Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology I Part 2 (1) (1).PDF

Introduction to gross Anatomy – Orientation and directional terms 1 Introduction to gross Anatomy – Orientation and directional terms 2 anterior posterior Introduction to gross Anatomy – Orientation and directional terms...

Introduction to gross Anatomy – Orientation and directional terms 1 Introduction to gross Anatomy – Orientation and directional terms 2 anterior posterior Introduction to gross Anatomy – Orientation and directional terms 3 Introduction to gross Anatomy – Orientation and directional terms 4 Introduction to gross Anatomy – Orientation and directional terms 5 Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical body planes 6 The planes that are describe in anatomical sections are as follows: Frontal Horizontal Median Sagittal  Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical body planes 7 Frontal plane: any plane that runs vertically from superior to inferior and divides structures into anterior and posterior parts Also called coronal plane—cuts along this plane are called frontal or coronal sections Sagittal plane: vertical plane that divides structures into right and left sections. It runs from superior to inferior and is perpendicular to a frontal plane. cross-sections cut by this plane is called sagittal sections Mid-sagittal (median) plane: sagittal plane through the midline. (Cross-section called mid- sagittal section) Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical 8 body planes Transverse plane: runs parallel to the horizon dividing structures into superior and inferior sections. It runs from anterior (front) to posterior (rear) and is perpendicular to both frontal and sagittal planes. Also called horizontal plane—cuts along this plane are called transverse sections Oblique plane: any plane not perpendicular to a frontal, sagittal, or transverse (horizontal) plane  What section is this? 9 C A B Which section is horizontal which is coronal and which is sagittal? What section is this? 10 11 Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical 12 body planes Oblique section through the trunk Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical position 13 Anatomic position a common visual reference point Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward Palms face forward with the thumbs pointed away from the body Is the standard reference point in which all positions, movements, and planes are described  14 Anatomic position Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical position 15 If the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position If the body is lying face up, it is in the supine position. supine Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical 16 position Trendelenburg patient is on the back on a table whose upper section is inclined 45 degrees so that the head is lower than the rest of the body; the adjustable lower section of the table is bent so that the patient's legs and knees are flexed. Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical position 17 Knee-chest the patient rests on the knees chest with head is turned to one side, arms extended on the bed, and elbows flexed and resting so that they partially bear the patient's weight; the abdomen remains unsupported, Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical position 18 Sims’/Lateral the patient lies on the left side with the left thigh slightly flexed the right thigh acutely flexed on the abdomen; the left arm is behind the body with the body inclined forward, the right arm is positioned according to the patient's comfort. Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical position 19 Fowler’s the head of the patient's bed is raised 30 to 90 degrees , with the knees sometimes elevated  Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical position 20 Sitting Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical position 21 Lithotomy patient lies on the back with the legs well separated thighs acutely flexed on the abdomen and legs on thighs stirrups may be used to support the feet and legs. The position is often used for vaginal examinations and childbirth Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Anatomical 22 position Dorsal recumbent patient on the back, with lower limbs flexed and rotated outward; used in vaginal examination, application of obstetrical forceps, Introduction to Gross Anatomy – anatomical regions and terms 23 Regional terms – names of specific body areas Axial region – the main axis of the body Appendicular region – the limbs Introduction to Gross Anatomy – anatomical regions and terms 24 Introduction to Gross Anatomy – anatomical regions and terms 25 Introduction to Gross Anatomy – anatomical regions and terms 26  Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Body Cavities 27 Body Cavities There are two sets of internal body cavities called the dorsal and ventral body cavities. These cavities are closed to the outside. Dorsal Body Cavity Which protects the fragile nervous system. The cranial cavity, in the skull, encases the brain. The vertebral/spinal cavity, within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord. Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Body Cavities 28 Ventral Body Cavity The more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities It has two major subdivisions, the thoracic and the abdominopelvic cavities. It houses the viscera They are separated by the diaphragm The abdominopelvic cavity has two parts The inferior part, the pelvic cavity, lies in the bony pelvis Superior abdominal part  29 Body Cavities Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Main body cavities & functions 30 Cranial – house the brain Vertebral – house the spinal cord Thoracic – house the heart, great vessels and lung Abdominal – house the kidney, spleen, intestine, liver Pelvic – house the reproductive organs, bladder and rectum 31 Introduction to Gross Anatomy - Other Body Cavities 32 Oral cavity Nasal cavity Orbital cavities Middle ear cavities Synovial cavities  Introduction to Gross Anatomy – regional terms 33 Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants Because the abdominopelvic cavity is large and contains several organs, it helps to divide it into smaller areas for study. One division method, used primarily by anatomists, uses two transverse and two parasagittal planes. These planes, divide the cavity into nine regions : The umbilical region is the centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel).  Introduction to Gross Anatomy – regional terms 34 The epigastric region is located superior to the umbilical region (epi = upon, above; gastri = belly). The hypogastric (pubic) region is located inferior to the umbilical region (hypo = below). The right and left iliac, or inguinal, regions are located lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac = superior part of the hip bone). The right and left lumbar regions lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus = loin). The right and left hypochondriac regions flank the epigastric region laterally (chondro = cartilage).  35 Abdominal Regions Introduction to Gross Anatomy – regional terms 36 A simpler scheme to localize the abdominopelvic cavity organs is to imagine one transverse and one median sagittal plane pass through the umbilicus at right angles. The resulting quadrants are named according to their positions from the subject’s point of view: right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).  37 Abdominal is divided Right upper and left upper quadrants Right lower and left lower quadrants Abdominal Quadrants  The navel is --------------to the breastbone 38 The heart is ------------- to the breastbone The arms are ------------ to the chest The elbow is ------------ to the wrist The skin is ------------- to the skeleton The forehead is ------------------ to the nose The breastbone is------------ to the spine The heart is ------------to the arm The knee is ---------to the thigh The lungs are ---------to the rib cage 39 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology 40 Microscopic anatomy Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - Cytology 41 The study of cells is called Cytology and requires the use of a microscope Types of microscopes: Compound light microscope Transmission electron microscope Scanning electron microscope The Cell The basic unit of life Shows the characteristics of life Cell Form and Function 42 neuron Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - 43 Cytology General Cell Organization Plasma membrane Nucleus Cytoplasm Cytosol Organelles Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - Cytology 44 Cell Structure  Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - Cytology 45 The cell membrane forms the boundary of the cell and keeps its content separated from the extracellular fluid.  Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - 46 Cytology Plasma Membrane Encloses cell contents Regulates what enters and leaves cell Participates in many cell activities (e.g., growth, reproduction, cell-to-cell interactions) Plasma membrane components Phospholipid bilayer Cholesterol Proteins  Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - 47 Cytology Phospholipids Phospholipid molecules are arranged in two layers: Phosphate “head” is water-soluble. Double-stranded lipid “tail” is hydrophobic. Layers are oriented in opposite directions. Heads face cytoplasm Tails face inside of cell  48 Cholesterol Cholesterol molecules align themselves parallel to phospholipids – Heads next to phosphate heads – Tails near fatty acid tails Stabilizes the cell membrane and makes it more fluid.  Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - Cytology 49 Membrane Proteins Serve both structural and functional role – Integral proteins extend through full thickness of membrane Enable water-soluble substances to cross Some serve as receptors – Peripheral proteins attach to inner and outer membrane surface Serve as anchors to other cells or extracellular structures  Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - 50 Cytology Plasma Membrane Proteins Type of Protein Function Channels Pores in the membrane that allow passage of specific substances Transporters Shuttle substances across membrane Receptors Allow for attachment of substances to membrane; used for cell-to-cell signaling Enzymes Participate in chemical reactions at membrane surface Linkers Help stabilize the plasma membrane and attach cells together Cell identity markers Proteins unique to a person’s cells; important in the immune system and in transplantation of tissue from one person to another The Plasma Membrane 51 Fig. 3-3 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - Cytology 52 Cell Membranes May Have Surface Projections - Microvilli are short, hairlike projections that facilitate absorption by increasing surface area - Cilia are much larger than microvilli and are long, hairlike projections Move in coordinated fashion - Flagellum is a large tail-like projection found on the human sperm cell.  Projections you might find on the cell membrane 53  Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - 54 Cytology The Nucleus Largest organelle of cell Surrounded by a nuclear membrane Contains Chromosomes Units of heredity; govern all cellular activity Nucleolus Assembles ribosomes Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology - Cytology 55 The Nucleus Controls Cell Activity – Information needed to control cell functions is in DNA In nondividing cells, DNA exists as chromatin in the nucleoplasm A very dense chromatin tangle is found in the nucleolus— a region of the nucleus where ribosomes are assembled.  Cytoplasm 56 Material between the nuclear membrane and plasma membrane Includes Cytosol Fluid portion of cytoplasm Organelles Specialized cell structures that perform different cell functions Cell Organelles (cont’d) 57 Vesicles are Transport Containers – Vesicles are watery bubbles with a phospholipid membrane wall. – Merges with another membranous organelle or with cell membrane to release its contents Cellular Diversity 58 Cell shape is related to cell function. A neuron’s long fibers transmit electric energy from place to place in the nervous system. Small round red blood cells slide through tiny blood vessels. Cell organelle number is related to cell function. Lipid-producing cells have lots of smooth ER. Metabolically active cells have lots of mitochondria to manufacture ATP. Cell Organelles 59 Ribosomes Synthesize Cell Proteins – Ribosomes are tiny granules of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). – Assemble proteins Endoplasmic Reticulum Modifies Proteins and other Molecules – Endoplasmic reticulum is an interconnected network of membranes, Modifies existing molecules Removes harmful substances Cell Organelles 60 – Endoplasmic reticulum is an interconnected network of membranes Rough endoplasmic reticulum Series of interconnected sacs coated with ribosomes Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Not coated with ribisomes Synthesizes lipids Breaks down nutrients and toxins  61 Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes Cell Organelles 62 Golgi Apparatus Modifies Proteins and Packages them for Transport - Cell’s distribution center - Hollow and membranous Cell Organelles 63 Golgi Apparatus Cell Organelles 64 Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, and Proteasomes Degrade Toxins and Wastes - Lysosomes are membrane-bound packets of digestive enzymes Rids the body or worn-out parts - Peorxisomes detoxify alcohol and other cellular toxins Target free fadicals Cell Organelles 65 Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, and Proteasomes Degrade Toxins and Wastes - Proteasomes are barrel-shaped structures composed of protein Capture and degrade proteins that are no longer required by the cell Cell Organelles 66 Mitochondria Produce Cell Energy - Active cells (liver and kidneys) have more mitochondria than inactive cells (bones and tendons) - Have their own DNA - Look like elongated bacteria - Composed of outer smooth membrane and inner membrane with many folds (cristae) - The fluid in the inner membrane is the matrix Contains ribosomes, DNA, and enzymes  Cell Organelles 67 Mitochondria Organelles 68 Name Description Function Endoplasmic reticulum Network of membranes within the Rough ER modifies, folds, and sorts proteins; (ER) cytoplasm. Rough ER has ribosomes smooth ER participates in lipid synthesis attached to it; smooth ER does not Ribosomes Small bodies free in the cytoplasm or Manufacture proteins attached to the ER; composed of RNA and protein Golgi apparatus Layers of membranes Further modifies proteins; sorts and prepares proteins for transport to other parts of the cell or out of the cell Mitochondria Large organelles with internal folded Convert energy from nutrients into ATP membranes Lysosomes Small sacs of digestive enzymes Digest substances within the cell Peroxisomes Membrane-enclosed organelles containing Break down harmful substances enzymes Proteasomes Barrel-shaped organelles Destroy improperly synthesized proteins Vesicles Small membrane-bound sacs in the Store materials and move materials into or out of cytoplasm the cell in bulk Centrioles Rod-shaped bodies (usually two) near the Help separate the chromosomes during cell division nucleus Tissues of the body 69 There are four basic tissue types defined by their morphology and function: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. Four Types of Tissues 70 Epithelial tissue creates protective boundaries and is involved in the diffusion of ions and molecules. Connective tissue underlies and supports other tissue types. Muscle tissue contracts to initiate movement in the body. Nervous tissue transmits and integrates information through the central and peripheral nervous systems. 71