Teaching Science and Learning Theories PDF

SCI 1 Teaching Science in the Elementary Grades (Biology and Chemistry) Science and Some Learning Theories Ma. Eloiza B. Estrera, RGC, LPT, MiC, CMHT, CMPT  Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you are expec ted to: ◎know the meaning of...

SCI 1 Teaching Science in the Elementary Grades (Biology and Chemistry) Science and Some Learning Theories Ma. Eloiza B. Estrera, RGC, LPT, MiC, CMHT, CMPT  Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you are expec ted to: ◎know the meaning of science and w hy science is important; ◎ compare and contrast the learning theories of contemporary psychologists; ◎ explain the different learning theories; ◎ Relate the significance of learning theories in the teaching – learning process; ◎ construct the models of the learning theories. 2  Topics for Discussion ◎ Meaning of Science What is Science? Scientific Attitudes Basic Science Skills ◎ Contemporary Psychologists and Their Learning Theories Bruner and Discovery Learning Gagne and Learning Hierarchy Piaget and the Theory of Cognitive Development 3  1 What is Science? 4  “ ◎Science is the purs uit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence. 5  Science is… The word “science” is derived from the Latin word “Scientia” which means “KNOWLEDGE”. 6 Science is… the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the phy sical and natural w o rld through observation and experiment. https://languages.oup.com /google -dictionary -en/ 7 What is Scientific Attitude? ◎ is the desire to know and understand, questioning to all statements, s earch for data and their meaning, sear ch for verification, and consideration of consequences (Gardne r, 1975; Osb orne , Simon & Collins, 2003). ◎ is a w ay of thinking, feeling, acting and a disposition towar ds science. 8  Curiosity Humility Open-Mindedness Intellectual Honesty Perseverance Skepticism Creative and Innovative Rational Objectivity Innovative 9 Basic Science Process Skills 1. Observing 2. Classifying 3. Communicating 4. Measuring 5. Predicting 6. Inferring 10  2 Branches of Science 11  Branches of Science Biology Life 12  CHEMISTRY The science that deals with the properties, composition, and struc ture of substanc es (defined as elements and compounds), Chemistry the transformations they undergo, and the en er gy that is released or absorbed during these processes. https://www.britannica.com/science/chemistry 13 BIOLOGY study of living things and their vital pr oce sses. The field deals with all the physicochemical aspects of life. https://www.britannica.com/science/biology 14  2 Contemporary Psychologists and Their Learning Theories 15  Jerome Bruner (October 1, 1915 – June 5, 2016) He wa s an American psychologist who made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and White cognitive learning theor y in educational psychology. 16 Discovery Learning Theory There are three modes of representation: ◎ Enactive representation (action-based) ◎ Iconic representation (image-based) ◎ Symbolic representation (language- based)  Discovery Learning Theory Enactive (0 - 1 year) ◎ The first kind of memory. ◎ This mode is used within the first year of life (corresponding with Piaget’s sensorimotor stage). ◎ Thinking is based entirely on physical actions, and infants learn by doing, rather than by internal representation (or thinking). Discovery Learning Theory Enactive (0 - 1 year) ◎ It involves encoding physical action based information and storing it in our memory. ◎ For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle. Discovery Learning Theory Enactive (0 - 1year) ◎ This mode continues later in man y physical activities, s uc h as learning to ride a bike. ◎ Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form. Discovery Learning Theory Iconic (1- 6 years) ◎ Information is stored as sensory images (icons), usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. ◎ For some, this is conscious; others sa y they don’t experience it. Discovery Learning Theory Iconic (1- 6 years) ◎ This may explain why, when we are learning a ne w subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany the verbal information. ◎ Thinking is also based on the use of other mental images (icons), such as hearing, smell or touch. Discovery Learning Theory Symbolic (7 yea rs onwards) ◎ This develops last. ◎ This is wher e information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language. ◎ This mode is acquired around six to se ven years-old Discovery Learning Theory ◎ Symbolic (7 yea rs onwards) ◎ In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol s ystem s, such as music. ◎ Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified, etc. so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images The Importance of Language ◎ Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts. ◎ Bruner argues that language can code stimuli and fre e an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible cognition. The Importance of Language ◎ The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent and can re move the constraints of the “here & now” concept. ◎ Bruner views the infant as an intelligent & active problem solver from birth, with intellectual abilities basically similar to those of the mature adult. Educational Implications ◎ The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn). ◎ For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's thinking and problem- solving skills which can then be tr an sfer red to a range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children. Educational Implications ◎ In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education wa s published. ◎ The main premise of Bruner's text wa s that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.  Educational Implications A. Readiness Bruner (1960) opposed Piaget’s notion of readiness. He argued that schools waste time trying to match the complexity of subject material to a child's cognitive stage of development. This means students are held back by te achers as certain topics are deemed too difficult to under s tand and must be taught w hen the teacher believes the child has reached the appropriate stage of cognitive maturity.  Educational Implications B. Spiral Curriculum Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believe s a child (of any age) is capable of understanding complex information Bruner (1960) explained how this wa s possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on.  Educational Implications B. Spiral Curriculum Subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally, teaching this wa y should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves.  Educational Implications C. Discovery Learning Bruner (1961) proposes that learners construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believed that the most effective w ay to develop a coding syste m is to discover it rather than being told by the teacher. The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist approach)  Educational Implications C. Discovery Learning The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lesson s that help s tudents disc ove r the relationship between bits of information.  Educational Implications C. Discovery Learning To do this a teacher must give students the information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the proce ss of discovery learning.  Bruner and Vygotsky ▪ Both Bruner and Vy gotsky emphasize a child's environment, especially the social environment, more than Piaget did. ▪ Both agree that adults should play an active role in assisting the child's learning. ▪ Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a child develop skills through the proce ss of scaffolding. Scaffolding re fe rs to the step s taken to reduc e the deg rees of freedom in carry ing out some task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the proc ess of acquiring (Bruner, 1978, p. 19).  Bruner and Vygotsky ▪ He wa s especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to hav e achieved their potential as individuals. ▪ The term scaffolding first appeared in the literature when Wood, Bruner, and Ross described how tutors' interacted with a preschooler to help them solve a block reconstruction problem (Wood et al., 1976).  Bruner and Vygotsky ▪ The concept of scaffolding is ve ry similar to Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of proximal development, and it's not uncommon for the terms to be u sed interchangeably. ▪ Scaffolding involves helpful, structured interaction between an adult and a child with the aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal.  Bruner and Vygotsky The purpose of the support is to allow the child to achieve higher levels of development by: ❖ Simplifying the task or idea. ❖ Motivating and encouraging the child. ❖ Highlighting important task elements or errors. ❖ Giving models that can be imitated.  Bruner and Piaget BRUNER AGREES WITHPIAGET BRUNER DISAGREES WITHPIAGET Children are innately Social factors, particularly PRE-ADAPTED to language, we re important for learning cognitive growth. These underpin the concept of ‘scaffolding’. Children have a The development of LANGUAGE NATURAL CURIOSITY is a cause not a consequence of cognitive development  Bruner and Piaget BRUNER AGREES WITHPIAGET BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET Children’s COGNITIVE You can SPEED-UP cognitive STRUCTURES develop development. You don’t have to ove r time wait for the child to be re ady Children are ACTIVE The involvement of ADULTSand participants in the MORE learning proce ss KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERSmakes a big difference Cognitive development The involvement of ADULTSand entails the acquisition MORE KNOWLEDGEABLEPEERS of SYMBOLS makes a big difference  Bruner and Piaget ❖ Bruner state s that what determines the level of intellectual development is the extent to which the child has been given appropriate instruction together with practice or experience. ❖ The right wa y of presentation and the right explanation will enable a child to grasp a concept usually only understood by an adult. ❖ His theory str es ses the role of education and the adult. ❖ Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive development, and since language is our primary means of symbolizing the world, he attac hes great importance to language in determining cognitive development. 43 44  Robert Gagne (August 21, 1916 – April 28, 2002) He w as an American educational psych ologis t best known for his Conditions of Learning. He pioneered the sc ience of instruction during World War II when he worked with the Ar my Air Corps training pilots. 45  Robert Gagne (August 21, 1916 – April 28, 2002) He went on to develop a series of studies and works that simplified and explained what he and other s believed to be "good instruction.“ He wa s also involved in applying concepts of instructional theor y to the design of computer- based training and multimedia- bas ed learning. 46  Learning Hierarchy Gagne's theor y stipulates that there are several types and levels of learning, and each of these ty pe s and levels requires instruction that is tailored to meet the needs of the pupil. While Gagne's learning blueprint can cover all aspects of learning, the focus of the theor y is on the retention and honing of intellectual skills. 47  Learning Hierarchy The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all fields, though in its original formulation special attention wa s given to military training settings. Each category requir es different methods in order for the particular skill set to be learned. 48  Learning Hierarchy What is learning to Gagne? As outlined in his 9-e ve n t s of instruction, Gagne believed that learning w as ongoing and built continuously on prior knowledge. Humans de veloped intellectually base d on their physical capacity to do so. 49  Learning Hierarchy What is learning to Gagne? It is through ongoing learning that a human becom es a valuable memb er of society. Even if the input is the same, the learning outcome varies. Human behavior is dependent not only on the external environment, but the cognitive proces s itself. 50  Learning Hierarchy Based on Gagne’s ideas, specific assumptions have been made about his work: Learning requires differentiated instruction and various levels of support. As each student has unique prior knowledge, the les sons must alwa ys addre ss the complexity and the proces sing level of the learner. Different strate gies will be re quire d to achie ve diffe rent learning goals. 51  Learning Hierarchy Based on Gagne’s ideas, specific assumptions have been made about his work: Both internal and external stimuli affect the conditions of learning. Just as n e w abilities are proce sse d internally, the classroom conditions should support the learning proce ss. The learning hierarchy outlines the order of instruction as well as what skills should be learned. 52  Learning Hierarchy 1 Intellectual Skills 2 Cognitive Strategies 3 Verbal Information 4 Motor Skills 5 Attitudes 53  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills ✓ Outlines how to follow pr oce dures to get things done ✓ There are five different levels of learning within the intellectual skills category: ✓ Discrimination ✓ Concrete concept ✓ Defined concept ✓ Rule ✓ Problem-solving 54  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills Discrimination ✓ The capacity to classify objects by one or more of their characteristics. ✓ This skill is should be repeatedly practiced. Example: Differentiate between octopuses/squids or alligators/crocodiles. 55  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills Concrete concept ✓ the capacity to identify objects based one or more of their unique characteristics, such as the shape or color ✓ This concept is more challenging than discrimination because the learner must outline the main properties of the object. 56  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills Concrete concept ✓ Following the idea of hierarchy in Bloom’s Taxonomy, a learner must learn discrimination before they learn concrete concepts. ✓ This skill can be practiced by presenting a variety of unrelated objects to the students and asking them specific questions about each. 57  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills Concrete concept Example: Identify a tomato as a vegetable or a fruit. Identify the following objects worn by boys and girls 58  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills Defined concept ✓ The capacity to demonstrate understanding about an abstract object or event. ✓ This skill requires the ability to explain more than the textbook definition of a concept ✓ While there may be some concrete concepts in the description, the student would explain the idea in relation to their own experiences. 59  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills Defined concept ✓ This skill can be practiced by asking students to outline all of the information they know about a concept, and then have them draw conclusions between the ideas. They could also watch a video or a demonstration of the concept in question. Example: Define a family or a community 60  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills Rule ✓ the capacity to make connections between concepts and objects. ✓ This may include how to play a game, how to do division, or how to cr eate a sente nce that includes all ne cessar y parts. 61  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills Rule ✓ This skill can be practiced by having each student recall the concepts that cr eate the rule for each idea. ✓ The instructor should utilize all prompts and strategies in order to clearly share each rule with the students. 62  Learning Hierarchy Intellectual Skills Problem-solving ✓ the capacity to integrate multiple rules to find a solution. ✓ This skill can be practiced by reviewing information that is relevant to the problem. ✓ The instructor may also prompt them to discover ne w rules that may help them engage in a solution. 63  Learning Hierarchy Cognitive strategy ✓ The second type of cognitive skill is a cognitive strategy. ✓ There are a fe w strategies for learning as well as for thinking, which are also called metacognitive strategies. ✓ Learning strategies include: ✓ Rehearsal - which involves copying and underlining information or re ading it out loud ✓ Elaboration - where the student takes notes, para phrases ideas, summarizes information and a ns wers questions, and ✓ Organizing - which includes creating concept m aps and arr anging ideas in a meaningf ul wa y. 64  Learning Hierarchy Cognitive strategy ✓ Metacognitive strategies (thinking) include: ▪ setting goals ▪ tracking progress ▪ modifying strategies ✓ These strategies help students control their eve ry day stress, manage their time effectively, and focus their attention on the task at hand. 65  Learning Hierarchy Verbal information ✓ The third category in the cognitive domain, verbal information, is taught using different techniques to aid in memor y recall. ✓ Using imagery and other mnemonic strategies helps students make connections with the information and remember it more easily. 66  Learning Hierarchy Verbal information ✓ As verbal information is often a lot of facts, places and names, the use of learning strategies is meant to provide c ues to one’s memory. ✓ Organizing, elaborating and rehearsing are all w ays to assist in learning declarative knowledge. 67  Learning Hierarchy Motor skills ✓ The only category in the psychomotor domain, motor skills are physical actions that are asse ssed in complex per formances such as skiing, dancing, skateboarding, or even writing with a pencil. ✓ These movements are evaluated on accur acy, smoothness, speed, or force. ✓ Motor skills are also known as psychomotor skills due to the coordinated re sponse required. 68  Learning Hierarchy Motor skills ✓ Psychomotor skills have their own sub skills, which are also called part skills. ✓ Part skills are taught with clear instructions such as diagrams, checklists and even pictures to help the learner move in the right direction. It is important to note that part skills are best learned by continuous practice. 69  Learning Hierarchy Attitude ✓ Attitude is found in the affective domain due to its unique state. ✓ It is often challenging to mea sure attitude, as each individual must declare their own thoughts. ✓ Self- reported questionnaires would be an example of how we can as se ss the attitudes of learners. ✓ Although it is an internal state of mind, attitude can be obser ved in one’s own personal choices or actions. 70  Learning Hierarchy Attitude ✓ There must be a conscious effort in order to change one’s attitude and they must be willing to do so. ✓ Using a mentor or role model has been an effec tive w ay of changing one’s attitude. 71  Learning Hierarchy Attitude ✓ The student is first asked to remember a time wher e the negative attitude applied. ✓ Then, a mentor demonstr ates or r e-e nac ts the desired re sponse for the given situation. ✓ The mentor must be valued by the student and must also communicate the positive outcome achieved when the ne w attitude is applied. 72  Learning Hierarchy Attitude ✓ Reinforcements or a conditioned re sponse can be used to promote the desired attitude. 73  Learning Hierarchy Nine Instructional Events and Corresponding Cognitive Proces ses 1. Gaining attention (reception) 2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) 3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) 4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) 5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) 6. Eliciting performance (responding) 7. Providing feedback (reinforcement) 8. Assessin g performance (retrieval) 9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization). 74  Learning Hierarchy Nine Instructional Events and Corresponding Cognitive Process es Examples: 1. Gain attention – show variety of computer generated triangles 2. Identify objective – pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?” 3. Recall prior learning – review definitions of triangles 4. Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle 5. Guide learning- show example of how to cr eate equilateral 75  Learning Hierarchy Nine Instructional Events and Corresponding Cognitive Process es Examples: 6. Elicit performance – ask students to cr eate 5 different examples 7. Provide feedback – check all examples as correc t/incorrect 8. A sse ss performance- provide score s and remediation 9. Enhance retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals 76  Learning Hierarchy Principles ❖ Different instr uc tion is required for different learning outcomes. ❖ Events of learning operate on the learner in w ays that constitute the conditions of learning. ❖ The specific operations that constitute instructional even ts are different for each different type of learning outcome. ❖ Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction. 77  Jean Piaget (August 9, 1896 – September 16, 1980) He wa s a Swi ss psychologist known for his work on Child Development. He placed great importance on the education of children. His theor y of child development is studied in pre-ser vice education pr ograms 78  Cognitive Development Jean Piaget's theor y of cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as children grow. A child's cognitive development is acquiring ju st not about knowledge, the child has to develop or construct a mental model of the world. Cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate capacities and environmental events, and children pass through a series of stages. 79  Cognitive Development 4 Stages of Development. ✓ Sensory stage: birth to 2 yea rs ✓ Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 yea rs ✓ Operational stage: 7 to 11 yea rs ✓ Formal Operational stage: ages 12 and up 80  Cognitive Development 4 Stages of Development. ✓ The seque nce of the stage s is universal ac ross cultures and follow the same invariant (unchanging) order. ✓ All children go through the same stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate). 81  Cognitive Development How Piaget Developed the Theory? ✓ Piaget wa s employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, wher e his job w as to develop French ver sions of questions on English intelligence tests. ✓ He became intrigued with the re asons children gave for their wrong an swe rs to the questions that required logical thinking. 82  Cognitive Development How Piaget Developed the Theory? ✓ He believed that these incorrect an swe rs revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children. ✓ Piaget branched out on his own with a ne w set of assumptions about children’s intelligence: 83  Cognitive Development How Piaget Developed the Theory? Children’s intelligence differs from an adult ’s in quality rather than in quantity. This means that children reason (think) differently from adults and se e the world in different ways. Children actively build up their knowledge about the world. They are not passi ve cr eatures waiting for someone to fill their heads with knowledge. The best wa y to understand children’s reasoning wa s to se e things from their point of view. 84  Cognitive Development How Piaget Developed the Theory? ✓ He wa s more interested in wa s the w ay in which fundamental concepts like the ve r y idea of number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged. ✓ Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence using naturalistic observation of his own three babies and sometimes controlled observation too. ✓ From these he wrote diary descriptions charting their development. 85  Cognitive Development How Piaget Developed the Theory? ✓ He wa s more intere sted in wa s the wa y in which fundamental concepts like the v ery idea of number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged. ✓ Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence using naturalistic observation of his own three babies and sometimes controlled observation too. ✓ From these he wrote diary descriptions charting their development. ✓ He also use d clinical interview s and ob se rvations of older children who we re able to understand q ue stions and hold conversations. 86  Cognitive Development Stages of Cognitive Development Stage Age Goal Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 Object months permanence Preoperational 2 to 7 yea rs old Symbolic thought Conc rete Ages 7 to 11 Logical thought operational yea rs Formal Adolescence to Scientific operational adulthood reasoning 87  Cognitive Development The Sensorimotor Stage Ages: Birth to 2 Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: The infant learns about the world through their s e ns e s and through their actions (moving around and exploring its environment). During the sensorimotor st age a range of cognitive abilities develop. 88  Cognitive Development The Sensorimotor Stage Ages: Birth to 2 Years Major Characte ristics and Developmental Changes: Thes e include: object permanence; self- recognition; deferred imitation; and representational play. They relate to the emerg ence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to repres ent the world mentally 89  Cognitive Development The Sensorimotor Stage Ages: Birth to 2 Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: At about 8 months the infant will underst and the permanence of objects and that they will still exist even if they can’t s ee them and the infant will se a rch for them when they disappear. 90  Cognitive Development The Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 - 7 Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally repres ent the world through language and mental imagery. During this stage, y oung children can think about things symbolically. 91  Cognitive Development The Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 - 7 Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: This is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself. A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. 92  Cognitive Development The Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 - 7 Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: It is not ye t capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought. Infants at this st age also demonstrate animism. This is the te ndency for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s. 93  Cognitive Development The Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7- 11Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete event s. Children begin to unde rst and the concept of conse rvation; understanding that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same. 94  Cognitive Development The Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7 - 11Years Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: During this stage, children can mentally rev ers e things (e.g. picture a ball of plasticine returning to its original shape). During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. 95  Cognitive Development The Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12 and Over Major Characte ristics and Developmental Changes: Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely fre ed from physical and perceptual constraints. 96  Cognitive Development The Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12and Over Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing s weets to unde rst and division and fractions). They can follow the form of an argume nt without having to think in terms of specific examples. 97  Cognitive Development The Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12and Over Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: Adolesce nts can deal with hypothetical problems with man y possible solutions. E.g. if asked ‘What would happen if mone y we re abolished in one hour ’s time? they could speculate about man y possible cons equences. 98  Cognitive Development The Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12and Over Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: Adolesce nts can deal with hypothetical problems with man y possible solutions. E.g. if asked ‘What would happen if mone y we re abolished in one hour ’s time? they could speculate about man y possible cons equences. 99