Social Psychology Introduction Quiz 1 PDF

Social Psychology Introduction  What is the most important or central aspect of your life? The part most intimately linked to your hopes, plans, dreams, and happiness?  Is it your work, either in school or in a job? Your hobbies?  All these are important in our lives, yes But...

Social Psychology Introduction  What is the most important or central aspect of your life? The part most intimately linked to your hopes, plans, dreams, and happiness?  Is it your work, either in school or in a job? Your hobbies?  All these are important in our lives, yes But if you think about this question more deeply, you will conclude that in fact, the most important aspect of your life is other people: Your family, friends, boyfriend, girlfriend, roommates, classmates, professors, sports teammates—all the people you care about and with whom you interact  Do you still have doubts? Then try, for a moment, to imagine life in total isolation from others…. You live totally alone on some planet ……….  As shown in movies such as WALL-E—the story of an intelligent robot left entirely alone on a deserted planet Earth Or as in the movie – The Martian: An astronaut is left alone in Mars  Would such a life, lived in total isolation, with no attachments to other people, no love, and no groups to which you belong, have any meaning? Would it even be worth living? While there are no firm answers to such questions, we do know that many people find the thought of such an isolated existence to be disturbing!  Still have doubts?.. How many times do you open whatsapp daily !! When was the last time your cell phone wasn’t working or you lost access to Facebook? How did it feel to be out of contact? Not pleasant, I am sure  That’s why it isn’t surprising when we walk across campus and see many people texting and talking into their cell phones Social contact is a central aspect of our lives, and in a very basic sense, defines who we are and the quality of our existence.  Introduction.. The social side of life is the focus of our class Social psychology is the branch of psychology that studies all aspects of our social existence— everything from – attraction, – love, and helping on the one hand, – to prejudice, exclusion, and violence on the other, – how groups influence us, – as well as the nature and role of social thought—how we think about other people, and how this affects every aspect of our relations with them  Introduction May be you have wondered …. – Why do people fall in—and out—of love? – How can we get others to do what we want—to influence them in the ways we desire? – How do we know ourselves—our greatest strengths, our weaknesses, our deepest desires, and our strongest needs? – Why do we sometimes sacrifice our own interests or even welfare in order to help others? – And why do we sometimes withhold such help, even when it is strongly needed?  Introduction Social psychology truly does investigate the entire span of social existence—a true rainbow of human social experience—but with the individual as the focus  Introduction Formal definition of social psychology: why social psychologists study the topics they do and why they approach them in a certain way Major characteristics of social psychology as it exists right now: where it is and where is it going Some of the methods used by social psychologists to answer questions about the social side of life  Let’s take a look at some questions about the social side of our life Do people with firm handshakes really make better first impression on others? What happens when we imagine “what might have been” in various situations? Can our attitude be changed by information we don’t even notice? If we are confident that we can perform a task successfully, does this increase the chance that we really can?  Let’s take a look at some questions about the social side of our life Have gender stereotypes changed in recent years? Will they go on changing? Do we prefer as romantic partners people who view us favourably or people who see us as we see ourselves? What is jealousy? Why do we feel jealous? How can we get other people to say yes to our requests?  Let’s take a look at some questions about the social side of our life Is there anything like “pure altruism” – helping others without expecting ‘anything’ in return? Does climate affect aggressive behaviour in people? When people work together, do they accomplish more than when they work alone?  Let us go to definition now What Is Social Psychology?  What Is Social Psychology? Defining social psychology is not easy Owing to the fields broad scope and rapid rate of change How and why individuals behave, think and feel as they do in social situations- ones involving the actual or imagined presence of other people  What Is Social Psychology? The impact of a person or group’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours on another persons thoughts feelings and behaviours Perceived thoughts, feelings etc. of others can be just as influential as their actual thoughts, feelings etc. – often more so! Simply – its how we influence each other and how we are influenced by each other  What Is Social Psychology? Perceived – What we believe the other person’s thoughts are.. I may be wrong completely about what the other person is thinking. But what I believe will influence me Perceived thoughts feelings actions just as influential as actual thoughts feelings actions Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature Is it possible that a field that wants to study aggression or attraction or the self be scientific? Is it? Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature What is science? Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature Science refers to a set of values several methods that can be used to study a wide range of topics There are some core values that all fields must adopt to be considered scientific in nature Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature Core Values: 1] Accuracy: A commitment to gathering and evaluating information about the world in as careful, precise, and error-free a manner as possible 2] Objectivity: A commitment to obtaining and evaluating such information in a manner that is free from bias as humanly possible Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature 3] Skepticism: A commitment to accepting findings as accurate only to the extent that they have been verified over and over again 4] Open-mindedness: A commitment to changing ones views that are strongly held-if existing evidence suggests that these views are innacurate Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature Social psychology is deeply committed to these values and applied them to understand the nature of social behaviour and social thought Hence the field is scientific in orientation Fields that are not scientific make assertions about the world and people that are not carefully tested or analysed Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature But why do we need a scientific approach? Isn’t social psychology just common sense? Because general sources – common sense - provide an - Inconsistent unreliable guide to social behaviour Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature Let’s consider a common sense statement: “Absence makes the heart grow fonder” Do you agree? Is it true that when people are separated from those they love, they miss them and so experience increased longing for them? Many might agree Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature Now let’s consider the statement: “Out of sight, out of mind” How about this statement? Is it true? When people are separated from those they love do they replace them? Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature These 2 views, both suggested by common sense – are contradictory! The same is true for many other informal observations about human behaviour Example: – “Birds of a feather flock together” – similarity leads to attraction – “Opposites attract” – dissimilarity leads to attraction Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature Common sense often suggests a confusing and inconsistent picture of human behaviour Scientific methods give us more conclusive evidence Also, we, people, are not perfect information- processing machines Our thinking is subject to so many forms of errors Social Psychology is Scientific in Nature Example You are at a Omaxe shopping mall and you see some people collecting donation for a worthy cause say for e.g., Kerala flood affected people What is the chance that you will contribute? What is the chance that others in the mall will? You may fell you will donate – because you are kind , generous … I am better than others The error here is I am better than others who are not donating  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought Social psychologists are primarily interested in understanding the many factors and conditions that shape the social behavior and thought of individuals—their actions, feelings, beliefs, memories, and inferences concerning other people Obviously, a huge number of variables play a role in this regard Most, though, fall under the four major headings  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought THE ACTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER PEOPLE COGNITIVE PROCESSES ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES: IMPACT OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD BIOLOGICAL FACTORS  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - THE ACTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER PEOPLE Imagine: Situation 1 – You are at a party when you notice that a very attractive person is looking at you and smiling – In fact, this person is looking at you in a way that leaves little room for interpretation: that person is indicating, “Hey, let’s get acquainted!”  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - THE ACTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER PEOPLE Imagine: Situation 2 – You are in a hurry and notice that you are driving faster than you usually do and you break a traffic light rule – Suddenly, up ahead, you see the blinking lights of 3 police jeeps who are stopping drivers who are breaking traffic rules  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - THE ACTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER PEOPLE Will these actions by other people have any effect on your behavior and thoughts?? Absolutely  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - THE ACTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER PEOPLE Situation 1: – Depending on your own personality, you may blush with pleasure, or feel shy when you see someone looking at you appreciatively – May be you may smile back and say “hello” Situation 2: – you will almost certainly slow down your car—a lot and drive carefully!  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - THE ACTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER PEOPLE Instances like these, which occur hundreds of times each day, indicate that other people’ behavior often has a powerful impact upon us  What did we discuss yesterday What is the central aspect in our lives - other people How living alone can be like – examples Martian … ET The so-many topics social psychology covers Definition of social psychology Social psychology is scientific 4 core values Why social psychology is not common sense Causes of social behavior and thought - 4 major headings  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - THE ACTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER PEOPLE We are also often affected by others’ appearance. Just be honest: (need not share with me in class) – Don’t you behave differently toward highly attractive people than toward less attractive ones? – Toward very old people compared to young ones? – Toward people who belong to racial and ethnic groups different from your own? – And don’t you sometimes form impressions of others’ personalities and traits from their appearance?  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - THE ACTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER PEOPLE Your answer to these questions is probably yes because we do often react to the others’ visible characteristics, such as their appearance i.e., just the way they look In fact, research findings (e.g., Hassin & Trope, 2000) indicate that we cannot ignore others’ appearance even when we consciously try to do so Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - Cognitive Processes  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - Cognitive Processes Suppose that you have arranged to meet a friend, and this person is late In fact, after 30 minutes you begin to suspect that your friend will never arrive Finally, she or he does appear and says, “Sorry…I forgot all about meeting you until a few minutes ago.” How will you react? ……………………..  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - Cognitive Processes Probably get irritated!! Imagine that instead: – Your friend said, “I’m so sorry to be late. There was a big accident, and the traffic was tied up for miles.” …………. Now how will you react? …………….  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - Cognitive Processes May be with less annoyance—but not necessarily !! If your friend is often late and has used this excuse before, you may be suspicious about whether this explanation is true In contrast, if this is the first time your friend has been late, or if your friend has never used such an excuse in the past, you may accept it as true  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - Cognitive Processes In other words, your reactions in this situation will depend strongly on your memories of your friend’s past behavior and your inferences about whether her or his explanation is really true  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - Cognitive Processes Situations like this one call attention to the fact that cognitive processes play a crucial role in social behavior and social thought We are always trying to make sense out of the social world, and this basic fact leads us to engage in lots of social cognition—to think long and hard about other people—what they are like, why they do what they do, how they might react to our behavior, and so on ….  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought - Cognitive Processes Social psychologists are well aware of the importance of such processes and, in fact, social cognition is one of the most important areas of research in the field  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Environmental Variables, impact of the physical world Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Environmental Variables, impact of the physical world Do we become more irritable and aggressive when the weather is hot and steamy than when it is cool and comfortable? Does exposure to a pleasant smell in the air make people more helpful to others? And … perfumes in malls … Does that occur on baseball playing fields as well in crowded and largely unconditioned sections of cities? Research findings indicate that the physical environment does indeed influence our feelings, thoughts, and behavior, so these variables, too, certainly fall within the realm of modern social psychology  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors Is social behavior influenced by biological processes and genetic factors? Our preferences, behaviors, emotions, and even attitudes are affected, to some extent, by our biological inheritance The view that biological factors play an important role in social behavior comes from the field of evolutionary psychology  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors This is a new branch of psychology It suggests that our species, the humans like all others on the planet, Has been subject to the process of biological evolution throughout its history That as a result of this process, we now possess a large number of evolved psychological mechanisms that help (or once helped) us to deal with important problems relating to survival Species are either extinct or evolved.. Like dinosaurs etc etc ….  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors How do these become part of our biological inheritance? Through the process of evolution, which, in turn, involves three basic components: variation, inheritance, and selection.  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors Variation refers to the fact that organisms belonging to a given species vary in many different ways Example: Human beings, as you already know, come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, and vary on what sometimes seems to be an almost countless number of dimensions  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors Inheritance refers to the fact that some of these variations can be passed from one generation to the next through complex mechanisms – Example: I may have gotten my nose from my mother…physical attributes  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors Selection refers to the fact that some variations give the individuals who possess them an “edge” in terms of reproduction They are more likely to survive, find mates, and pass these variations on to succeeding generations The result is that over time, more and more members of the species possess these variations. This change in the characteristics of a species over time— immensely long periods of time—is the concrete outcome of evolution  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors Example, and one that is perhaps a bit more surprising! In a study people were asked to indicate the characteristics in potential romantic partners that they find desirable, both genders—but especially women—rate a sense of humor high on the list … Why?  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors From an evolutionary point of view, what is it about humor that makes it a desirable characteristic in others?  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors One possibility is that a sense of humor signals high intelligence, and this tends to make humorous people attractive—after all, they have good genes  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors But another possibility is that a sense of humor signals something else: interest in forming new relationships. In other words, it is a sign that the humorous person is available— and interested. Research by Li et al. (2009) found that people are more likely to use humor and laugh at humor by others when they find these people attractive than when they do not  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors Other topics have been studied from the evolutionary perspective e.g., helping others; aggression The evolutionary perspective does not suggest that we inherit specific patterns of social behavior; rather, it contends that we inherit tendencies or predispositions that may be apparent in our overt actions, depending on the environments in which we live  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors Because of our genetic inheritance, we have tendencies to behave in certain ways that, at least in the past, enhanced the chances that our ancestors would survive and pass their genes on to us However, These tendencies can be—and often are—overridden by cognitive factors and the effects of experience  Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Thought – Biological Factors Example: what is viewed as attractive changes over time and is often very different in diverse cultures – e.g., overweight women are particularly desirable in Nigeria but less so in contemporary North America. So yes, genetic factors play some role in our behavior and thought, but they are clearly only one factor among many that influence how we think and act The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World  The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World One key goal of science is the development of basic principles that are accurate regardless of when or where they are applied or tested For instance, in physics, Einstein’s equation e = mc2 is assumed to be true everywhere in the universe, and at all times—now, in the past, and in the future Social psychologists, too, seek such basic principles.  The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World While they don’t usually develop elegant mathematical expressions or equations, they do want to uncover the basic principles that govern social life For example, they’d like to determine what factors influence attraction, helping, prejudice, first impressions of other people, and so on… And the research they conduct is designed to yield such knowledge—basic principles that will be true across time and in different cultures  The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World On the other hand, they recognize the fact that cultures differ greatly and that the social world in which we live is constantly changing—in very important ways Example: Take something like dressing - cultures vary greatly with respect to when and where people are expected to “dress up” rather than dress casually Example: dressing for wedding in different countries  The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World While casual is acceptable in almost all contexts in the United States, more formal “dressy” attire is still expected in other cultures  The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World Should teenagers come home late night without adult supervision? At what age should marriage occur? Are “gifts” to public officials acceptable or illegal bribes ? At what age should people retire, and how should they be treated after they do? Cultures differ tremendously in these and countless other ways, and this complicates the task of establishing general principles of social behavior and social thought.  The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World Although the task of identifying basic, accurate principles of social behavior and social thought is complicated by the existence of huge cultural differences and rapid changes in social life, The goals of social psychological research remain within reach: – uncovering basic, accurate facts about the social side of life that do apply in a wide range of contexts and situations.  The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World The social world is changing— and very rapidly, too. Because of social networks, cell phones, online dating, and many other changes, people now meet potential romantic partners in different ways than in the past when, typically, they were introduced by friends or family Does this mean that the foundations of attraction are different today than in the past?  The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World Social psychologists believe that despite these changes, the same basic principles apply: Physical attractiveness is still a basic ingredient in romance, and Although influence is now exerted in many ways not possible in the past (e.g., social media), The basic principles of persuasion, too, remain much the same  Cognition and Behavior: Two Sides of the Same Social Coin In the past social psychologists could be divided into two distinct groups: – those who were primarily interested in social behavior—how people act in social situations— and – those who were primarily interested in social cognition—how people attempt to make sense out of the social world and to understand themselves and others  Cognition and Behavior: Two Sides of the Same Social Coin This division has now totally disappeared In modern social psychology, behavior and cognition are seen as intimately, and continuously, linked We cannot hope to understand how and why people behave in certain ways in social situations without considering their thoughts, memory, intentions, emotions, attitudes, and beliefs  Cognition and Behavior: Two Sides of the Same Social Coin All social psychologists agree that there is a continuing and complex interplay between social thought and social behaviour What we think about others influences our actions toward them, and the consequences of these actions then affect our social thought So, the loop is continuous The Role of Emotion in the Social Side of Life Can you imagine life without feelings— emotions or moods? Probably not, because this is a very central aspect of social life—and life more generally. Emotions and moods, play a key role in many aspects of social life. The Role of Emotion in the Social Side of Life Example, imagine that you want a favor from a friend or acquaintance—when would you ask for it, when this person is in a good mood or a bad one? Research findings indicate that you would do much better when that person is in a good mood, because positive moods (or affect, as social psychologists term such feelings) do increase our tendency to offer help to others The Role of Emotion in the Social Side of Life Example: Suppose you are meeting someone for the first time Do you think your current mood might influence your reactions to this person? The Role of Emotion in the Social Side of Life If you answered “yes,” you are in agreement with the results of systematic research, which indicates our impressions of others (and our thoughts about them) are strongly influenced by our current moods  Relationships: How They Develop, Change, and Strengthen—or End If the social side of life is as important as we suggested —then relationships with others are its building blocks When they are successful and satisfying, they add tremendously to our happiness, but when they go “wrong,” they can disrupt every other aspect of our lives, and undermine our psychological health and well-being, and even our own self-concept  Relationships: How They Develop, Change, and Strengthen—or End Social psychologists have tried to understand the nature of social relationships— – how they begin and change over time, and – why, gradually, some strengthen and deepen, – while others weaken and die—often, after causing tremendous pain to the people involved  Relationships: How They Develop, Change, and Strengthen—or End In recent years, however, interest in these topics has increased greatly, and relationships are now receiving more research attention than ever before We will go into details later!  Relationships: How They Develop, Change, and Strengthen—or End Question concerning relationships that has received growing attention from social psychologists is this: What are the effects of a breakup? This is a case where common sense offers contradictory answers  Relationships: How They Develop, Change, and Strengthen—or End On the one hand, it is widely believed that the breakup of a romantic relationship is traumatic, and may leave lasting psychological scars behind On the other, the saying “What doesn’t kill you makes you stronger” suggests that there are actual benefits from such painful experiences  Relationships: How They Develop, Change, and Strengthen—or End Research on breakups suggests that there is some truth in both views On the one hand, the breakup of romantic relationships is painful and distressing; in fact, it has been found to negatively affect individuals’ self-concept, so that, for instance, they feel more vulnerable and less certain about who, precisely, they are i.e., the clarity of their self-concept is reduced  Relationships: How They Develop, Change, and Strengthen—or End On the other hand, it appears that experiencing a breakup may increase the desire for another relationship It does offer at least one major benefit: they help the people involved to let go of their former relationship and “move on” with their lives.  Relationships: How They Develop, Change, and Strengthen—or End Research on relationships has provided many important insights into this crucial part of our social lives, and offers helpful suggestions on how they can be strengthened and developed so that their beneficial effects are maximized and their potential costs reduced  What we discussed yesterday Causes of social behaviour and thought: 1] The actions and characteristics of other people 2] Cognitive Processes 3] Environmental variables 4] Biological factors Basic Principles in a changing social world - across cultures and countries Social cognition and social behavior - interlinked Role of emotions in social life Research on relationships Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet In a basic sense, everything we do, feel, imagine, or create, reflects activity within our brains Are you looking at, reading or understanding the words on this slide? If so, it is the result of activity in your brain.  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Are you in a good mood? Or A bad one?  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Whatever you are feeling also reflects activity in your brain and biological systems  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Can you remember what your third-grade teacher looked like? Just Try.. Anyone remembers?  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet What is the smell of your favorite food?  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet All of these events and processes are the result of activity in various areas of your brain In the past 20 years, powerful new tools for measuring activity in our brains as they function have been developed: – functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), – positron emission tomography (PET) scans, and other techniques.  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Although they were initially developed for medical uses, and Have generated major advances in surgery and other branches of medicine, They have also allowed psychologists and other scientists to peer into the human brain As people engage in various activities, and So to find out just what’s happening at any given time.  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet The result is that we now know much more about the complex relationships between neural events and psychological ones— feelings, thoughts, and overt actions  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Social psychologists, too, have begun to use these new tools to uncover the foundations of social thought and social behavior in our brains—to find out – what portions of the brain and what complex systems within it are involved in key aspects of our social life – everything from prejudice and aggression, through underperforming on tasks due to “choking under pressure”  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Study events in the brain (through the use of fMRI and other kinds of brain scans) Other neural activity, and even changes in the immune system In order to determine how these events are related to important social processes  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Let’s take an example Attitudes and values are an important part of the social side of life They often shape our overt behavior and underlie powerful emotional reactions to events and people  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet But how are they represented in the brain, and how do they exert their powerful effects on our behavior, thought, and emotions? Social neuroscience research is providing interesting answers  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet A study was designed to see what happens in the brain when people encounter statements that are consistent or inconsistent with their strongly held values and attitudes… example honesty.. Let’s see this research.. Researchers got two groups of participants known to hold opposite views on many social issues  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Group 1: One group (members of a strict Christian church) were known to be against euthanasia, growing equality of women in society, abortion, and the use of drugs. Group 2: The other, self-described as “nonreligious,” held opposite views on all these issues  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Both groups were then exposed to statements relating to these attitudes on a computer screen, and while viewing them, electrical activity in their brains was carefully recorded. A key question asked by the researchers was, How quickly do people react, in terms of brain activity, to statements that disagree with their own attitudes or values?  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Do they react this way as soon as they encounter a single word inconsistent with their views (e.g., “acceptable” in the statement “I think euthanasia is acceptable…” if they are against this action) or only after reading the entire statement and considering it carefully  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Previous research indicated that certain patterns of activity (N400, one kind of event- related potential—a kind of activity in the brain), occur very quickly when individuals encounter words inconsistent with their values—only 250 milliseconds after seeing them—and indicate that intensified processing of this word is occurring  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet It was predicted that – the Christian group would show stronger reactions to the word “acceptable” in connection with euthanasia, while – the other group would express stronger reactions to the word “unacceptable” when linked to euthanasia  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Results offered strong support for these predictions, and suggest that we do indeed process information that disagrees with our attitudes or values very quickly—long before we can put such reactions into words Attitudes and values do indeed exert powerful and far-reaching effects on activity within our brains—and on our overt actions  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Let’s take another example Have you ever heard of mirror neurons?  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet They are neurons in our brains that are activated during the observation and execution of actions, and It has been suggested that they play a key role in empathy— Our capacity to experience, vicariously, the emotions and feelings of other people  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Montgomery, Seeherman, and Haxby (2009) in their study suggested that Perhaps people who score high on a questionnaire measuring empathy Would show more activity in this area of their brains when they viewed social facial expressions shown by others  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Researchers wanted to test this Two groups of individuals—ones who had scored high in a measure of empathy or low on this measure to video clips of others’ facial expressions (e.g., smiling, frowning) or To faces that showed nonsocial movements (i.e., movements not associated with particular emotions)  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Activity in the brains of both groups of participants was recorded through fMRI scans as they watched the videos  Social Neuroscience: Where Social Psychology and Brain Research Meet Results were as predicted: people high or moderate in empathy did indeed show higher activity in the frontal operculum (where mirror neurons are located) than people low in empathy  However….. social neuroscience cannot provide the answer to every question we have about social thought or behavior. There are many aspects of social thought that cannot easily be related to activity in specific areas of the brain—aspects such as attitudes, attributions, group identities, and reciprocity  The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes Have you ever had the experience of meeting someone for the first time and taking an immediate liking—or disliking—to that person?  The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes Afterward, you may have wondered, “Why do I like (dislike) this person?” But we usually find good reasons to explain our own actions or feelings we really do understand why we behave or think in certain ways…. Sometimes … may be …  The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes Example: people get a tattoo that they think will make them happy, only to realize, later, that it is making them unhappy, not happy Sometimes our thoughts and actions are shaped by factors and processes of which we are only dimly aware, at best, and which often take place in an automatic manner, without any conscious thought or intentions on our part  The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes This is one more reason why social psychologists are reluctant to trust “common sense” as a basis for reliable information about social behavior or social thought: We are unaware of many of the factors that influence how we think and how we behave and so cannot report on them accurately  The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes For example, consider first impressions: Recent findings indicate that we form these incredibly quickly—often within mere seconds of meeting other people And, amazingly, sometimes these impressions appear to be accurate: We can form valid impressions of others’ personalities even from a very brief exposure to them  The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes But the picture is a mixed one: sometimes these first impressions are accurate and sometimes they are very wrong This raises another question: Can we tell when our first impressions are likely to be useful and when they are not? In other words, can we tell whether to have confidence in them or mistrust them?  The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes Recent studies say we cannot We don’t know when these are correct  The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes Research on the role of implicit (nonconscious) processes in our social behavior and thought has examined many other topics, such as the impact of our moods on what we tend to remember about other people or complex issues how negative attitudes toward members of social groups other than our own that we deny having can still influence our reactions toward them  The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes How we automatically evaluate people belonging to various social groups once we have concluded that they belong to that group Nonconscious factors and processing seem to play an important role in many aspects of social thought and social behavior  Taking Full Account of Social Diversity Populations in many countries are becoming increasingly ethnically diverse Social psychologists take careful account of this fact by conducting research focused on understanding the role of cultural factors in social behavior and social thought  Taking Full Account of Social Diversity Let’s take example of USA.. – 64 percent of European heritage – 13 percent African American – 4.5 percent American Indian, – 14 percent Hispanic, – 4.5 percent Asian/Pacific Islander This represents a tremendous change from the 1960s, when approximately 90 percent of the population was of European descent  Taking Full Account of Social Diversity This is a tremendous shift Psychologists have increasingly recognized the importance of taking cultural factors and differences into careful account in everything they do—teaching, research, counseling, and therapy  Taking Full Account of Social Diversity Cultural, ethnic, and racial heritage often play a key role in self-identity, and That, in turn, can exert important effects on behavior  Taking Full Account of Social Diversity Social psychology adopts a multicultural perspective—one that carefully and clearly recognizes the potential importance of – gender, age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disability, socioeconomic status, religious orientation, and – many other social and cultural dimensions  How Social Psychologists Answer the Questions They Ask: Research as the Route to Increased Knowledge  How Social Psychologists Answer the Questions They Ask: Research as the Route to Increased Knowledge Since social psychology is scientific in orientation, they usually seek to accomplish this task through systematic research To understand the specific techniques used, we examine three related topics  Three related topics 1. Basic methods of research in social psychology 2. We consider the role of theory in such research 3. Complex ethical issues relating to social psychological research  Methodological Issues in Social Psychology – Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us – Correlation: The Search for Relationships – The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us One basic technique for studying social behavior is systematic observation It refers to - carefully observing behavior as it occurs Such observation is not the kind of informal observation we all do from childhood on, such as, watching people in an airport ….  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us In a scientific field such as social psychology it is observation accompanied by careful, accurate measurement of a particular behavior across people  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us Example: A social psychologist wanted to find out how frequently people touch each other in different settings The researcher could study this topic by going to – shopping malls, – restaurants, – hospitals, – office meetings, – college campuses, and – many other locations and observe, In those settings, who touches whom, how they touch, and with what frequency  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us This is known as naturalistic observation— observation of people’s behavior in natural settings Note that in such observation, the researcher would simply record what is happening in each context She or he would make no attempt to change the behavior of the people being observed  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us Another technique that is often included under the heading of systematic observation is known as the survey method Researchers ask large numbers of people to respond to questions Example: Survey method is used to measure everything from life satisfaction around the globe to consumer reactions to new products  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us Surveys offer several advantages Information can be gathered about thousands or even hundreds of thousands of people with relative ease Surveys are often conducted online, through the Internet – even  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us Recent research on personal happiness is being conducted this way. To see for yourself how it works, just visit www.authentichappiness.com It is being done by University of Pennsilvania  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us The surveys presented there have been prepared by famous psychologists, and Your replies—which are entirely confidential— will become part of a huge data set It is being used to find out why people are happy or unhappy, and Ways in which they can increase their personal satisfaction with life.  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us The site has been visited by millions of people and currently has over 750,000 registered users! I am one of them!  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us Survey sites can be used for many other purposes—for instance, to see how students rate their professors  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us In order to be useful as a research tool, surveys must meet certain requirements The people who participate must be representative of the larger population about which conclusions are to be drawn—which raises the issue of sampling  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us For instance, suppose that the happiness website is visited only by people who are already very happy—perhaps because unhappy people don’t want to report on their feelings In that case any results obtained would be questionable for describing say American levels of happiness, because they do not represent the entire range of happiness in the population as a whole  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us 2] The way in which the items are worded can exert strong effects on the outcomes obtained Let’s continue with the happiness example Suppose a survey asked people to rate, “How happy are you in your life right now?” (on a 7- point scale where 1 = very unhappy and 7 = very happy)  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us Many people might well answer 4 or Above because overall, most people do seem to be relatively happy much of the time But suppose the question asked: “Compared to the happiest you have ever been, how happy are you right now in your life?” (1 = much less happy; 7 = just as happy)  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us In the context of this comparison to your peak level of happiness, Many people might provide numbers lower than 4, Because they know they have been more happy sometime in the past  Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us So, the survey method can be a useful approach for studying some aspects of social behavior, but The results obtained are accurate only to the extent that issues relating to sampling and wording are carefully addressed  Summary Causes of social behavior and thought - actions and characteristics of people, cognitive processes, environmental variables and physical factors, biological factors Searching for basic principles in a changing social world - can there be basic laws in social psychology like there is in physics Social cognition and social behavior linked Role of emotions in social life Relationships, how they develop, change, end - be it with parents or siblings or friends..  Summary Were Social Psychology meets brain research - everything we do feel is because of activity in brain, fMRI or pet scan being used, foundations of social and behavior in brain, study with religious and non religious group, mirror neurons, study on empathy Role of non-conscious processes - e.g., why we like someone meeting for the first time, tattoo example Taking into account full social diversity - multicultural perspective How social psychologist answer the questions they want to look into - systematic research, basic methods, role of theory, ethical issue, systematic observation, survey method, 2 main issues in survey method - sampling and wording Correlation: The Search for Relationships  Correlation: The Search for Relationships At various times, you have probably noticed that some events appear to be related to the occurrence of others: as one changes, the other changes, too. Example: people using social networks such as Facebook tend to be relatively young (although this is changing somewhat now).  Correlation: The Search for Relationships When two events are related in this way, they are said to be correlated, or that a correlation exists between them The term correlation refers to a tendency for one event to be associated with changes in the other.  Correlation: The Search for Relationships When a correlation exists, it is possible to predict one variable from information about one or more other variables The ability to make such predictions is one important goal of all branches of science, including social psychology  Correlation: The Search for Relationships Example Imagine that a correlation is observed between certain attitudes on the part of individuals (one variable) and the likelihood that they will later be very difficult to work with, both for their coworkers and boss (another variable)  Correlation: The Search for Relationships This correlation could be very useful in identifying potentially dangerous people so that companies can avoid hiring them Another Example: Similarly, suppose that a correlation is observed between certain patterns of behavior in married couples (e.g., the tendency to criticize each other harshly) and the likelihood that they will later divorce  Correlation: The Search for Relationships Again, this information might be helpful in counseling the people involved and perhaps, if this was what they desired, in saving their relationship  Correlation: The Search for Relationships How accurately can such predictions be made?  Correlation: The Search for Relationships The stronger the correlation between the variables in question, the more accurate the predictions. Correlations can range from 0 to –1.00 or +1.00; The greater the departure from 0, the stronger the correlation  Correlation: The Search for Relationships Positive numbers mean that as one variable increases, the other increases too. Negative numbers indicate that as one variable increases, the other decreases. For instance, there is a negative correlation between age and the amount of hair on the heads of males: the older they are, the less hair they have.  Correlation: The Search for Relationships How do Social psychologists use correlational method?  Correlation: The Search for Relationships Social psychologists attempt to determine whether, and to what extent, different variables are related to each other This involves carefully measuring each variable, and then performing appropriate statistical tests to determine whether and to what degree the variables are correlated.  Correlation: The Search for Relationships Let’s take an example: Say a social psychologist wants to find out whether the information posted by users on Facebook is accurate Whether it portrays the users realistically, or presents them as they would like to be (an idealized self-image)  Correlation: The Search for Relationships How could this idea be tested?  Correlation: The Search for Relationships First, posters on Facebook would complete measures of their personality (e.g., these could include extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience—ones found to be very basic in past research) Let’s see the Big 5 questionnaire Then, raters would read the profiles on Facebook and from this information, rate the posters on the same personality dimensions.  Correlation: The Search for Relationships As a cross-check, other people who know the posters well could also rate them on the same personality dimensions Next, these sets of information would be compared (i.e., correlated) to see how closely they align.  Correlation: The Search for Relationships The higher the correlation between these ratings—the ones provided by the posters themselves and people who know them very well (i.e., self and other personality ratings)— the more accurately users of Facebook present themselves  Why?  Correlation: The Search for Relationships Because the ratings posted by people on Facebook agree with those provided by others who know them personally Studies show posted profiles closely matched the posters’ actual personalities, as measured by personality scales they themselves completed and ratings by friends and family members.  Correlation: The Search for Relationships On the basis of this research, we can tentatively conclude that Facebook information is accurate and informative about posters’ personalities; their personality scores predict their postings, and their postings predict their personality scores. But its important to emphasize the word tentatively, for two important reasons.  Correlation: The Search for Relationships 1] The fact that two variables are correlated in no way guarantees that they are causally related—that changes in one cause changes in the other It is possible that people who post on Facebook are simply good at self- presentation.. Just a skill  Correlation: The Search for Relationships 2] it is also possible that posting on Facebook leads to changes in posters’ personalities, in the direction of becoming more like the information on Facebook. That may sound a little far-fetched and too much, but it is still possible, and Correlational research cannot definitely rule out such possibilities: It can’t establish the direction of relationships between variables, just their existence and strength  Correlation: The Search for Relationships Despite these 2 drawbacks there are benefits: – It can be used in natural settings where experiments might be very difficult to conduct – it is often highly efficient: a large amount of information can be obtained in a relatively short period of time The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention Experimentation involves the following strategy: One variable is changed systematically, and the effects of these changes on one or more other variables are carefully measured The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention If systematic changes in one variable produce changes in another variable, It is possible to conclude with reasonable certainty that there is indeed a causal relationship between these variables: that changes in one do indeed cause changes in the other. The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention Experimentation – its basic nature There is IV - The factor systematically varied by the researcher is termed the independent variable There is DV - the aspect of behavior studied is termed the dependent variable The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention Example: Does exposure to violent video games increase the likelihood that people will aggress against others in various ways e.g., verbally, physically, spreading false rumors etc. The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention How can this possibility be investigated by using the experimental method? Here is one possibility:  The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention Participants in the experiment could be asked to play a violent or nonviolent video game Then they would be placed in a situation where they could, if they wished, aggress against another person The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention For instance, they could be told that the next part of the study is concerned with taste sensitivity and asked to add as much chilli sauce as they wish to a glass of water that another person will drink The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention Participants would taste a sample in which only one drop of sauce has been placed in the glass, so they would know how hot the drink would be if they added more than one drop. Lots of sauce would make the drink so hot that it would truly hurt the person who consumed it. The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention If playing aggressive video games increases aggression against others, then participants who played such games would use more hot sauce—and so inflict more pain on another person—than control group who played sudoku The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention If results indicate that this is the case, then the researcher could conclude, at least tentatively, that playing aggressive video games does increase subsequent, overt aggression The researcher can offer this conclusion because if the study was done correctly, the only difference between the experiences of the two groups during the study is that one played violent games and the other did not. The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention As a result, any difference in their behavior (in their aggression) can be attributed to this factor – violent video game  Difference between correlational and experimental It is important to note that in experimentation, the independent variable— in this case, exposure to one or another type of video game—is systematically changed by the researcher. In the correlational method, in contrast, variables are not altered in this manner; rather, naturally occurring changes in them are simply observed and recorded.  Experimentation: 2 Key requirements for its success 1] Random assignment of participants to experimental conditions This means that all participants in an experiment must have an equal chance of being exposed to each level of the independent variable For instance, imagine that in the study on video games, all the people assigned to the violent game come from a judo club—they practice martial arts regularly—while all those assigned to play the other game come from a singing club !!  Experimentation: 2 Key requirements for its success 2] As much possible all factors other than the independent variable that might also affect participants’ behavior must be held constant Example: Continuing with the video game study - consider what will happen if, in the study on video games, two assistants collect the data One is kind and friendly, the other is rude and nasty  Experimentation: 2 Key requirements for its success Now The rude assistant collects data for the aggressive game condition and The polite one collects data from the nonaggressive game condition  Experimentation: 2 Key requirements for its success If participants in the first group are more aggressive toward another person – i.e., the violent video game group What do the findings tell us? We can’t tell whether it was playing the aggressive video game or the rude treatment they received from the assistant that produced higher aggression  Experimentation: 2 Key requirements for its success In situations like this, the independent variable is said to be confounded with another variable When such confounding occurs, the findings of an experiment may be largely uninterpretable Experimentation: 2 Key requirements for its success  Experimentation: 2 Key requirements for its success Experimentation is, in many ways, is the most powerful of social psychology’s methods. It certainly isn’t perfect— For example, since it is often conducted in laboratory settings that are quite different from the locations in which social behavior actually occurs,  Experimentation: 2 Key requirements for its success 1] The question of external validity often arises To what extent can the findings of experiments be generalized to real-life social situations and perhaps people different from those who participated in the research? 2] And there are situations where, because of ethical or legal considerations, it can’t be used The Role of Theory in Social Psychology  The Role of Theory in Social Psychology Social psychologists seek to do more than simply describe the world: they want to be able to explain it too Example: social psychologists are not interested in merely stating that racial prejudice is common in the United States; they want to be able to explain why some people are more prejudiced toward a particular group than are others  The Role of Theory in Social Psychology Explanation involves the construction of theories—frameworks Example: Suppose that a social psychologist formulates the following theory: When people believe that they hold a view that is in the minority, they will be slower to state it and this stems not from the strength of their views, but from reluctance to state minority opinions publicly where others will hear and perhaps disapprove of them for holding those views.  The Role of Theory in Social Psychology This theory would lead to specific predictions—for instance, the minority slowness effect will be reduced if people can state their opinions privately If research findings are consistent with this prediction and with others derived from the theory, confidence in the theory is increased.  The Role of Theory in Social Psychology If findings are not consistent with the theory, it will be modified or perhaps rejected Ethical Issues: The Quest for Knowledge and the Rights of Individuals: In Search of an Appropriate Balance  Ethical Issues is it ethical to expose experimental participants to a treatment that is embarrassing? or Can harm their self-concept? But if such research is necessary what to do??  Ethical Issues These questions are important and have to be addressed: What are the rights of the person, What are the ethical obligations of the researcher, and What guidelines are there for deciding?  Ethical Issues A question of ethics arises most often in the psychological experiment. But they can also confront non-experimental researchers To guide researchers, the American Psychological Association established, a set of principles for ethical conduct in research involving humans.  Ethical Issues In western countries universities do not permit research to go ahead unless it has been checked to conform to these principles. There are five ethical principles that have received most attention: protection from harm, right to privacy, deception, informed consent and debriefing  Ethical Issues Now in India too: Example: My doctoral thesis was approved by ethics board Although it is pretty obvious that you should not harm your participants, much hinges on what is defined as ‘harm’ It is a delicate concern  Ethical Issues Breaking a bone is clearly harm, but what about telling participants they have done badly on a word-association task? It may have long-term effects on self-esteem and could therefore be considered harmful, but on the other hand, the effects may be so minor and transitory as to be insignificant.  Ethical Issues Privacy is more straightforward. Because research participants often give personal information and Sometimes embarrassing and intimate information, Researchers do their best to ensure confidentiality so that data cannot be traced back to individual participants  Ethical Issues Perhaps the most serious issue is the use of deception in experiments In experiments participants need to be unaware of the manipulations and the hypotheses being tested Otherwise data would reflect deliberative responses rather than automatic reactions, and it would be impossible to study many psychological processes  Ethical Issues One way to safeguard people’s rights in experiments is to tell them ‘the truth, The whole truth about the experiment and That they are free to withdraw at any point, and Then obtain in writing their informed consent to participate  Ethical Issues Participants should also be fully debriefed after taking part in an experiment They should learn all about the research and the research procedures So that they leave the laboratory with an increased respect for and understanding of social psychology.  Summary 1] Methodological Issues: – Correlation: The search for relationships – Experimental method – Difference between correlational and experimental methods 2] Theory in social psychology 3] Ethical Issues – harm, privacy, informed consent, debriefing, deception