Introduction to Philosophy PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MODULE 1 | DOING PHILOSOPHY 3. Heraclitus of Ephesus The Big Three Known as "The Obscure" or "The Weeping...

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY MODULE 1 | DOING PHILOSOPHY 3. Heraclitus of Ephesus The Big Three Known as "The Obscure" or "The Weeping Philosopher" because of his allegedly 1. Socrates paradoxical philosophies "Athens' street-corner Philosopher" Lauded by his viewpoint that change is a Born to a midwife and sculptor fundamental essence in the Universe; believed Famous for creating the Socratic Method of in an on going process of perpetual change, a Teaching constant interplay of opposites The Socratic Method Proposed that the whole Universe was made of teaching method where a person digs deeper fire into a particular idea 4. Anaximander by means of creating and using follow-up Thales' student questions, which will eventually lead to the truth Known in the historical documents as the first of the matter. one to write down his teachings done by minimum of two (2) participants -- the Proposed that the whole Universe was made one who inquires (student) and the one who from an unexplainable substance usually intrigues (teacher) translated 2. Plato as "the infinite" or "the boundless" "The Philosopher who would be King" 5. Pythagoras of Samos Studied under Socrates Led a rather bizarre religious sect and Plato's writings reflect the teaching methods of essentially believed that all of reality was Socrates governed His famous treatise, The Republic, stated that a by Mathematics philosopher should be a king Influenced the philosophies of Plato and Possibly dualistic because of his perception of Aristotle life Basically, his teachings influenced Western He believed that life is nothing more than the Philosophy imprisonment of the soul in a physical body 6. Parmenides of Elea 3. Aristotle Considered as the founder of the school of "A Long walk to the Golden Mean" either Metaphysics or Ontology Known as a peripatetic philosopher - [Gk. Argued that motion is an illusion peripateo = "to walk around"] philosopher is Influenced Western Philosophy like Pythagoras someone who lectures while taking a stroll did Founded the school of Logical Theory His poem, On Nature, was the last surviving He believed that the greatest human endeavor is evidence of his existence and it, too, survived the use of reason in theoretical activity through One (1) of his best-known ideas is The Golden Mean, where one avoids extremes, effectively fragments of the whole poem making it a counsel of moderation in all things. Used a complicated form of reasoning to deny the concept of change and argued that Predecessors of the Big Three everything 1. Thales of Miletus that exists is permanent, indestructible, and First proper philosopher unchanging Proposed that the whole Universe was 7. Zeno of Elea composed of different forms of water Defended Parmenides' paradoxes - - - - - 2. Anaximanes of Miletus Focused also on Metaphysics and Ontology Most of his works were not preserved; known Pointed out that the concept of infinity in only through comments done by Aristotle and divisibility is a problematical other writers Inventor of the dialectic, as Aristotle said Proposed that the whole Universe was made of Best known for his Ten Paradoxes, including the air following motion paradoxes: - Achilles and the Tortoise INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY | 1ST QUARTER REVIEWER | PREPARED BY: MS. JUSMICA SAMOY  - Dichotomy paradox Collectivistic - Drawn into groups or society or - Arrow paradox people’s actions and thoughts as one to find meaning in life, as they try to get rid of the false 8. Empedocles “me” concept and find meaning in discovering Proposed that everything is made up of the four the true “me” in relation to everything around (4) classical elements which influenced almost them, or as part of a bigger scheme anything for almost 2,000 years Unity is the main principle - People who are 9. Democritus different are received negatively Proposed the theory of the atomos, which Cyclical Journey of Life - Proposes that life is became one of the foundations for modern-day round, and the recurrence with everything Chemistry around is important The concept of atomos became the foundation Ethics is based on behavior - Dependence goes of the school of Atomism, which stated that all of from the inside to the outside. The inner self reality is actually composed of tiny, indivisible, must be freed first in accordance to the world and indestructible building blocks known as around to be liberated atoms, which form different combinations and Life is eternal and recurring shapes within the surrounding void. - Virtual Emphasis - Focuses with the selfless approach to life Satisfaction with what one has WESTERN PHILOSOPHY Spiritual and theoretical School of thought based mainly from Greece Laws Govern the Universe - Widely believed SIMILARITIES OF WESTERN AND EASTERN that there are laws that govern the behavior of PHILOSOPHY the universe Both the Western and the Eastern approach Individualistic - Tries to find the meaning of life share a concept that a deeper understanding of here and now with self at the center, as it is reality is possible than is normally available in already given and part of the divine. everyday experience - Methods differ on how to Based on self-dedication to be of service to achieve this others Western philosophy's approach to a deeper People who are different are received positively understanding involves the application of Linear Journey of Life - Life is service to God, symbolic thought such as words and money, community, etc. mathematics -- the nature of reality can be Due to its Christian influence, there must be a discovered by thinking about it the right way beginning and end to find meaning Science relies upon a specific thinking process Life is logical, scientific, and rational (logic) while faith relies upon specific thoughts Ethical Emphasis - One must do what is (dogma) supposed to be done without causing ill to Eastern philosophy's approach, thinking moves others us away from understanding reality -- when we Success is based on how much one walks his think we transfer our attention away from reality path without hurting others to the world of symbols, an irreversible Realistic and hand-on difference lies between the symbol and what it represents EASTERN PHILOSOPHY The nature of reality is discovered by Based mainly in Asia, more specifically the experiencing it directly, without thoughts -- Chinese philosophy accomplished through a variety of meditative Stems from Confucianism, Mahayana, processes Buddhism, and Taoism A Supreme Being Exists - Both philosophies The Universe Exists as is - The natural world believe a supreme deity exists who guides the does not follow laws, it simply “is” humankind and provides for all the created beings Western philosophy gradually shifts from Creationism into Science as predictor of all the events occurring in the universe INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY | 1ST QUARTER REVIEWER | PREPARED BY: MS. JUSMICA SAMOY  Eastern philosophy still puts great emphasis on 7. Amartya Kumar Sen the existence of a Supreme Being although the “A good statement of an inherently imprecise concepts of science are not totally rejected concern – and most important concerns in the world are imprecise – must capture that The Philosophies of Philosophers imprecision, and not replace it by a precise 1. Jean-Jacques Rousseau statement about something else. You should "We are born capable of sensation and from learn to speak in an articulate way about ideas birth are affected in diverse ways by the objects that are inescapably imprecise (as a man called around us. As soon as we become conscious of Aristotle explained more than two millennia ago). our sensations we are inclined to seek or to And that is one of the reasons why the avoid the objects which produce them: at first, humanities are important. A novel can point to a because they are agreeable or disagreeable to truth without pretending to capture it exactly in us, later because we discover that they suit or some imagined numbers and formulae.” do not suit us, and ultimately because of the judgements we pass on them by reference to MODULE 2 | METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING the idea of happiness of perfection we get from reason. These inclinations extend and Traditional Branches of Philosophy strengthen with the growth of sensibility and A. Metaphysics- branch of philosophy which deals intelligence, but under the pressure of habit they with the fundamental questions of reality. are changed to some extent with our opinions. Cosmology and ontology are the two (2) The inclinations before this change are what I traditional branches of metaphysics. call our nature. In my view everything ought to 1. Cosmology seeks to understand the be in conformity with these original inclinations." origin, evolution, structure, and ultimate 2. John Locke fate of the Universe at large, as well as “Knowledge then seems to me to be nothing but the natural laws that keep it in order. the perception of the connection and agreement, 2. Ontology is the investigation into what or disagreement and repugnancy of any of our types of things there are in the world Ideas. Where this Perception is, there is and what relations these things bear to Knowledge, and where it is not, there, though one another. It deals with questions we may fancy, guess, or believe, yet we always concerning what entities exist or can be come short of Knowledge.” said to exist, and how such entities can 3. Charles-Louis de Secondat Baron de la be grouped, related within a hierarchy, Brede "Montesquieu" and subdivided according to similarities "I have always observed that to succeed in the and differences. world one should appear like a fool but be wise." B. Epistemology - branch of philosophy which 4. François-Marie Arouet "Voltaire" deals with our concept of knowledge, how we "The true triumph of reason is that it enables us learn, and what we can know. It addresses four to get along with those who do not possess it." (4) main questions. 5. Thomas Hobbes 1. What is knowledge? "Scientia potentia est. Knowledge is power." 2. How is knowledge acquired? 6. Laozi 3. What do people know? "Knowing others is intelligence; knowing yourself 4. How do we know what we is true wisdom. Mastering others is strength; know? mastering yourself is true power." C. Logic- branch of philosophy which studies the rules of valid reasoning and argumentation. It is often divided into two (2) parts: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. The former refers to drawing general conclusions from specific examples, while the latter is drawing logical conclusions from definitions and axioms. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY | 1ST QUARTER REVIEWER | PREPARED BY: MS. JUSMICA SAMOY  D. Ethics, or moral philosophy, is the branch Example: Video games are almost always of philosophy which is concerned with human rooted in fantasy. Surgeon Simulator is a video values and how individuals should act. It is game. Therefore, Surgeon Simulator is rooted in concerned with the concept of morality (e.g., fantasy. concepts like good and bad, right and wrong, 2. Existentialism - the importance of free individual justice and crime, virtue and vice, etc.) choice regardless of the power of the people to influence E. Aesthetics, or esthetics, is the branch of and coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions. philosophy which deals with the notion of beauty Example- There is a problem that you need to and the philosophy of art. It deals with the nature make a decision, but you should face what would be its of beauty, art, taste, and the creation and early consequences. Another example is when a person appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically makes a decision about his/her life, follows through, or defined as the study of sensory or does not follow through on that decision and begins to sensory-emotional values, sometimes called create his/her essence. It is said in existentialism that judgments of sentiment and taste. existence comes first, and essence comes second. F. Political philosophy, or Politics, is the branch of philosophy which studies the concepts Characteristics of liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the a. Existence Before Essence - Existentialism gets its enforcement of a legal code by authority: what name from an insistence that life is only understandable they are, why (or even if) they are needed, what in terms of an individual’s existence and his/her makes a government legitimate, what rights and particular life experience. freedoms it should protect and why, what form it b. Reason is Unable to Deal with the Depths of Life - should take and why, what the law is, and what There are two (2) parts to this idea: first, that reason is duties citizens owe to a legitimate government if relatively weak and imperfect, (people often do not do any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, the “right” thing), and that there are dark places in life if ever. which are “non-reason,” to which reason scarcely penetrates, (meaning we often commit acts which seem Methods of Doing Philosophy to defy reason, to make no sense). A. Truth and Opinion c. Alienation - Existentialism holds that, since the 1. Truth is defined as being in accordance with fact and Renaissance, people have slowly been separated from reality, sometimes considered as a fidelity to an original concrete earthly existence. Individuals have been forced or standard. to live at ever-higher levels of abstraction, have been 2. Opinion is defined as a view or judgment formed by a collectivized out of existence, and have driven God from person about something, which is not necessarily based the heavens (or, what is the same thing to the on fact or knowledge. existentialist), from the hearts of men. It is believed that individuals live in a fourfold condition of alienation: from B. Methods of Philosophizing God, nature, other people, and our own “true” selves. 1. Logic d. “Fear and Trembling“ and Anxiety - The optimism -the study of reasoning, or the study of the principles and of the 18th and 19th centuries gives way, after the First criteria of valid inference and demonstration, attempts to World War, to the Great Depression, World War II, and distinguish good reasoning from bad reasoning. the Holocaust, to a feeling of pessimism, fear, and a. Inductive Reasoning - moves from specific anxiety. Another kind of anxiety that individuals faced in premises to a general conclusion - requires the 20th century when the philosophy of existentialism several pieces of evidence to form a generalized developed was “the anguish of Abraham,” the necessity conclusion which is laid upon people to make “moral” choices on Example: Cathlem was playing Mobile Legends their sense of responsibility. during class and was reprimanded by the e. The Encounter with Nothingness - According to the teacher. Dany was also playing Mobile Legends existentialists, for individuals alienated from God, from during class and was reprimanded. Thus, if I nature, from other people, and even from themselves, play Mobile Legends during class, I will be what is left at last but Nothingness? Simply put, this is reprimanded. how existentialists see humanity: on the brink of a b. Deductive Reasoning - moves from a general catastrophic precipice, below which yawns the absolute truth to a more specific conclusion void, black Nothingness, asking ourselves, “does existence ultimately have any purpose?” INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY | 1ST QUARTER REVIEWER | PREPARED BY: MS. JUSMICA SAMOY f. Freedom - Sooner or later, as a theme that includes D. Synthesize - After the analysis, we combine our all the others mentioned above, existentialist writings analyzed opinion into a unified knowledge or idea. bear upon freedom. All these ideas either describe some E. Critique - In this step, we take a critical examination loss of individuals’ freedom or some threat to it, and all of the idea formed, weighing its strengths and existentialists of whatever sort are considered to enlarge weaknesses before establishing a theory or principle. the range of human freedom. The method formed leads to another kind of bewilderment and subsequent questions, and the 3. Analytical Philosophy - One of the methods of process continues ad infinitum. philosophizing, it is the conviction that all philosophies have some significant structure which, when analyzed, Section II: The Power of Reflection provides the philosopher’s motives. Any of the various philosophical methodologies holding that clear and Reflection - also known as self-reflection, is a method precise definition and argumentation are vital to of inquiry that assesses a person’s self. It is a meditation productive philosophical inquiry. or serious thought about one’s character, actions, and For example, the definition of a concept can be motives. determined by uncovering the underlying logical Importance of Reflection structures, or “logical forms,” of the sentences used to A. Improves self-awareness express it. B. Provides perspective Foundations C. Allows proaction, not reaction 1. There are no specifically philosophical truths and that D. Facilitates deeper learning the object of philosophy is the logical clarification of E. Improves confidence thoughts. F. Challenges assumptions 2. The logical clarification of thoughts can only be achieved by analysis of the logical form of philosophical Concepts (as described by Gabriel Marcel) propositions, such as by using the formal grammar and A. Primary Reflection - examines objects by symbolism of a logical system. abstraction - analytically deconstructs ideas into its 3. There is a rejection of sweeping philosophical constituent parts - concerned with definition, essences, systems and grand theories in favor of close attention to and technical solutions detail, as well as a defense of common sense and B. Secondary Reflection - reconstruction of events to ordinary language against the pretensions of traditional create the "bigger picture" - collection of experiences metaphysics and ethics. and knowledge - integrates all that has transpired to share it into learnings 4. Phenomenology - It focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena and defines it as any IV. Some Reflective Questions to Ask object of conscious experience (things that we are aware A. Strengths – What are my advantages? (Am I well of). organized? Do I remember things?) B. Weaknesses – What are my weaknesses? (Am I III. Tips on Writing Philosophies easily distracted? Do I need more practice with a A. Wonder - Every art of philosophizing begins with particular skill?) curiosity. Man is always bewildered by his existence, C. Skills – What skills do I have and what am I good at? death, inconsistencies experienced in his everyday life, D. Problems – What problems are there at work/home and so on. As one ponders about the nature of realities that may affect me (e.g., other responsibilities or and various mind-boggling experiences in his daily distractions)? existence, specific questions begin to arise. E. Achievements – What have I achieved? When questions are asked based on our wondering F. Happiness – Are there things that I am unhappy with about reality, human existence, and all changes or disappointed about? (What makes me happy?) experienced, we tend to form opinions and presumptions G. Solutions – What could I do to improve in these based on the issues raised. areas? C. Analyze - Analysis entails a detailed examination of the opinion formed. So, in analysis, the ideas and presumptions made are accessed in parts in view to understanding what each of the concepts that constitute the opinions entails. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY | 1ST QUARTER REVIEWER | PREPARED BY: MS. JUSMICA SAMOY MODULE 3 | THE HUMAN BODY AS AN Dualism is the position that mind and body are in EMBODIED SPIRIT some definite way separate from each other. That mental phenomena are, in some respects, non-physical. I. Terms to Remember History 1. Substance - is the unchanging essence of a thing, Dualism can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle and which exists by itself and has attributes and the early Sankhya and Yoga schools of Hindu modes that may change. philosophy. 2. Causal interaction- a form of communication driven Plato - first formulated his famous Theory of by causation. Forms, distinct and immaterial substances of Causality is the law that states that each cause which the objects and other phenomena that we has a specific effect and that this effect is perceive in the world are nothing more than dependent on the initial identities of the agents mere shadows. He argued that for the intellect to involved have access to these universal concepts or 3. Object - a thing, an entity, or a being that can have ideas, the mind must itself be a non-physical, properties and bear relations to other purposes. They immaterial entity. are usually types of particulars, but there can also be Aristotle argued that if the intellect were a abstract objects. specific material organ (or part of one), then it A particular is an individual concrete object would be restricted to receiving only certain which cannot be copied without introducing new kinds of information (in the same way as the eye distinct particulars is limited to receiving visual data). Since the 4.Phenomenon - is a thing as it appears to be, as intellect can receive and reflect on all forms of constructed by the mind and perceived by the senses. data, then it must not be a physical organ, and so must be immaterial. The Body Neo-Platonic Christians identified Plato’s Philosophers believe the body as any material object is Forms with souls. They believed that the soul with our perception, though its actual philosophical was the substance of each human being, while definition concerning the soul/mind is in question. Its the body was just a shadow or copy of these basic properties are size, mass, and impenetrability. eternal phenomena. Phenomenologists distinguish the human body, called St. Thomas Aquinas - soul was still the body-subject because it is related to subjectivity. The substance of the human being but, classic question is the relationship between body and similar to Aristotle’s proposal, it was only soul. through its manifestation inside the Philosophers provide their definitions of the body, human body that a person could be said utilizing the following quotations: to be a person. 1. Lucretius: “Our body is the envelope of the soul, which, in turn, is the guardian and protector.” Dualism was most precisely formulated by René 2. Plato: “The soul never reasons better than when it as Descartes in the 17th century. completely isolated itself by sending the body walk.” Descartes - first to develop the mind-body problem in 3. Descartes: “The word body is very equivocal. When the form in which it exists today, and the first to identify we speak of a body in general, we mean a specific part the mind with consciousness and self-awareness, and to of the material and set the amount in which the universe distinguish this from the brain, which was the physical is composed. But when we speak of the body of a man set of intelligence. He realized that he could doubt or woman, we hear any matter which is united with the whether he had a body (it could be that he was dreaming soul of man” (Passions of the Soul). of it or that it was an illusion created by an evil demon), 4. Spinoza: “I mean a mode that the body expresses the but he could not doubt whether he had a mind, which essence of God as it is regarded as something heard, in suggested to him that the mind and body must be a certain and determined.” different things. 5. Leibniz: “Each organic body of living is a kind of divine machine, or natural automaton, which infinitely surpasses all artificial automata” (Monadology). III. Dualism (Having Bodies) INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY | 1ST QUARTER REVIEWER | PREPARED BY: MS. JUSMICA SAMOY IV. Monism (Being Bodies) SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS Monism The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the metaphysical and theological view that all is adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015, one, that there are no fundamental divisions, provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for and that a unified set of laws underlie all of people and the planet, now and into the future. At its nature. The universe, at the deepest level of heart are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals analysis, is then one thing or composed of one (SDGs), which are an urgent call for action by all fundamental kind of stuff. countries - developed and developing - in a global is used in a variety of contexts (within partnership. They recognize that ending poverty and Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ethics, Philosophy other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies of Mind, etc.), but the underlying concept is that improve health and education, reduce inequality, always that of “oneness.” and spur economic growth – all while tackling climate The term “monism” itself is relatively recent, change and working to preserve our oceans and forests. first used by the 18th-century German philosopher Christian von Wolff to designate 17 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS types of philosophical thought in which the 1. NO POVERTY attempt was made to eliminate the dichotomy of 2. ZERO HUNGER body and mind. 3. GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 4. QUALITY EDUCATION MODULE 4 | THE HUMAN PERSON IN THEIR 5. GENDER EQUALITY ENVIRONMENT 6. CLEAN WATER AND SANITATION 7. AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY 8. DECENT WORK, AND ECONOMIC GROWTH Consequentialism - class of normative theories in 9. INDUSTRY, INNOVATION, AND Ethics stating that one’s actions bear consequences, INFRASTRACTURE which become the ultimate bases for any judgment 10. REDUCED INEQUALITIES about its morality (i.e. rightness or wrongness) 11. SUSTAINABLE CITIES AND COMMUNITIES Deontology - class of normative theories in Ethics that 12. RESPONSIBLE CONSUMPTION AND deconstructs the righteousness of one’s actions PRODUCTION themselves rather than the consequences of such acts 13. CLIMATE ACTION or to one’s character and habits. 14. LIFE BELOW WATER Antropocentrism 15. LIFE ON LAND Human-centered point of view 16. PEACE, JUSTICE, STRONG INSTRUCTIONS Greek word Anthropos which means human 17. PARTNERSHIPS FOR GOALS Greek word centros which means center Man is the central fact of creation and the primary holder of morality Views nature as supplementary to man’s development “Preservation of nature enhances the human spirit Ecocentrism Nature-centered point of view Eco came from the Greek word oikos which means home Views nature as the homestead of humans Nature is the central fact of creation Man is one of the moral co-holders Views nature as complementary to man’s development All living things have equal values INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY | 1ST QUARTER REVIEWER | PREPARED BY: MS. JUSMICA SAMOY