhere to the surface of the formwork and it becomes difficult to de-mould. To reduce the bond between formwork and concrete, special mould releasing agents are used. Structural Elements of a Buildings: 1) Foundation:  Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely Functions of foundation: Foundation are the main reason behind the stability of any structure. The stronger is the foundation, more stable is the structure. The proper design and construction of foundations provide a proper surface for the development of the substructure in a proper level and over a firm bed. Specially designed foundation helps in avoiding the lateral movements of the supporting material. A proper foundation distributes load on to the surface of the bed uniformly. This uniform transfer helps in avoiding unequal settlement of the building. The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the load from the structure over a large base area and then to the soil underneath. This load transferred to the soil should be within the allowable bearing capacity of the soil. 2) Plinth: Part of the structure between the ground and the raised floor of the house ie, it separates structure in to substructure and superstructure. Functions of Plinth: It evenly distributes and disperses the load of the columns to the foundation evenly The plinth doesn’t allow the dampness and moisture of the ground floor to reach the building’s top structure In framed structure houses and buildings plinth beams are used as a barrier for protection from water seepage. Plinth protects the rest of the house from dampness. Provides a better aesthetic appeal to the building  It also prevents cracks in the building when the foundation suffers from settlement 3) Lintel: A lintel is the beam or other support at the top of a door or window. Types of lintel: 1.Timber Lintels 2. Stone Lintel 3. Brick Lintels 4. Reinforced Brick Lintel 5. Steel Lintel 6. Reinforced Concrete Lintel Functions of Lintel: Lintel supports the walls above the openings like doors, windows, etc. Lintel withstands the imposed loads coming from above bricks or block including the roofing members. The lintel is used to transfer all imposed loads to the side walls. Sometimes lintels are used as a decorative architectural element. 4. Chejja: Chejja or Sun-Shade means a sloping or horizontal structural overhang, usually provided for protection from sun and rain or for architectural considerations at lintel level. Functions of Chejja Usually protects from external sunlight. Also protects from rainwater entering into the building. It also serves as aesthetic decoration with little design on it from architectural point of view.  Also it can be used as a support for AC. 5. Masonry wall Masonry is a term used to indicate the part of the construction that uses brick, concrete blocks, structural clay tile, and stone. These materials are held together with mortar. Types of Masonry walls: i. Load-bearing masonry wall ii. Reinforced masonry wall iii. Hollow masonry wall iv. Composite masonry wall v. Post-tensioned masonry wall i) Load bearing Masonry wall A load-bearing wall is a wall that bears the load coming from the structure and transfers the load to the foundation ii) Reinforced masonry wall: A reinforced masonry wall is made with any type of brick, stone or concrete, reinforced by steel bars. This type of wall could be non-load-bearing or load-bearing. iii) Hollow masonry wall: Hollow masonry walls are made with hollow cement blocks. This type of masonry wall is used to stop dampness from getting inside the building. It creates a hollow area between the outside and inside of masonry walls iv) Composite masonry wall Composite Masonry walls are made with the combination of two or more building materials; stones and bricks or hollow bricks and bricks. v) Post tensioned masonry walls Post-tensioning provides an additional axial load to masonry structures and thus increases resistance to lateral force. Functions of walls: The use of materials such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal resistance of a building. Masonry is a non-combustible product and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls protect the structures from winds. Masonry walls protect the structures from direct sunlight. 6. Column A column can be defined as a vertical structural member which transmits the loads from beam of the building to foundation. Types of Columns: 1. Square or rectangular column: Square column is generally used in the building construction and for heavy structures. 2. Circular Column: Circular column is mostly used for aesthetic view in the elevation of buildings. 7. Beam: A beam is a horizontal structural member in a building to resist the lateral loads applied to the beam’s axis. Types of beams: i) Simply supported beam: A simply supported beam is supported at both ends. These beams are primarily used in general construction. ii) Continuous Beam: A beam that has more than two supports this kind of beam is called a continuous beam iii) Fixed Beams: A beam that is fixed at both ends is called a fixed beam. Fixed beams are not allowed the vertical movement or rotation of the beam. iv) Cantilever Beam: A fixed beam is one where one end is fixed and other end is free.  8. Slab A slab is a flat, two-dimensional structural component of building having a very small thickness compared to its length and breadth. It transfers the structural loads to the beams. Types of slabs One way slab Grid slab system Flat slab system Two way slab Functions/uses of slab provide a flat surface To act as sound, heat and fire insulator It provides a covering shelter or working flat surface in buildings Its primary function is to transfer the load to edge beams The upper slab becomes the ceiling for the lower storey. 9.Staircase: A staircase is a set of steps leading from one floor of building to another floor. The staircase provide access from one floor to another floor Types of Staircase Straight Stair: In these types of stairs, all the steps are arranged continuously along in one direction.  Dogged-legged Stair: Dog Legged Staircase Dog legged staircase is the most economical staircase in which stairs are arranged with two adjacent flights running parallel with the mid-landing that is usually provided where there is less space or causing in economical use of available space. Circular Stair: A circular staircase resembles a circle in plan Spiral Stair: A spiral staircase is a round stair system in which the individual steps connect to a center column, hence forming a complete circle Question Bank 1) Write the scope of following fields of civil Engineering i) Surveying ii) Structural engineering iii) Geotechnical engineering iv) Hydraulics and water resource engineering 2) Write the scope of following fields of civil Engineering i) Transportation Engineering ii) Environmental engineering iii) Construction planning and Project management 3) Explain brick. What are the uses of bricks and what are the qualities of good bricks. 4) Explain Cement. What are the Uses of cement? 5) What are the different types of cement and what are the good qualities of cement. 6) Explain mortar and what are the uses of mortar 7) Explain plain cement concrete. What are the uses of plain cement concrete 8) Explain Reinforced cement concrete. What are the uses of RCC 9) Explain Pre stressed concrete and uses of Pre stressed concrete 10) What is structural steel? Explain different types of steel 11) What are the uses of structural steel 12) Explain different types of chemicals used in construction. 13) Define foundation. What are the functions of foundation 14) Write definition and uses of following structural elements i) Plinth ii) Lintel iii) Chejja  iv) Masonry wall 15) Write definition types and functions of following structural elements i) Column ii) Beam iii) Slab iv) Stair case  SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka) Accredited by NBA(CSE,ISE,CEC,CIVIL.MECH) Department of Civil Engineering RAJANUKUNTE, BANGALORE 560 064, KARNATAKA Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: [email protected] * URL www.saividya.ac.in Learn to lead Department of Civil Engineering ‘Introduction to Civil Engineering’ (22ESC141/241) M-2 Societal and Global Impact of Infrastructure By Dr. M B Ananthayya Professor & Head Infrastructure: Infrastructure is the set of facilities required for the societal and economic functioning of a country, city, or an area. Infrastructure includes structures such as roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications Internet connectivity etc. Sustainable development goals: On 1 January 2016, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 came in to force. This is taken on the basis of historic UN summit of different countries held in September 2015. These new Goals apply to all nations who are supposed to achieve in the coming 15 years. 2 The following are the sustainable development goals: No Poverty: No poverty means that everybody has enough money for their basic needs No Hunger: Every one should get the food and there is no hunger 3  Good Health and Well-Being: It aims to prevent suffering from preventable diseases and premature death by focusing on key targets that boost the health of a country's overall population 4  Quality Education: This goal ensures that all girls and boys complete free primary and secondary schooling by 2030. Gender Equality: Empowering women and promoting gender equality is crucial to accelerating sustainable development. Ending all forms of discrimination against women and girls. 5  Clean Water and Sanitation: Access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene is the most basic human need for health and well-being. Affordable and Clean Energy: Lack of access to energy supplies and transformation systems is a constraint to human and economic development. The environment provides a series of renewable and non-renewable energy sources i.e. solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, biofuels, natural gas, coal, petroleum, uranium. 6  Decent Work and Economic Growth: The SDGs promote sustained economic growth, higher levels of productivity and technological innovation. Encouraging entrepreneurship and job creation are key to this. Totally avoid forced labour, slavery and human illegal usage. With these targets in mind, the goal is to achieve full and productive employment, and decent work, for all women and men by 2030. 7  Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure: Investment in infrastructure and innovation are crucial drivers of economic growth and development. With over half the world population now living in cities, mass transport and renewable energy are becoming ever more important, as are the growth of new industries and information and communication technologies. Technological progress is also key to finding lasting solutions to both economic and environmental challenges, such as providing new jobs and promoting energy efficiency. Promoting sustainable industries, and investing in scientific research and innovation, are all important ways to facilitate sustainable development. 8  Reduced Inequalities: Income inequality is on the main inequality, the richest 10 percent have up to 40 percent of global income whereas the poorest 10 percent earn only between 2 to 7 percent. If we take into account population growth inequality in developing countries, inequality has increased by 11 percent. These widening disparities require sound policies to empower lower income earners. 9  Sustainable Cities and Communities: More than half of us live in cities. By 2050, two-thirds of all humanity 6.5 billion people will be urban. Sustainable development cannot be achieved without significantly transforming the way we build and manage our urban spaces. Making cities sustainable means creating career and business opportunities, safe and affordable housing, and building. It involves investment in public transport, creating green public spaces, and improving urban planning and management. sustainable means creating career and business opportunities, safe and affordable housing, and building 10  Responsible Consumption and Production The efficient management of our shared natural resources, and the way we dispose of toxic waste and pollutants, are important targets to achieve this goal. Encouraging industries, businesses and consumers to recycle and reduce waste is equally important, as is supporting developing countries to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption by 2030. 11  Climate Action There is no country that is not experiencing the drastic effects of climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions are more than 50 percent higher than in 1990. Global warming is causing long-lasting changes to our climate system, which threatens irreversible consequences if we do not act. 12  Life Below Water Over three billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods. However, today we are seeing 30 percent of the world’s fish stocks overexploited, reaching below the level at which they can produce sustainable yields. Enhancing conservation and the sustainable use of ocean-based resources through international law will also help mitigate some of the challenges facing our oceans. 13  Life On Land Human life depends on the earth as much as the ocean for our sustenance and livelihoods. Plant life provides 80 percent of the human diet, and we rely on agriculture as an important economic resources. Forests cover 30 percent of the Earth’s surface, provide vital habitats for millions of species, and important sources for clean air and water, as well as being crucial for combating climate change. Urgent action must be taken to reduce the loss of natural habitats and biodiversity which are part of our common heritage and support global food and water security, 14  Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions We cannot hope for sustainable development without peace, stability, human rights and effective governance, based on the rule of law. Yet our world is increasingly divided. Some regions enjoy peace, security and prosperity, while others fall into seemingly endless cycles of conflict and violence. This is not inevitable and must be addressed. The SDGs aim to significantly reduce all forms of violence, and work with governments and communities to end conflict and insecurity. Promoting the rule of law and human rights are key to this process, as is reducing the flow of unlawful arms and strengthening the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance. 15  Partnerships for the Goals The world is more interconnected than ever. Improving access to technology and knowledge is an important way to share ideas and foster innovation. Coordinating policies to help developing countries manage their debt, as well as promoting investment for the least developed, is vital for sustainable growth and development. 16 Smart City: A smart city is an urban development vision to integrate information and communication technology (ICT) and Internet of things (IOT) technology in a secure fashion to manage a city's assets. These assets include local departments' information systems, schools, libraries, transportation systems, hospitals, power plants, water supply networks, waste management, law enforcement, and other community services. 17 The core elements of Smart City Infrastructure include Assured Supply of Electricity Adequate Supply of Water Solid Waste Management Sanitation Efficient Urban Mobility Affordable Housing 18  Public Transport Digitalization IT Connectivity Sustainable Environment Good Governance Health and Education Security of the Citizens 19 20 Smart City Concepts: Smart Governance: Smart Governance includes political and active participation, citizenship services and the smart use of e‐Government. In addition, it often relates to the use of new communication channels, such as e-government or "e‐democracy". Smart Citizen: People are smart in terms of their skill and educational levels, as well as the quality of social interaction in terms public life and their ability to open to the outside world. 21  Smart Energy: The power generation from renewable energy sources, generation and consumption are connected in an efficient and intelligent way Smart Technology: Technological development, supported by Innovation, is essential to offer competitive products and services. The new relationship emerging from e‐Government has led to the emergence of a new kind of citizen, the e‐citizen. It also includes areas such as new means of marketing and more efficient organizational and managerial systems 22  Smart Infrastructure: Smart Infrastructure designs will need to be anticipatory and proactive to be truly sustainable. For example, not only provide food for urban dwellers, but serve as storm water management systems, allowing water and waste to be recycled at the smallest scale with real-time sensors telling the centralized system how much less will have to be processed. Smart Mobility: Smart Mobility aims to improve operational efficiency through linking traffic road information, the vehicle condition, real-time data acquisition and integration of urban traffic capacity, thus achieving smooth flow of traffic running with automatic toll collection technology and other data gathering instruments. 23  Smart Building: At the most fundamental level, smart buildings deliver useful building services that make occupants productive (e.g. illumination, thermal comfort, air quality, physical security, sanitation, and many more) at the lowest cost and environmental impact over the building lifecycle Smart Healthcare: The application of new technologies for health care, from diagnosis to monitoring patients, including the management of the organizations involved in these activities, is defined as Smart Healthcare. 24 Clean City concept India has a population of over one billion, of which almost 300 million people are living in 600 towns and cities.It is unfortunate that, as a result of stressed environmental conditions, most of these towns and cities are unable to keep the pace for development. Water pollution, Depletion of Groundwater, inadequate sanitation, open dumping of waste, and loss of forest cover are the problems. These impacts on the health of the people and also does an economic impact on the country. Similarly, water diseases like diarrhea, jaundice, and cholera are Increasing daily on the basis of pollution done by us and are affecting both human health and economic productivity. 25 This situation demands a proper solution in the management of rapidly growing urban environmental problems. The grade of the environment needs to be monitored regularly and scientific work needs to extend beyond the laboratory and become more community-centered. While the regulatory agencies continue to play their role Programs that are community-based are required. This will help the people understand local problems and take necessary actions to improve the local environmental conditions and come up with new relative options to help save the environment. 26 CLEAN-India program was launched for the Development of Alternatives with the vision of developing a cleaner environment for our urban centers. This nation-wide program focuses on environmental assessment, awareness, and action on school children who are the future citizens. The underlined realization is that ‘each one of us is responsible for the current state of our environment and we cannot wait for someone else to solve it’. The CLEAN-India program aims to deploy responsibility to the people for the assessment of environmental consequences and improvement in all major cities and states in India through schools and NGOs linked with governments and other private organizations. 27 While the term 'clean city' refers to a city that is free from pollution and environment degradation. Both these terms are relative in nature. A city that has many trees than buildings all over will be free from environmental problems as trees help to purify the air and maintain the cycle of nature. 28 Clean and green cities around the world show us that first impressions count. Neat and tidy public green areas, roads, and paths do not only contribute to a good image for visitors and the local inhabitants. Moreover, it is a sign that this council encourages people to keep the city clean and tidy. 29 Launched in 2015, Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), has come a long way. The program made sure that cleanliness and sanitation found a place in India’s governance landscape. The program was aimed at transforming the behavior of the masses on issues of sustainable waste management. 30 To further strengthen and evaluate the performance of the mission, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), Government of India (GoI) kick started India’s first and largest cleanliness survey, Swachh Survekshan in 2016. Since, then the survey has evolved significantly, engaging citizens, administrative systems and civil society towards creating a robust waste management system. 31 Swachh Survekshan 2020 results (Declared in August 2020) Indore from Madhya Pradesh emerged as the cleanest city for the fourth time. Surat from Gujarat and Navi Mumbai from Maharashtra claimed second and third rank respectively. Varanasi was emerged as cleanest Ganga town Jalandhar cantonment was ranked the cleanest cantonment in the country. 32 Safe City Concept: It refers to the duty and function of the state to ensure the safety of its citizens, organizations and institutions against threats to their well-being as well as the traditional functions of law and order. The safe city concept is based on a consolidated ICT( Information and communication Technology) platform which combines public- safety information of different types and from different sources, obtained through sensors and multi-agency collaboration. 33 Four major requirements of Safe city concept It provides reliable and comprehensive security measures to predict threats and hazardous situations It aids to public-safety organizations in collecting, sharing and analyzing data more effectively to provide early warnings and raise situational awareness It enables the key organizations in the city to react to security threats in real time 34  It provides post-event examination and analysis, identify victims and provide assistance in rescue actions. 35 Built-environment: Energy efficient buildings: An energy-efficient building creates comfortable living conditions inside the dwelling with the least possible amount of energy consumption maximizing efficiency in use of resources. An energy-efficient building balances all aspects of energy use in a building by providing an optimized mix of passive solar–design strategies, energy-efficient equipment, and renewable sources of energy. 36 Aspects of Energy efficient buildings: 1. Nearly: Zero-Energy Passive Building Design: The design of a nearly zero-energy passive building involves adopting all solar passive strategies at the design stage before actual construction begins. For instance, passive solar heating/cooling, building day lighting, and provision for rainwater harvesting. In a hot and dry climate, passive cooling designs, such as wall and roof cooling, solar refrigeration, and earth water heat exchangers should be integrated into the building. In the cold zones, passive heating designs should be adopted, such as air handling units, sunspace, trombe wall, etc. 37 2. Utilization of Low Embodied Energy Building Materials: The usage of low embodied energy materials for building construction is important for reducing the impact of global warming and making the building energy-efficient. Some of the examples of low embodied energy construction materials are fly ash bricks, fiber-reinforced bricks, woods, stabilized adobe blocks, cement-replacement materials such as silica fume, slag, and fly ash which is mostly by-products in factories. 3. Usage of Energy-Efficient Equipment This involves using energy-efficient equipment in a building that requires the lowest possible energy, such as LED lights, fans, air-conditioners, and refrigerators. Energy star-approved fluorescent bulbs are highly desirable because they are more durable, and their maintenance cost is 75% less than conventional bulbs. 38 4. Integration of Renewable Energy Technologies in Different Applications: Solar water heaters, small wind turbines to generate electricity, solar electricity generation are examples of renewable energy technologies installed in a building to reduce operational energy consumption. Other renewable energy sources like hydroelectricity, biomass, and biofuels can also be used. 39 Recycling: Recycling is the process of breaking down and reusing materials that would otherwise be thrown away as waste. There are numerous benefits of recycling, and with so many new technologies making even more materials recyclable, with everyone’s help, we can clean up our Earth. Recycling not only benefits the environment but also have a positive effect on the economy. 40 1.Mechanical Recycling One of the most globally used methods of giving residues new usages is mechanic recycling. This method is used to recycle plastics, either obtained from industrial scrap, or domestic, or commercial disposals. The residues are mechanically transformed into new materials without changing their chemical structures. 2. Energy Recycling: The method used to convert plastics into both thermal and electric energy is called energy recycling. The process is done by leveraging, through incineration and the heat is released in the form of fuel. 41 3.Chemical Recycling Among all types of recycling, chemical recycling is the most complex method. In this process, the chemical structures of plastics are modified after reprocessing them. The final product is produced to be used as raw material in different industries. It can also be used as a basic input in manufacturing new plastic products. 42 Temperature control in buildings: Heat-reflecting roofs, insulation, and energy efficient windows will help to reduce that heat conduction. Radiation is heat traveling in the form of visible and non-visible light. Sunlight is an obvious source of heat for homes. In addition, low-wavelength, non-visible infrared radiation can carry heat directly from warm objects to cooler objects. Infrared radiation is why you can feel the heat of a hot burner element on a stovetop, even from across the room. Older windows will allow infrared radiation coming from warm objects outside to radiate into your home; shades can help to block this radiation. Newer windows have low-e coatings that block infrared radiation. Infrared radiation will also carry the heat of your walls and ceiling directly to your body. 43 Heat transfer in and out of a building occurs in only three ways: 1. Radiation 2. Conduction 3. Convection 1. Reduction of Radiation heat transfer: Use light colours on the roof and external walls Increase wall shading with verandahs, carports on North walls Reduce window sizes on West facing walls Add window shading, on East, North and West walls Consider window tinting or reflective film 44 2.Condction is the pathways the heat travels though Keep external surfaces cooler in summer, e.g. by shading or using light colours Insulation reduces thermal conduction through roof, ceiling and external walls Window coverings with pelmets add additional isolation spaces from outside temperatures Slate or ceramic tiled floors conduct heat better than timber, cork, vinyl or carpet 45 3.Thermal Convection is improved by airflow controls: Window size and position, cross ventilation breeze paths and ceiling fans Roof ventilation reduces roof cavity temperature Controlled infiltration or leakage of external air into the house Weather stripping, flue dampers, closeable vents including down lights or skylights 46 Sound Control in buildings: Acoustic control of Buildings is the science of controlling the unwanted noise in the living environment. It is a minimization of sound transmission from one place to another place and the control of the characteristics of sound. It is an implementation of techniques for making structure soundproof. Construction Techniques for Noise Control in Buildings: Walls are the important structural components of the Buildings which protect the internal environment from the external noise. The use of cavity walls in partition proves to be very efficient for sound resistance in the Buildings. The more the mass of material more will be noise resistance. The concrete walls provide more sound insulation as compared to wooden walls because of its higher mass. 47  Isolation blankets which can increase sound attenuation when placed in the airspace. Windows are one of the major sources from where the sound enters into the structures. So that is necessary to take into consideration while acoustic planning of the structures. The noise can be resisted by increasing the thickness of the glass. It is also necessary that proper sealing should be done in order to increase the effectiveness of soundproofing. 48 Building security systems Building security systems realize convenience and peace of mind through sensing, connectivity, and user interface technologies. 49 Following are the types of building security systems: Monitoring Systems Monitoring systems may include motion sensors for crime monitoring and fire detectors, carbon monoxide detectors, and the like to monitor for emergencies within the building. The monitored information is sent via the network to a supervisor in the form of emergency signals and images. This information can also be stored and managed on a secure data server if needed. Crime Prevention Systems Crime prevention systems may incorporate sensors such as door open-close detectors and glass break detectors to detect emergencies as well as ingress and egress management functions to enforce entrance and exit regulations and keep logs of those entering and leaving. They control the entrance and exit of persons to and from the building in conjunction with the information from the monitoring systems. 50  Communication Networks of Security Systems Via the network, the large volumes of data making up the security logs, operation logs, and entrance and exit logs from the monitoring and crime prevention systems are tracked on security monitoring PCs and stored and managed on secure data servers. This information may also be linked via a network to other building automation systems (air conditioning systems, lighting systems, etc.) to enable more efficient building security management. 51 Smart Buildings: A smart building involves the installation and use of advanced and integrated building technology systems. These systems include building automation, life safety, telecommunications, user systems, and facility management systems. Advantages of Smart Buildings: Smart buildings give smart data: The smart buildings give us the necessary data pertaining to electricity, water consumption, Sewage recycling, etc. This data further helps the residents to take corrective action pertaining to their constructive utilization. The best part is all the data gets collected centrally and hence simplifies the entire process even further. 52  Efficient consumption of energy: One of the most important aspects of a smart building is that it offers greater efficiency. Energy gets optimized to the fullest. Smart buildings are designed in such a way that the energy gets utilized efficiently irrespective of the internal and external conditions. Smart buildings result in increasing the asset value: When smart applications become a part of the building, the asset value is bound to increase. Smart energy efficiency measures ensure that the building is well maintained and hence doesn’t depreciate over a period of time. 53  Decreased consumption: Greater the efficiency, lower the consumption. That’s the principal these smart buildings tag themselves with. One can always conduct energy audits and based on the inference implement effective measures to lower the consumption and hence further decrease the cost. Smart buildings give birth to smart equipment: For monitoring the all activities of buildings the development of smart equipment's are developed as an advanced research. 54 Environment: Water supply systems: Water supply systems are essential for providing clean and safe water for various human needs, such as drinking, cooking, washing, and firefighting etc,. Types of water supply systems: 1. Gridiron systems In gridiron systems, the main water supply line goes through the central part of the area, while sub mains branch out perpendicular to the main line. This system has no dead-ends, as all of the individual pipes are interconnected. 55 2. Ring systems In circular or ring systems the supply main forms a circle or ring around the area of distribution. In this system, the branches are cross-connected to the supply mains and each other. 3. Radial systems In radial systems, the distribution area is divided into different distribution districts or zones. Each zone has an elevated distribution reservoir in the middle from which supply lines run in a radial pattern towards the distribution district periphery. 56 4. Dead-end systems Dead-end water supply systems are the best choice for cities and towns without definite road patterns. In this type of system, there is one main line that runs through the town or city with sub-mains branching off from left and right. These sub-mains then divide into a number of branch lines that provide service connections. Components of water supply systems: Water source: The sources of drinking water can come from groundwater, lakes, reservoirs, rivers, canals, rainwater, and saltwater. 57  Water purification & treatment facilities: Different treatment systems are used depending on the source of the water. Transmission & distribution systems: The treated water is transported from the source via water mains and sub-mains to the end-users. Storage systems: these may include water tanks, reservoirs, and water towers. In smaller systems, pressure vessels and cisterns may be used. Pumping stations: in order to maintain optimal water pressure, additional pressurizing components, called pumping stations, are often used. Accessories: these may include support components such as valves, service lines, generators, meters, fire hydrants, and other accessories needed to ensure a smoothly running system. 58 Urban air pollution management: “Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological molecules, etc. into the air that is harmful to human health and the environment.” Types of Air Pollutants: Primary Pollutants The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant. Secondary Pollutants The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary pollutant. 59 Causes of Air Pollution: Burning of Fossil Fuels The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution. Automobiles The gases emitted from vehicles such as trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals. Agricultural Activities Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it. 60  Factories and Industries Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality. Mining Activities In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas. Domestic Sources The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing. 61 Effects of Air Pollution: Diseases Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution. Global Warming Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater. 62  Acid Rain The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life. Ozone Layer Depletion The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among individuals. 63  Effect on Animals The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large number of animal species. Air Pollution Control: Avoid Using Vehicles People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also conserves energy. 64  Energy Conservation A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level. Use of Clean Energy Resources The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a cleaner environment. 65 Solid waste management: Solid waste management is the process of handling and disposing of the unwanted materials produced by human activities. Sources of Solid Waste 1. Residential (domestic or household) 2. Commercial 3. Institutional 4. Construction Demolition 5. Treatment plant sites 6. Solid Industrial Waste 7. Solid Agricultural Waste 66 Functional Elements of Solid Waste Management: 1. Waste generation- The materials that are identified and collected are thrown away or gathered for disposal. 2. On-site handling, storage, and processing- The activities associated with the handling, storage, and processing of solid wastes at or near the point of generation. 3. Collection- The collection and disposal of solid waste from various locations. 4. Transfer and transport- The transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment, to the disposal site. 5. Processing and recovery- Those techniques equipment and facilities are used both to improve the efficiency of the other functional elements and to recover usable materials, conversion products, or energy from solid wastes. 6. Disposal- The dumping of waste in a specific place for segregation. 67 68 Common Solid Waste Disposal Methods 1. Composting: Composting type of waste reduction is used in both urban and rural areas to minimize waste. Its organic components break down into simpler form and turn into natural manure for the plants. 69 2. Controlled Tipping/Burying: Solid wastes that are not recycled or used should be disposed of. Disposal is affected in many ways. A method that satisfies this is known as controlled tipping. It is a way of isolating any type of waste without bothering to sort or separate it. 3. Ploughing in the Fields: Ploughing of lands helps the segregation of the organic waste that is biodegradable waste helps the recovering and reusing of waste for soil conditioning. 70 4. Incineration: Incineration is a high-temperature dry oxidation process that reduces organic and combustible waste to inorganic, incombustible matter and resulting in a very significant reduction of waste volume and weight. 71 Urban flooding: Urban floods are an immersion of land in a built setting, especially in thickly populated regions. It happens when precipitation or allied situations exceeds the capacity of sewerage systems. Urban floods are a significant issue in many regions of the world and are natural disasters that happen each year. Some of the reasons of Urban floods are Melting of snow Heavy rain fall and floods Overflow from drainage Water discharged from damaged drain systems 72 Impacts of Urban Floods: On Transport And Communication: Disruption in communication- impact on the telephone lines, internet cables Increased traffic congestion, disruption in rail services On The Environment: Impact on animals in the zoo, Loss of tree cover, loss of habitat. On Economy: Post-disaster rescue and rehabilitation add to the financial burden of the government i. Impact on heritage or archaeological site ii. Disruptions to utility supplies iii. Disruptions to industrial production iv. Damage to buildings, roads, and other infrastructures 73  On Human Life: i. A rise in mosquito-borne diseases ii. Contamination of water supplies leading to diseases iii. Increased stress, psychological problems iv. Loss of life & physical injury 74 THANK YOU Dept. of Civil, SVIT