Introduction to Psychology PDF

Introduction & Development of Psychology Shreya Royan Assistant professor What is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific discipline that studies mental states and processes and behavior in Humans. School of psychology 1. Structuralism - regarded as the first school of thought in...

Introduction & Development of Psychology Shreya Royan Assistant professor What is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific discipline that studies mental states and processes and behavior in Humans. School of psychology 1. Structuralism - regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. - Major thinkers associated with structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. - This outlook focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. - The introspective experimental technique used by the structuralists involved having trained observers examine their inner responses. - Using this approach, also known as experimental self- observation, experimenters like Wundt trained people to analyze their thoughts as carefully and objectively as possible. Functionalism - Founded by William James - Instead of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were interested in the roles and functions of these processes. - trying to understand the underlying processes that cause mental states, the focus would be on understanding the function that those states serve. - The functionalist school was interested in the purpose of thoughts and behaviors, whereas structuralism was concerned with the elements that make up consciousness. BEHAVIOURISM Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. based upon the work of thinkers such as John B. Watson , Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. This school of thought suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than internal forces. PSYCHOANALYSIS Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, ego, and superego. 1. The id consists of primal urges. 2. The ego is the component of personality charged with dealing with reality. 3. The superego is the part of the personality that holds all the ideals and values we internalize from our  Levels of consciousness, according to freud 1. The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. Eg: what are you doing right now? 2. The preconscious consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the conscious mind. Eg:Recalling an address 3. The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. Eg: childhood trauma Methods Of Psychology 1. Introspection: Introspection is a psychological process that involves looking inward to examine one's own thoughts, emotions, judgments, and perceptions. One way to use introspection is for reflection, which involves consciously examining our internal psychological processes. was first developed by psychologist Wilhelm Wundt. Benefits of Introspection: Introspection can be a great source of personal knowledge, enabling you to better recognize and understand what you're thinking and feeling. Introspection can help people make connections between different experiences and their responses. Helps you to know your weaknesses and strengths Helps in personal growth 2. Observation The observation method in psychology involves directly and systematically witnessing and recording measurable behaviors, actions, and responses in natural settings without attempting to intervene or manipulate what is being observed. Types: 1. Controlled observation- is a research method for studying behavior in a carefully controlled and structured environment. Eg: Observation in a lab 2. Naturalistic observation- is a research method in which the researcher studies behavior in its natural setting without intervention or manipulation. Eg: observing animals in the wild 3. Participant observation- is a variant of the above (natural observations) but here, the researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives. 3. Inventory A self-report inventory is a type of psychological test often used to assess attitudes, characteristics, and other personality traits. This type of test is often presented in a paper-and-pencil format or may even be administered on a computer. Can be used to measure or assess personality type, IQ, Depression, etc advantages Disadvantages - Easy to construct - People can lie - Inexpensive - Cannot soley be an accurate - Large sample measure for disorders - Many participants disregard it Beck’s depression scale Experimental method An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. An independent variable (the cause) is manipulated in an experiment, and the dependent variable (the effect) is measured. - Independent variable is manipulated - Dependent variable is observed Eg: Studying the effect of duration of study time(I) on academic performance (D) - Can explain cause and effect Types of experiments: 1. laboratory experiment- in psychology is a research method in which the experimenter manipulates one or more independent variables and measures the effects on the dependent variable under controlled conditions. - Highly standardized - Artificial setting 2. Field Experiment- A field experiment is a research method in psychology that takes place in a natural, real- world setting. - it is similar to a laboratory experiment in that the experimenter manipulates one or more independent variables and measures the effects on the dependent variable. - Accurately describes real time scenarios Branches of Psychology Pure Psychology Applied psychology Pure Psychology Applied Psychology Focus: Theoretical aspects of psychology, Focus: Practical application of exploring fundamental principles, psychological principles to solve real-world theories, and concepts. problems. Research: Involves studying the Fields: Includes areas like clinical underlying mechanisms of behavior, psychology, educational psychology, cognition, and emotion without a direct industrial-organizational psychology, and emphasis on practical applications. health psychology. Examples: Topics like cognitive Purpose: Aims to improve individual and processes, developmental theories, and societal well-being by applying social behaviors are investigated through psychological theories and research to experiments and theoretical models. areas like therapy, education, workplace environments, and health interventions. Relevance of psychology in Physiotherapy A key role of psychology in physiotherapy is comprehending the patient's mental condition. True health and wellness comes about only if a holistic approach of treating the mind and body is adopted, as the saying goes- ‘healing begins with the mind.’ Health psychologists use many methods to assess if a patient is ready for physical therapy. Many patients loose interest/ motivation to continue PT. psychology can help in understanding and optimizing motivation and goal setting. Eg: SMART goals The relationship between physiotherapist and patient is a contextual formation based on empathy, trust, and a common goal. An accord capable of fostering mutual trust and respect may be considered a solid basis for the patients to commit to the proposed treatment schemes. Psychology as a subject lies at the very core of physiotherapy and here the physiotherapists focus on factors like the ability to communicate with patients on their terms as well as to address their issues which all enhance patient-therapist alliance.  Another important role of psychology in physiotherapy is the management of pain and anxiety. ⁤Methods like these: - ⁤Psychological techniques, such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), help people comprehend the connection between their emotions, ideas, and bodily experiences—especially pain. - Therapists who integrate psychology into physical therapy can assist patients in creating individualised pain management regimens that take into account both the psychological and physiological components of pain. - ⁤To assist manage the body's reaction to pain, relaxation methods including progressive muscle relaxation, guided visualisation, and deep breathing exercises are frequently taught. Patients who get psychological assistance are better able to perceive their rehabilitation as a purposeful move towards wellness as opposed to a reaction to impairment. Psychology teaches the values of empathy, genuineness which will better the doctor- patient relationship Growth & development Growth refers to physical increase in some quantity over time. It includes changes in terms of height, weight, body proportions and general physical appearance. Development refers to the qualitative changes in the organism as whole. Development is a continuous process through which physical, emotional and intellectual changes occur. Eg: development of a fetus Differences between growth & development Characteristics of development Lifelong development: This belief has two separate aspects. the potential for development extends across the entire life span, that is, there is no assumption that the life course must reach a plateau or decline during adulthood and old age. Development is Multidimensional: Multidimensionality refers to the fact that development cannot be described by a single criterion. It occurs in the biological, cognitive and social emotional domains. Development is Multidirectional: Development is often comprised of multiple abilities which take different directions, showing different types of change or constancy. Some dimensions or aspects of development may be increasing while others are declining or not changing. Development is Plastic: Plasticity refers to the within-person variability which is possible for a particular behaviour or development. Eg: people who have lost their hands to amputation can learn to use legs to write. Development depends on neuro plasticity. Development is Contextual: Development varies across the different contexts in which we live our lives. For example, social and rural environments are associated with different sets of factors which have the potential to impact on development; understanding how development differs for individuals within these two settings requires an understanding of the differing contexts. It occurs in the context of a person’s biological make-up, physical environment and social, historical and cultural contexts.  Development is Multidisciplinary: The study of developmental psychology is multidisciplinary. It can contribute to fields like maternal care, genetics, neuroscience. Development involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation: The mastery of life involves conflict and competition among three goals of human development: growth, maintenance and regulation. Human lifespan development Lifespan development is the study of how humans change and grow from conception to death, and is a field of psychology that examines the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial aspects of development Infancy From birth to 2 years The infancy period is the shortest period of whole life-span development. It start’s from birth to two years. Adjustment is equally important to the infant as he has to adjust with the outer surroundings. Most of the infants complete their adjustment period in two weeks or less than two weeks. In infants whose birth has been difficult or premature require more time for adjustment. Physical adjustment to the new environment is difficult for the child. the baby needs to get used to light, breathing, sounds, new temperature, feeding, etc. The attitudes of the family members are critical at this time as attachment starts to form. Physical developments The first year of infant is characterised by rapid physical growth. A normal baby doubles its birth weight in six months and triples it in a year. During that time, there is great expansion of the head and chest, thus permitting development of the brain, heart, and lungs, the organs most vital to survival. The bones, which are relatively soft at birth, begin to harden, and the fontanelles, the soft parts of the newborn skull, begin to calcify The newborn infant sleeps almost constantly, awakening only for feedings, but the number and length of waking periods gradually increases. By the age of three months, most infants have acquired a fairly regular schedule for sleeping, feeding, and bowel movements As the child grows he hits milestones like rolling over, standing, crawling, walking and saying his first words. Children learn to speak by imitation and replication Psychological developments Attachment to caregivers takes place Development of trust- Because an infant is purely dependent on their family members, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality 35 of the child’s caregivers. If an infant successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. Trust and mistrust is the main feature of infant development Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live. Childhood Childhood period is divided into two age group (i) early childhood 2-4 years (ii) Middle childhood 5-7 years (iii) late childhood 7- 12 years Characteristics: behavioural problems of childhood period are more troublesome then physical care of infants It is a toy age because most of the time children are engaged with their toys. These toys are also helpful to educate the children. Toys are important element of their play activities. They learn friendship, sharing, emotional regulation through play This is a period when a child is considered physically and mentally independent. This is also a school going age. Children are become more self sufficient, independent, develop self-esteem. This is the age of foundations of social behaviour. They are more organised social life they will be required to adjust to when they enter first grade. Develop physical, cognitive, emotional and social development. Physical Developments Growth rate slows: the average child in this stage grows 21/2 inches in height and 5-7 pounds per year. Body differences are fairly seen during this period. Some children have flabby, chubby body. some have muscular body build and some have a thin body. Boys have more muscle while girls have more fat. Gross and fine motor skills progress rapidly. Gross motor skills include running, skipping and jumping. Fine motor skills include turning pages of a book and learning to write and draw the baby teeth begin to replaced by permanent teeth. By the end of childhood, children take a more mature body physique in order to get ready for sexual maturity Psychological developments young children’s self-evaluations are either autonomous and positive, or negative and ashamed. Young children who feel autonomous see themselves as good, valuable people who are able to do what is expected of them in a positive way. In contrast, young children who feel ashamed also feel worthless and incapable of doing what is expected of them. Children in the early childhood stage become skilled at modifying and expressing their emotions to fit different social situations. For example, Billy may feel angry, but he knows that having a tantrum at school is inappropriate. Inter personal relationships emerge Children join same sex play groups Children become competitive and when they feel validated their self esteem increases Adolescence From 13 years to 18 years The word adolescence is derived from Latin word “adolescere” meaning “to grow up” or “to mature.” It is a period of transition between childhood and adulthood that involves a number of changes in body and mind. The term puberty is sometimes equated with adolescence. However, both the terms are not the same. Puberty is only a small part of the larger process of adolescence. It is the time when a boy and a girl become physically capable of having children. Physical development Physical changes in adolescent boys include the following:  Growth spurt occurs  Shoulders broaden  Muscles develop  Skin becomes oily  Voice deepens Growth of moustaches and beard  Growth of underarm, chest and genital hair  Penis and testes mature II. Physical Changes in Adolescent Girls  Growth spurt occurs  Breasts develop  Skin becomes oily  Hips widen  Waistline narrows  Growth of underarm and genital hair  External genitals enlarge  Uterus and ovaries enlarge  Ovulation occurs and menstruation begins. Psychological Development Emotional instability  Preoccupied with body image  Frequent mood changes  Curiosity and experimentation regarding identity  Concerns and worries about the body changes  Conflicts with family/elders over control Attraction towards opposite sex  Relationships tend to be oriented from parents to peers. Adulthood The stage of adulthood has the following sub periods: (1) Young adulthood (20s to 30s), (2) Middle adulthood (40s to 50s) and (3) Later adulthood (60s and above.) Young Adulthood: During this period one sees himself or herself as an autonomous and independent adult. The individual becomes financially less dependent on the parental family. A major developmental task during this period is the choice of a career a young adult tries to settle down and start the family life. They are also concerned about various social issues and forming close relationships with one’s professional peers and members of community Middle adulthood Middle age is characterized by competence, maturity, responsibility and stability. This is the time when one wants to enjoy the success of job, satisfaction derived from the family and social life. People look forward to the success of their children. Attention gets more focused on health, the future of children, aging parents, the use of leisure time and plans for old age Menopause is supposed to be accompanied by some distressing physical and psychological symptoms in women People start to focus on parenting and value the contribution they have made to family or society. If they feel they have been valuable in contributing to the next generation, then they feel generativity else they feel stagnated Late Adulthood Later adulthood or the period of old age begins around the age of sixty. During this stage most individuals retire from active service. Many of the elderly people lose their spouses and suffer from emotional insecurity & lonliness Physical health declines, with illnesses like mobility issues, arthritis, dementia, diabetes, Hypertension emerge People in this stage look back at their life and evaluate it. If they feel they have lived an accomplished life they feel integrity else they feel despair Factors affecting human development 1. Biological Factors Genetics: Inherited traits and predispositions play a crucial role in physical and psychological development. Health: Physical health, nutrition, and prenatal care can significantly affect development, especially in early childhood. Eg: polio, malnutrition etc can hamper physical and cognitive growth, (stuttering) 2. Environmental Factors Socioeconomic Status: Access to resources, education, and opportunities can shape development trajectories. Family Environment: Parenting styles, family dynamics, and stability contribute to emotional and social development. Cultural Influences: Cultural norms and values influence behaviors, beliefs, and developmental expectations. (care for old ppl) 4. Social Factors Peer Relationships: Interactions with peers influence social skills, self-esteem, and identity development. Educational Systems: Quality of education and school environment can impact academic achievement and personal growth. 5. Economic Factors Access to Resources: Availability of financial resources can affect access to education, healthcare, and extracurricular activities. 6. Political and Legal Factors Policies and Legislation: Laws regarding education, healthcare, and social services can facilitate or hinder developmental opportunities. (RTI) Political Stability: A stable political environment can create conditions that foster development, while instability can lead to disruptions. Role of heredity and environment on human development Heredity Genetic Makeup: Heredity determines physical traits (e.g., height, eye color) and can influence psychological traits such as temperament, intelligence, and predisposition to certain behaviors or mental health conditions. Biological Predispositions: Certain inherited characteristics can predispose individuals to specific health conditions like diabetes, heart issues, obesity. Research shows us that there is a.90 correlation in intelligence in twins,.50 correlation in siblings and.15 correlation between 1 st cousins. This shows the role of genes in IQ We see that predispositions of mental disorders runs in families as well 2. Environment Physical Environment: Living conditions, such as housing quality, access to Education, healthcare can affect physical and mental health, especially in early childhood. Social Environment: Family dynamics, peer relationships, and community support systems play a critical role in emotional and social development. (nuclear, joint) Cultural Context: Cultural values, beliefs, and practices influence behavior, identity, and developmental expectations, shaping how individuals perceive themselves and their roles in society. (Individualistic and collectivist) Socioeconomic Factors: Access to education, healthcare, and nutrition greatly influences cognitive and physical development. Lower socioeconomic status is often linked to adverse developmental outcomes Twin studies have shown that twins separated at birth, where one was exposed to an enriched environment developed a higher IQ that the other that wasn’t. Interaction Between Heredity and Environment Gene-Environment Interaction: The environment can amplify or mitigate genetic predispositions. For example, a child with a genetic predisposition for high intelligence may not reach their potential without a stimulating environment. Epigenetics: Environmental factors can affect gene expression. Stress, nutrition, and toxins can lead to changes in how genes are expressed, impacting development across generations. Prolonged exposure to stress can alter personality.