Introduction to Media Studies PDF

AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES WEEK 1 Introduction: Media, Mediation and Media Technologies What are the Media? The use of the term slips between: Media Institutions: A Media Institution is an established and regulated organisation that owns, and produces many different media products, sy...

AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES WEEK 1 Introduction: Media, Mediation and Media Technologies What are the Media? The use of the term slips between: Media Institutions: A Media Institution is an established and regulated organisation that owns, and produces many different media products, systems, and texts. Hollywood Journalism Broadcasting Media Content : Media content means any data, text, sounds, images, graphics, music, photographs, or advertisements, including video, streaming content, webcasts, podcasts, blogs, online forums, and chat rooms Popular songs TV shows Films Technical apparatus: A set of materials or equipment designed for a particular use Cameras Printing presses Satellites Definition Mass Media Mass media means technology that is intended to reach a mass audience. It is the primary means of communication used to reach the vast majority of the general public. The most common platforms for mass media are newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet. Role of Mass Media Media is an important part of our life and it is playing a very crucial role in our day to day life. It connects us with the scenarios in the world and informs us about many things like news, history, entertainment etc. Media helps in bringing the facts and information of the world to us. Therefore the media play an important role in society as a source of information, but also as a “watchdog” or scrutiniser. … The media, however, aim to filter the information received and present information in a way which they believe best represents the “story”. Some key characteristics of the media Although what constitutes the media changes over time, we can identify some constant features: They reach a large number of people They are generally centrally produced They are ‘shared’ They are controlled or ‘regulated’ They rely on sophisticated technology They are ‘modern’ They are expensive The media reach a large number of people. What counts as a large number of people changes depending on time and place. In the early 19th Century, The Times in Britain used to sell about 7000 copies a day. This was considered a lot at this time. Would it be now? The Italy v France final of the 2002 FIFA World Cup attracted a global audience of 715.1 million viewers1. Most media products today are made to be consumed by large numbers of people. However, these large numbers may be ‘fragmented’, or divided up into different groups. The media are generally centrally produced. Media products are often constructed like a production line in a factory, whether it is a newspaper, a television show or a Hollywood film. They are also generally centrally distributed – television programmes are usually broadcast over a whole country at one time, for example. 1 The media are ‘shared’. Media texts often become part of our common culture, for example influencing the words we use in our daily vocabulary. Although some people may have more knowledge than others of particular texts, and the media products which become popular will vary from culture to culture, there are some references which have become known almost worldwide – for instance, almost all of us seem to know about David Beckham or Bugs Bunny. The media are controlled or ‘regulated’. Perhaps because of the large audiences they attract, and their popularity, the media are seen as being in need of control or regulation. Most recently, this concern has focused on the Internet. Control and regulation vary according to the cultural, social and political climate of different countries. The media rely on sophisticated technology. Technology is used to produce, transmit and consume texts. It is important to consider the technology required to make television programmes, or produce blockbuster films or glossy magazines. Additionally, new technologies such as the MP3 player, affect the ways we consume media. The media are ‘modern’. Although we can trace newspapers back to the early 1700s, the media are generally seen as very modern. They respond to and quickly incorporate the most up-to-date technology. This can be seen in the recent ‘convergence’ of communications, computing and telephone technologies, which has resulted in Internet and video capable phones. The media are expensive. Partly because of the technology required to produce and distribute texts, the media are generally owned by either large commercial companies (often multi-nationals, and increasingly American), or by state-owned government organisations. This means that a few companies have a lot of power and control. It also makes it difficult for newcomers to set up and succeed. Mass communication Mass communication refers to the process by which a complex organization with the aid of one or more machines produce and transmits public messages that are directed at large, heterogeneous and scattered audience. (Adapted from: Joseph R. Dominick,(1996). The dynamics of Mass communication (5 th edition). McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. P 17) Difference Between Face to face and mass communication We can also define the media by looking at the differences between ‘face-to-face’ communication and mass communication: 1. There is a gap between senders and receivers. 2. The media employ specialised technologies. 3. Their scale and availability are greatly extended outwards across space, time, population and culture. 4. They are commodities. Core objects of media studies Although there is not a clear definition of what the objects of media studies should be, these objects are generally accepted as being central to the subject: Television Radio Film Newspapers Magazines Advertising Popular music The Internet Media consumption One of the reasons it is so important to study the media is that they have become a central, and perhaps inescapable, part of our everyday lives. We are exposed to a range of different media products every day. We use the media for a wide variety of reasons. Media consumption is the sum of information and entertainment media taken in by an individual or group. It includes activities such as interacting with new media, reading books and magazines, watching television and film, and listening to radio. Mediation An important point to make about the media is that they do not simply show the world as it really is. The media selects the way or angle it shows people to serve its own purpose. A media producer deliberately tries to represent a person, group or situation according to what they want others to believe it. This is also known as representation of reality. To mediate means to come between. We can view the media as coming between reality and you. Therefore, what we see and hear in the media is not reality, but a representation of reality. Diagram Event Mediation/ Representation Outcome Event is the Reality Process of mediation can be through Editing. Camera angle, Language, props, settings etc Outcome of the mediation is what message the audience receives or generation of public opinion Central concerns of media studies We can divide the concerns of media studies up into 3 main areas: The Production system is comprised of the creators The platforms or media companies or organizations And the distribution behind the media text Using these three areas as a framework, we can develop three central questions to ask when considering a media text: How is it constructed? Where was it created? How is it consumed? The Media Triangle 1. The media triangle is a way of organizing the way we interpret media in terms of the types of text, the audiences, and the production of that text. 2. It can help to make it very easy to put media aspects together, and analyze different media texts. 3. The main idea of the media triangle model is that "all communication, all stories is a construct of reality." Any way that the world is described, whether this be fantasy or non- fiction, is somebody trying to define reality, and the way that the are defining it, is a construction. 4. This also means that the creator of a media text can sort of have their own way with how they construct the media text, meaning that they can put their own twist on their "virtual" reality. 5. All constructions have values, meaning beliefs and much more involved. AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES WEEK 2 Historical Development of the Mass Media Three types of society Agricultural Society (10,000 years ago-1750AD) Life in this time was all about manually doing everything. There was no machinery to help milk cows or harvest crops. Everything was done with very basic tools and by hand. The day was spent on the land, looking after crops and harvesting, preserving, preparing and storing food. People would barter with others if they needed extra items of food, material, etc that they did not produce on their land. There was no electricity. Only fire was available to heat and cook things. People would wake up literally when the rooster crowed (there were no alarm clocks to wake you in those days). People mainly lived in small villages with a community focus to life. Information about events or people was passed through word-of-mouth. It was therefore a time of oral communication. The nature of mass communication during this time was one way print media books and later newsletters were available. People mainly could not read or write and education was not really a focus for many. (only the really rich could afford this). Another term used for this time is the Agrarian Society. Industrial Society (1750-1955) Then during the mid-1700s a change occurred. This is known as the Industrial Revolution, and this began a new type of society called the Industrial Society. The introduction of machinery and energy sources (steam power) changed not only ways to produce things, but also society and way of life for people. This process is also known as industrialisation. Instead of things being made/produced on a small scale (eg. having one cow, that would be milked only for one family), things began to be produced on a much larger- scale in big factories and by machinery. However, those with lots of money were able to own more and more land. Common rights to keep livestock and poultry were restricted and many families came under pressure to leave their homes as wealthy people took over their land. Therefore many families were left land-less and were forced to move into the cities where there were factory jobs. This process was called urbanisation. The outcome of this change was greater productivity (ability to produce things). This meant that many things were more affordable, which meant that people could obtain goods that were previously unavailable. Pottery made by machines meant that people could buy cheaper utensils to prepare food, which helped with hygiene. The development of machines such as the Spinning Jenny meant that large factories with many workers could produce incredible amounts more spun wool. This was another reason why people in small villages living an agricultural life were put out of work. The introduction of steam-based machines not only meant greater number of goods produced, but also that people could travel faster and further by sea (boats fuelled by steam). This steam-based machinery also meant that trains could be invented in the mid-1800s, which provided ways for people to travel faster and transport goods that were made in the factories. Also, during this time more roads were developed. Capitalism Definition Simply put, capitalism is an economic system made up of two groups, owners and workers. People were either wealthy and owned factories or businesses, or had to work in the factories or businesses to earn money. Karl Marx and Capitalism Many people became critical of this time. One important critic was a theorist named Karl Marx. Factory workers worked very long hours, often in bad conditions, with little light and few breaks. People worked for minimal wages. Factories produced lots of smoke and pumped it into the air, increasing pollution. Marx believed this was a very unjust time, and encouraged people to break free of these conditions. His famous book about this is called The Communist Manifesto. Industrial era living conditions During this time, there were also major changes to living environments. Because there were so many people moving into the cities, the emphasis was on providing living spaces, regardless of quality. Most workers lived in slums; there were no building regulations. There was no running water or sanitation. Typically, the environment was a breeding ground for disease. The air was foul, water supplies were polluted, and roughly constructed communal toilets were commonplace. Industrial era social structures This era also saw a dramatic change in social structures. In agricultural societies, people tended to live most of their lives in one relatively small area. Generally this was the same area in which their families had lived for generations. Due to industrialisation and urbanisation, people no longer lived in close communities. People moved to large cities with many people, where social bonds were not as tight. As the sense of community became weaker, people began to feel more isolated. Industrial era social structures Relationships between people became less about personal and family connections and more contractual, that is, relationships were formed around production and consumption of goods. For example, between owners of factories and workers; or between people who sold goods and people who bought them.  Information Society (1955-today) “The Industrial Revolution changed the way we worked over two centuries (1750-1950). The Information Revolution has done as much in two decades.” Joseph Dionne This new way of life began around 1955 and rapidly developed over a few decades. Instead of an increase in factory jobs, people are now getting jobs in management, information technology, public relations, consultancies, data analysts, advertising etc. (This is very different from the Industrial Age) Information Society (1955-today) Information is the key to our society. A huge increase in electronic inventions, computers and digital systems occurred, starting with the continuing development of radio and television systems, and moving on to: Digitalisation The Internet Other Electronic Communication Summary of Characteristics of three Society Agriculture Industrial Information Time Period 10,000 - 1750 - 1950 1950 – Till Date 1750 Basic Resource Food Energy Information Type of Farmers Factory work Information work employment Key Social Farm Steel factory Research Universities Institutions Basic Technology Manual Steam Engine Computer / electronics Labor Nature of Mass One way One way Electronic Media Interactive Media individual Communication Print Media in nature The emergence of the mass media It was in this industrialised and urbanised context that the modern mass media began to emerge. As many people moved into the cities, education became more available and more people could read and write. As people were earning money and working regular hours, they had leisure time to use and money to spend. This provided a new market for media products that had previously been restricted to the few highly educated people who were able to read. Many theorists believe that people during this time used the media (at this time mainly newspapers) to connect with others and what was happening in their society. Seeing that they lost those close community ties when they moved into the cities, many found the media very important as a means of keeping informed. AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES WEEK 3 History of Media Forms Print Media Introduction Last week, we discussed the circumstances that led to the rise of mass society and the development of new forms of mass communication. Today, we look at the history of the major mass media forms: Print media Electronic media Photographic media Introduction - print media Definition Newspapers, magazines and books The technology they use is the printing press. The press produces media texts which we can hold in our hands, read, and store. The senses they use are primarily sight and touch. Newspaper history The newspaper was the first modern mass medium 1. The printing press Although records of the written word and what might be called books have been dated as far back as the 5th century BC, the idea of printing didn’t come about until the 6th century AD. Before that, numerous media were used for writing on: clay tablets, papyrus, calfskin, and waxed wooden tablets to name but a few, but the written word wasn’t highly regarded In ancient China, block printing was invented and thus started the real business of printing The spread of printing took a while to become known in the Western world. Arabs who then moved through Europe spread other inventions from the Far East, but it is thought the Arabs of the time preferred the written word to the printed word.  The most important early development in the history of printed media was the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1440’s. Although block printing had been widely used from around 1400, the invention of printing is widely attributed to Johannes Gutenberg and his revolutionary press. He invented a system of movable type which meant that it became possible to print hundreds and thousands of copies of printed material. As a result, written material became widely available. Before the press, books had been rare and were hand written and copied. they were expensive and only available to the wealthy. As printed material became available to the general public, literacy increased rapidly. It led to the publishing of a much wider variety of materials – religious pamphlets, secular and popular works, political texts, post of all kinds, standardised maps and soon, newspapers. 2. The early press in Britain and the USA. Books were still limited to the Elite class, so the arrival of newspapers and printed material opened the doors a little more. The first newspaper as we know it was published as early as 1666 and was called the London Gazette. For a long time this was the only officially sanctioned newspaper The first daily newspaper, the Daily Courant, became available in 1702 in England. It was produced by Elizabeth Mallet , the newspaper consisted of a single page, with advertisements on the reverse side. This newspaper grew out of printed newsletters and pamphlets that had been used to transmit reports of local, national and international news, and also the opinions of the people who made them. By 1800, the newspaper was the most important medium for the communication of ideas, opinion and knowledge. In 1817, the steam press meant that production could be increased. The Times, at this point, was printing 7000 copies per day. The mainstream newspapers were generally middle-class, and supported the interests of the wealthy. This was known as the ‘quality’ or ‘elite’ press.  However, a ‘radical’ press also emerged, which supported the working classes and attacked the powerful groups in society such as the government, royalty and capitalists. But these newspapers declined from the 1840s. This is partly because at this time a new form of press emerged aimed at the working classes – the ‘popular’ or ‘tabloid’ press. The popular press relied on advertising for revenue. These newspapers carried sensational stories which emphasised entertainment rather than information – stories about crime, violence and scandal Characteristics of contemporary newspapers 1. The press as an adversary The press has often been viewed a challenge to powerful sections of society such as government and big business. Newspapers have often been at the forefront of struggles for freedom of speech and expression (in democratic societies). There has been a general trend towards independence of newspapers from direct government control. ‘Alternative’ newspapers, such as the radical working-class press, or African- American newspapers such as the North Star in the USA, have also existed and have sought to fight for the interests of people with less power. 2.The press as a political mouthpiece The press has been used to distribute political messages and sometimes propaganda. Newspapers can and have been owned and controlled by governments but also by different political parties. Private owners of newspapers have used them to express their opinions. 3.The ‘elite’ press The 1850’s onwards (during the Industrial Revolution we discussed last week) was a key period in the rise of the modern ‘elite’ newspaper.  It has a number of features: Independence from the state A sense of social and ethical responsibility The rise of the journalistic profession Belief in its role of opinion-giver Generally printed in the ‘broadsheet’ format (about 75cm x 60cm). 4.The ‘popular’ press In contrast to the ‘elite’ press, the ‘popular’ press tends to be more concerned with entertainment. Generally printed in the tabloid format which is smaller than the broadsheet (about 60cm x 37.5 cm). Include sensational crime stories Gossip about celebrities Take an obvious political position 5. Commercialisation of Newspaper Today, major newspapers are also business enterprises. In the twentieth century, most newspapers are now owned by monopoly interests i.e. large media companies own chains of newspapers. Commercial newspapers are heavily reliant on advertising revenue. This has led to claims that newspapers in many countries have become more sensational – more concerned with entertainment than information and debate. AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES WEEK 4 History of Media Forms Electronic Media Introduction - electronic media Definition Radio and television They use electronic technology to store and transmit media messages. Unlike print media, their messages are generally intangible (we can’t touch them). The senses we use are primarily sight and sound. The development of radio technology Guglielmo Marconi is considered the inventor of the radio. He used the electromagnetic spectrum to transmit wireless signals from one place to another in 1895. This technology was first used to communicate with ships at sea. In 1906, the first voice transmission was broadcast, using a technology called the audion tube. In 1912 in New York, a young radio operator named David Sarnoff, working for the Marconi Company, received a faint distress signal from the Titanic: “S.S. Titanic ran into iceberg. Sinking fast.” The signals Sarnoff received over the next 72 hours were passed on to newspapers. The newspaper coverage of Sarnoff’s efforts played a large part in making radio important to the public The emergence of radio stations In 1920, the first licensed commercial station, KDKA, in Pittsburgh, USA, began broadcasting. It was owned by Westinghouse. The popularity of the station stimulated the demand for radio receivers, which were made by Westinghouse, so this was a very beneficial station for them. In the USA, many more commercial stations began to emerge.  Companies who owned many radio stations in different areas began to link them together so that many stations could broadcast the same messages. These became known as networks. These networks could reach a large number of people and so were very appealing for advertisers who wanted to promote their products to large audiences. However, the widespread broadcasting of radio in many other countries was initially controlled by the Government. State-owned radio stations developed in the 20th century and broadcast news and information to citizens. Private companies could not get broadcasting licenses, or, if they could, they were very limited and therefore difficult to get. Types of Radio Frequencies AM (or Amplitude Modulation) and FM (or Frequency Modulation) are ways of broadcasting radio signals. Both transmit the information in the form of electromagnetic waves. AM works by modulating (varying) the amplitude (height) of the signal or carrier transmitted according to the information being sent, while the frequency remains constant. AM method of audio transmission was first successfully carried out in the mid 1870s. AM has poorer sound quality compared with FM, but is cheaper and can be transmitted over long distances. It has a lower bandwidth so it can have more stations available in any frequency range FM technology in which information (sound) is encoded by varying the frequency of the wave and the amplitude is kept constant. FM radio was developed in the United states in the 1930s, mainly by Edwin Armstrong. FM is less prone to interference than AM. However, FM signals are impacted by physical barriers. FM has better sound quality due to higher bandwidth. The development of television In the 1920’s Philo Farnsworth invented the vacuum tube which could receive moving images and display them electronically on a screen using electrons. US electronics companies such as RCA, Westinghouse and General Electric also worked on television technology in the 1930s and began developing the technology for home receivers so that televisions could be sold to people for their homes. RCA first demonstrated its television system in 1935, and then to the general public in 1939. BBC began broadcasting in 1936. Commercial stations started broadcasting in the USA in 1941. Television became VERY popular by the1950s-60s. Colour TV became available in Oman in 1974. The organisation of television Like radio, two main systems for organising television broadcasting emerged. One is made up of publicly-owned stations (like the BBC) who generally received their income from people who watched television. Anybody who owns a TV set is required to pay a broadcasting fee. These television stations do not usually have advertisements. This system is known as public service broadcasting. State funded TV channels are usually controlled by laws which require them to broadcast a wide range of programming to cater to society and groups within society – educational programming for children and adults, current affairs, some entertainment, programs for minority groups. The other system is commercial broadcasting. This system is made up of privately-owned stations who broadcast television to make a profit, just like any other private company. They receive their income from selling air time to advertisers. In the USA, TV networks developed from the 1940s onwards and are still in service today eg. CBS, NBC. Because they receive their money from advertisers who want their commercials to reach as many people as possible, commercial stations tend to produce TV programmes that appeal to a large number of people. Types of television programming Like radio, TV has developed a wide range of formats and kinds of TV programming:  ✓ game shows ✓ reality TV ✓ dramas ✓ sitcoms ✓ soap operas ✓ talk shows ✓ sports events ✓ News and current affairs ✓ Documentaries ✓ Programs for children New developments Technological advances have changed the organisation of television. Free-to-air networks are still available in most countries but other options are also available (often for a fee) such as: Cable TV – pay TV which can provide a huge number of channels into homes, often international channels as well as local. Global TV – satellite technology has also enabled a rise in regional, international and even global television broadcasts eg. Major sporting events can be seen live by millions of people worldwide, international news networks such as Al-Jazeera Global, BBC World Service, Star TV in Asia. Streaming TV – more recently, the internet allows viewers to watch television streamed directly over the internet.  AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES WEEK 5 History of Media Forms Photographic Media Introduction - photographic mediaDefinition Film – Movies use the technology of photographic chemistry. Most Hollywood films are made using ‘celluloid’ film and chemical processes to develop the film. – However, as video and digital technology becomes more sophisticated and higher quality, more films are using electronic rather than photographic technology. Technical development of films The technical basis for films was adapted from the technology of photography. Films were also based on the discovery that the human eye retains an image for a fraction of a second. If a series of photographs are flashed in front of the eye very quickly, we will perceive continuous motion. The first movie camera was invented by William Dickson in 1888 but it wasn’t until a few years later, in 1891 that Thomas Edison used celluloid film in cameras to produce the first moving pictures which were viewed by looking into a box. Known as Kinetoscope, which enabled one person at a time to view moving pictures. The first public Kinetoscope demonstration took place in 1893. By 1894 the Kinetoscope was a commercial success, with public parlours established around the world. The first to present projected moving pictures to a paying audience were the Lumière brothers in December 1895 in Paris, France. They used a device of their own making, the Cinématographe, which was a camera, a projector and a film printer all in one. The Lumiere brothers in France presented the first projection of motion pictures in front of a gathered audience in an exhibition hall – the first movie house. At first, films were very short, sometimes only a few minutes or less. They were shown at fairgrounds, music halls, or anywhere a screen could be set up and a  room darkened. Subjects included local scenes and activities, views of foreign lands, short comedies and newsworthy events. The films were accompanied by lectures, music and a lot of audience participation. Although they did not have synchronized dialogue, they were not ‘silent’ as they are sometimes described. Early films were usually 10-15 minutes long. The first full-length feature film was and Australian movie, “The Story of the Kelly Gang”, made in 1906. It was 80 minutes long. Sound was not developed to accompany moving pictures until the 1920s. The Jazz Singer (1927) is widely regarded as the first sound picture. By the 1930s, sound films (or ‘talkies’ as they were called) had become widespread and people attended cinemas where films were projected. In 1932, Disney released the first full-colour film and the combination of sound and colour led to what is known as the Golden Era of Hollywood. Colour was first added to black-and-white movies through hand colouring, tinting, toning and stencilling. Golden Era of Hollywood - 1920s-50s The Golden Era was the height of Hollywood’s power, especially in the US. By 1930s, almost all the movies were presented with sound and colour. The invention of sound secured the American film industry as the dominant in film making and so the rise of Golden age of Hollywood began. Huge numbers of films were produced by movie studios such as Warner Brothers who built up a very successful film industry. They hired stars, writers, directors and technicians and were able to mass produce films. These films were distributed all over the world. ‘The Star System’ was a key feature of this era – Hollywood stars of the time, such as Cary Grant, James Cagney, Katharine Hepburn and Bette Davis were very popular and attracted huge, loyal audiences. Films were also used as powerful propaganda tools during the Second World War. Because of their perceived influence and power, many films were made by the Allied Forces and were displayed as newsreels in cinema houses. Threats to Hollywood’s power There were a number of threats to Hollywood’s power and success from the 1950s onwards which led to a number of changes in the film industry. 1. Economic reorganisation (1948). The US government became very concerned about the amount of power the Hollywood studios had. Big studios such as Paramount Pictures controlled every step of the production of films. They employed the scriptwriters, directors and actors, produced the films, and owned the movie houses where they were projected. The government forced a break-up of the studios which reduced their power. 2. The emergence of television. Movie attendance in the US in 1950 was 60 million per week, but by 1955, it had fallen to 46 million a week. Television offered similar entertainment (sound and pictures) but people didn’t need to leave their homes. Once television sets became affordable, the number of people going to cinemas dropped. In response, Hollywood came up with new developments to try to attract audiences back to the cinema. One example was Cinemascope – a format that used a bigger and wider screen than earlier films to increase the awe and spectacle of cinema that TV could not match. Film Today Today in the US, about 19 million go to the movies every week which is much less than the number who attended during the Golden Era. Like the other mass media forms we are looking at, most film studios are now owned by much larger media corporations (as with newspapers, radio etc.) Hollywood is still by far the most economically successful film industry and most cinemas around the world play Hollywood films. In many countries, a ‘film industry’ is not even possible because of the expense. But there are some successful film industries outside the US, e.g. Bollywood, Hong Kong cinema. There are also many films produced and distributed by independent (not contracted by major studios) filmmakers from all around the world. An Introduction to Media Studies WEEK 6 Media Ownership and Control Contemporary media industries Modern media industries share many of the characteristics of other forms of industrial production (like cars or microwave ovens): – They are often use assembly-line types of production. – Media corporations are usually public companies owned by shareholders. Media production is expensive - the investment for a typical Hollywood feature film is likely to be over US$50 million. So, the costs spent on producing media texts can only be justified to shareholders by economic success; that is, by producing a profit. Top global media conglomerates Horizontal integration This involves the acquisition of competitors in the same section of the industry, e.g. television stations, newspapers. If one company controls all of the producers in one market, this is called a monopoly. Most capitalist countries have laws to prevent monopoly from happening. Vertical integration This involves the ownership of every stage of the production process of a particular media product: production, distribution and exhibition. For example, a film studio may produce a movie, distribute copies of it, and play it in studio-owned cinemas. Fox Entertainment Group, Inc. Fox is an American company which is around 80% owned by Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation.  It was originally famous as a film production company (Twentieth Century Fox). Fox now produces, develops and distributes TV and film programming through its Fox Filmed Entertainment and Twentieth Century Fox units. It also owns the Fox Television network in the USA, has interests in cable TV channels and major league sports teams, and has a chain of cinemas in the USA. Fox’s parent company, News Corporation, is a worldwide media organisation with part or full ownership of many satellite and cable channels across Europe and Asia. The company also owns many newspapers, notably in the USA, Australia and the UK. Advantage of global ownership There are many advantages to this global ownership for Fox. A film produced by Twentieth Century Fox can be shown in Fox-owned cinemas, publicised in News Corporation newspapers, and then shown on Fox-owned TV channels worldwide. All the media associated with Fox can provide the product with added publicity. A media product can therefore be sold, publicised and marketed to an audience through many different media. News and ideology News is a globally important media form. It commands huge audiences of people who depend on it for accurate accounts of a complex world. News, however, is neither ‘neutral’ nor a transparent ‘window on the world’. News presents a constructed version of events. These events usually serve dominant interests. News Values 1. Frequency The time scale of events. Those events which become news stories will be of about the same frequency as many news bulletins, e.g. of about a daily span. An oil  spillage will be perceived as newsworthy; the slow work over time of legislation or protest which make it less (or more) likely to occur will not feature as news. 2. Threshold The bigger impact a story has, the more people it affects, the more money/resources it involves, the higher its value. 3. Proximity Audiences supposedly relate more to stories that are close to them geographically, or involve people from their country, or those that are reported that way (e.g. '12 Hong Kongers aboard Australia Crash Plane'). This results in a situation where ‘First World’ stories make up much of the material that big news agencies (Reuters, Associated Press) sell to ‘Third World’ news outlets. Additionally, Western audiences receive little in the way of ‘Third World news’ except through ‘coups, crises and famines’. 4. Negativity Bad news - involving death, tragedy, bankruptcy, violence, damage, natural disasters, political upheaval or simply extreme weather conditions - is always rated above 'positive' stories. Positive events are usually long-term and everyday – e.g. a story about building a house is much less likely to feature than a story about a flood washing the house away. Positive stories tend to only be used as the ‘happy ending’ of some bulletins. 5. Predictability Does the event match the media's expectations? Journalists have a pretty good idea of the 'angle' they want to report an event from, even before they get there. Has what was expected to happen (violence at a demonstration, horrific civilian casualties in a terrorist attack) actually happened? If a news story conforms to the preconceived ideas of those covering it, then it has expectedness as an important news value. 6. Unexpectedness “If a dog bites a man, that's not news. But if a man bites a dog, that's news!". If an event is highly unpredictable, then it is likely to make it into the news. If an event is out of the ordinary it will have a greater effect than something which is an everyday occurrence. 7. Personalisation Stories that centre around a particular person, because they can be presented from a 'human interest' angle, are beloved of newspapers, particularly if they involve a well-known person. Events are seen as the actions of individuals. For example, incompatibility between the Government's policies and the Opposition's is presented as a personal showdown between the two party leaders.  Agenda-setting Newspapers and news programmes have the ability to influence audiences. There is no way that news outlets can report all the information about everything that happened in the world, or even in one country, on a particular day. They therefore select certain items to be included as the day’s ‘news’, and report certain information about those items. Some information is selected for consideration; other information is left unexplored or unannounced. Thus, they are able to set theagenda of issues which we find ourselves thinking about and discussing. Ideology Definition – Sets of ideas which explain the social world, but usually in a partial and selective way; – The relationship of these ideas and values to the ways in which power is distributed socially; – The way in which such values and meanings are usually posed as ‘natural’ and ‘obvious’ rather than socially aligned, in other words, working with or against particular power groups. Central idea of Ideology The central idea behind the concept of ideology is that ideas are not free-floating, but are in fact systematically linked to social power. That is, the ideas we have in our heads come from the social world that we live in, they are not ‘natural’. Marx argued that a person’s class was key to the kinds of values and political ideas they have. Marx and class Marx explained that capitalist societies were made up of 2 main classes of people - the capitalists and the proletariat.  The capitalists are the people who own the machinery, factories, banks, etc that produce goods and wealth. The proletariat are those who have to earn a living by working for the capitalists. Dominant ideas According to Marx, the ‘dominant ideas’ of any society are those which work in the interests of the ruling class. These ideas become ‘common sense’, taken for granted as ‘natural’. For example, in Western societies it is seen as ‘common sense’ that anybody can become wealthy, regardless of their social conditions. This is because the people who control the means of production (the capitalists) also control the means of circulating ideas in society - for example, the media. This explains why the media represent political issues in a particular way. AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES WEEK 7 Still Image Analysis Analysing media texts Over the next four weeks we will be looking at some tools you can use to help you analyse media texts. This part of the course will include: still image analysis narrative structure genre and representation Still image analysis All images communicate a message We need to ‘read’ images, just like we read words on a page. Because photographs ‘look like’ the real world, we assume they are ‘natural’. Media images are constructed. The goal this week is to develop a toolkit of ideas and terms which will help us analyse still images. Signs and codes A sign is anything that is used to communicate meaning: Words Images Clothes Sounds ….Etc Look at the image of the traffic light. What do each of the ‘signs’ mean? How do we know the meaning of these signs? We understand the signs on traffic lights because we have learnt how to ‘read’ them, like a language. Similarly, we have learnt how to read the symbols on remote controls: codes In order for signs to have meaning, they must be organised into systems. These systems are called codes. Codes determine how signs can be selected, and how they can be combined together. Clothing is one example of a code. We can select from various items, and we can combine them together in different ways. For example - we can choose a shirt or t-shirt; we can combine it with jeans, or trousers, or a skirt. Of course, these codes are shaped by the values and beliefs of our culture. What are some of the conventions regarding the combination of items of clothing in your culture? Think about what you expect people to wear different social contexts, e.g. to a wedding, to class, to a football match. Still image codes We can see media images as being made up of a set of visual signs organised by codes. For the rest of this lesson, we will be looking at a range of specific codes that are commonly found in media images. We can divide these codes into 2 main categories: Form: How an image was created. Content: What is in the image? Still image codes Code of Content: 1. Subject The subject is the main focus of the image. It may be a person or a thing. There may be one subject or many. If the subject is a person, we need to consider the codes of non-verbal communication. spects of non-verbal communication: Facial expression For example Position of eyebrows – raised or lowered Smile/frown Gaze Where is the subject looking? Are people making eye contact? Gestures and other bodily movements Hand movements can convey a wide range of messages Bodily posture Is the person standing erect? Slouching? Bodily contacts Are people touching in any way? What does this indicate about their relationship? Clothes and appearance What does the person’s clothing, hairstyle etc tell us about their: Ethnicity Class Religion Occupation Age 2. Lighting The most common lighting technique used in still photography and film is called three- point lighting. This technique uses three separate light sources. They can be combined in different ways to produce different effects. Key Light The key light is the main light source. It is directed at the subject and usually comes from 45 degrees above and to one side of the camera. It is a hard, direct light which produces sharp shadows. Fill Light The fill light is a soft or indirect light that ‘fills in’ the shadows formed by the key light. It usually originates from the opposite side to the key light Back light The back light shines from behind the subject. It helps to separate the subject from the background. Content: Lighting And the final result: classic three-point lighting. Two common effects that can be created using three point lighting are: High key lighting: the key light and the fill light are of similar intensity. This style is bright and does not contain dark shadows. It creates an upbeat (optimistic) mood. Low-key lighting: the key light is much stronger than the fill light. This style creates a sharp contrast between areas of light and areas of shadow. Creates a mood of danger, fear or evil. 3.Setting We can split the image into foreground and background the subject usually occupies the foreground and the setting forms the background. Very simply, the setting helps to set up our expectations of the image. How does the relationship between subjects and setting help create the meaning of this image? Still image codes Code of Form: 1. Camera distance The distance of the subject to the camera is important to the way we view the image. There are a useful set of terms to describe the camera distance: Very long shot (VLS) Long shot (LS) Mid shot (MS) Close up (CU) Extreme close up (ECU) Very long shot Very long shot cover a wider area the subject is barely visible as the shot is framed from a distance and focused more on the surroundings than the subject. This shot is used to show the subject in relation to his/her surroundings. This type of shots are used as establishing shots as it shows more of the location and surroundings. Long shot The subject (or subjects) take up the entire height of the frame from top to bottom. The viewer is socially distant from the subject. This shot allows to show the action of the subject Established the settings Shows the body language between other subjects or characters. Mid shot The medium shot is a great way to capture both the details of the subject and their surroundings. The distance from the subject means you can frame up multiple subjects at once, and capture everything they are doing in the scene. One or two people, shot from the waist up. It is generally used for dialogue scenes so the viewer is placed at a conversational distance from the subject. Close up Most commonly used to show a person’s face. The close-up is a shot often taken at relatively close range on a longer lens. The benefit of the close up is that it gives us a detailed and intimate look we might normally miss. Because the viewer is very close to the subject, we become engaged emotionally with them as it generates strong emotions. It also is used to show something important Used for showing the facial expression of the subject Extreme close up An extreme close up shot frames a subject very closely, on an object most of the outer portion is cut off by the edge of the frame and on an actor shows part of a face; most commonly, the eyes. The idea is the audience cannot see the entire subject rather focus on one part only as for a desired effect. To signal an important sensory moment in a scene ex: extreme close up of ears when wind is blowing or eyes when something scary or sudden reaction is there. To communicate tiny details which are too small to be noticed by the audience. We can see the reaction of the subject. 2. Camera angle Horizontal Angle The most common camera angle is horizontal, or neutral or eye level. An eye level shot can result in a neutral perspective (not superior or inferior). This mimics how we see people in real life — our eye line connecting with theirs and it can break down boundaries. Low Angle It often indicates a position of power, because the viewer must look up often used to represent heroes. A low angle shot shot frames the subject from below a their eyeline. These camera shots most often emphasize power dynamics between characters — a low angle shot on one character is often paired with a high angle shot on the other character. High Angle Requires the audience to look down on the subject, and may suggest the character is in a subservient position. In a high angle shot, the camera points down at your subject. It usually creates a feeling of inferiority, or “looking down” on your subject. 3. Camera level This refers to the camera’s horizontal angle. The norm is straight on. However, the camera can be tilted to the left or right. This can disorient the viewer OR can convey energy. What effect does the tilt have in this image? 4. Depth of field This refers to the distance between the nearest and furthest area from the camera which is in focus. Deep focus photography will have the whole scene in focus. when you want the audience to be able to see everything at once. The effect is to make all of the elements in the image important. Maybe this includes a wide angle of mountains in the distance, or objects in the foreground and background simultaneously. This is when you'll need a deep depth of field. This also highlights the relationship between subject and background. Selective focus means that only some elements in the frame are in focus it describes the small or narrow area that is in focus. Often, the background is blurred while only the subject stays in focus. This draws our attention to specific aspects of the image.This shallow or small depth of field can be achieved by increasing the aperture or rather lowering the f/ number AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES WEEK 8 Narrative Structure Narrative and storytelling Stories are a part of our lives from childhood. They help us as children to make sense of the events in the world around us, which seems confusing and unpredictable. Storytelling helps us to interpret the world by: Narrative and storytelling Putting things into sequence (event A followed by event B followed by event C…) Putting things into cause and effect relationships (event A causes event B which leads to event C) Structuring events around conflict (hero versus villain) Narrative and structure Putting things into sequence Narrative is the way in which a story is told. It can be defined as a chain of events in cause-effect relationship occurring in time and space. Also known as the three act structure, it is a narrative model that divides stories into three parts — Act One, Act Two, and Act Three, or rather, a beginning, middle, and end. This chain is most commonly organised around the structure of: Equilibrium  disequilibrium  new equilibrium The Three act structure On a basic level, Act One sets up the world, characters, the character’s goal, as well as the conflicts or obstacles that are preventing them from achieving their goal. Act Two raises the stakes for the character to achieve the goal, escalating the conflict. Act Three resolves the story with either an achievement of that goal or a failure. Act I: Setup/ Equilibrium The setup involves introduction of the characters, their story world, and some kind of ‘’inciting incident,” typically a conflict that propels us into the second act. It’s usually the first 20-30 minutes of a film. Act II: Confrontation or Build/ disequilibrium The middle of your story should raise the stakes; you want the audience to keep watching. This is the main chunk of the story and often leads us to the worst possible thing that can happen to the character. Act III: Resolution/ new equilibrium And the end should bring some kind resolution, (regardless if the ending is happy or sad) Story and plot To help understand narrative, it is important to distinguish between story and plot. When we watch a film, we are given some information through what we see and hear. Based on this information, we make inferences and assumptions about characters, actions and events. A story is not just what we see and hear. It is the combination of all the events that are presented to us, and those we infer. The plot, on the other hand, is everything directly presented to us and the order in which it is presented. Parts of a Story 1. Characters- The characters are the individuals that the story is about. A person or animal or really anything personified. There can be one main character or many, and often there are secondary characters, but not always. 2. Plot- The plot consists of the events that happen in the story. In a plot you typically find an introduction, rising action, a climax, the falling action, and a resolution. 3. Setting-Where and when is the story set? Setting represents both the physical location but also the time (i.e. past, present, future) and the social and cultural conditions in which the characters exist. 4. Conflict-Every story must have a conflict, i.e. a challenge or problem around which the plot is based. Without conflict, the story will have no purpose  5. Theme-Idea, belief, moral, lesson or insight. It’s the central argument that the author is trying to make the reader understand. The theme is the “why” of the story Plot Structures: Freytag’s Pyramid 1. The exposition is the beginning of the movie where the main characters of the movie are introduced and the viewer finds out something about the characters. 2. The complication (turning point) is the conflict that the protagonist must face, struggle with, and resolve by the end of the movie. 3. The rising action is a series of sequences of action where the protagonist experiences advances and setbacks, moving toward the resolution of the conflict. 4. The climax is the high point of the movie where the protagonist, based on the knowledge gained from the rising action, determines what the final action needs to be taken in order to resolve the conflict. 5. The falling action ties up or resolves any minor loose story ends. 6. The denouement (resolution) is the ending of the movie Causality putting things into cause and effect relationships A key distinction to narrative film is cause and effect. For a story to unfold, a series of cause and effect events must take place. Without cause and effect, there is nothing moving the story forward. The plots of fictional films and TV shows usually present events in a way which helps us infer cause and effect relationships. Causality is influence of an event, process or object which leads to the production of another event or object or process Some ways that this takes place include: – Through the way one camera shot leads to another – Through the way characters cause events to happen. How Causality can be achieved 1. Causality between camera shots – The relationship between camera shots helps to present events in a cause-effect manner.  – For example, if we see a woman looking at a gun in shot A and a man falling to the ground in shot B, we infer that the event in shot A caused the event in shot B - that is, she shot him. 2. Causality by characters – In mainstream films, characters usually cause events to happen. – We can often identify specific character traits (attitudes, beliefs, values, talents, tastes, appearances, psychological dispositions, past experiences) which cause particular events to happen. Time Somewhere between the action and the narrative the audience need to know that time has moved forward – be it hours, a day, a month or even years. The story should have time markers, or references, to indicate to the reader that time has passed from one moment to the next. In order to examine how time is structured and represented in narrative, we can distinguish between story time and plot time. 1. Story time: the time an event takes in the world of the film or programme. 2. Plot time: the time it takes to present the event on screen. For example, in the clip we watched from Imitation of Life, 10 years of story time passes in 43 seconds of screen time. How to show passage of time Space The way space is represented can tell us a lot about the narrative world its characters inhabit. It provides us with information which we can use to draw inferences about the time and place in which the narrative is set, and about the characters themselves. For example, in a Western, the landscape is central to the story, and communicates a great deal of information. Structuring events around conflict 1. Hero vs. Self A struggle within yourself eg. Forrest Gump 2. Hero vs. Villain A struggle against 1 or more bad people eg Spiderman 3. Hero vs. Society A struggle against general people, rules (laws) of the world... human/civil rights, racism eg. Mulan, Shrek 4. Hero vs. Nature A struggle against nature or sickness such as: cancer, natural disasters (hurricanes, tornadoes, wildfires...) 5. Hero vs. Monster A struggle against non-human characters or against the unknown such as: zombies, aliens, ghosts 6. Hero Vs. Technology A struggle against technology  AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES WEEK 9 Introduction to Popular Genres Defining genre The concept of genre is one way of classifying media texts. We can identify characteristics that a group of texts share. Genre can be defined as a group of films having similar narratives, character types, settings, and filmic techniques such as camera shots, sound, music, lighting, and editing. Repertoire of Elements Iconography: A familiar stock of image to do with the band / star the connotations of which have become fixed; costume, props, locations Camera and Editing Production techniques which are similar Setting: One of the more significant determining factors to a genre is setting. Setting is ultimately the time and place of a story For example, an empty, dusty landscape with a saloon and a few stables, it’s a Western. A space with a shuttle floating through it while planets gaze behind it, you might immediately think of science fiction Characters A character’s desires, behaviour, or personality may lend itself to a specific genre Plot A plot refers to the main events in a story composed as a connected sequence of events. This is the execution of the chain of events that happen in a story. Theme Message within the story Some genre groupings Action and Adventure Genre. Comedy Genre. Fantasy Genre. Horror Genre.  Mystery Genre. Drama Genre. Science Fiction Genre. Similarity and difference As the last exercise showed, genre helps to organise similar media texts. As audiences, we get pleasure from texts’ ability to satisfy our expectations (by being similar to other texts). But if the texts were too similar, they would be predictable, and people wouldn’t want to see them. So the addition of some new element within the familiar produces anticipation and pleasure. Genres and popularity Media industries aim to make a profit and avoid risk. This means that producers need to appeal to the widest possible audiences. The high costs of making films and TV shows mean that institutions are reluctant to try out risky new products. Genres are thus useful for producers because they provide a proven, successful formula, within which they can make small differences. They make films and shows that follow conventions which they think we like, and will therefore be popular. Classifying genres Although we can put films into genre groups fairly easily, it can be more difficult to define the criteria we use to classify them. Sometimes we group them by the characteristics of the films; At other times we group them by their intended effects. Characteristics of genres Two primary characteristics that genre films have in common are: 1. Narrative  Genre films tend to have a classic narrative structure (we looked at this briefly last week): equilibrium disequilibrium equilibrium. E.g. a ‘romance’ may centre around a woman whose personal life is disrupted, often involving meeting a man who interests her romantically, and be resolved by their marriage. Characteristics of genres 2. Character Use of generic character types also helps in the classification of genres Heroes – stand for good, morality, justice Villains – embody a threat to social order Cowboys and outlaws Heroes and monsters Science fiction: a brief history Definition Science fiction movies are defined by a mixture of speculation and science. While fantasy will explain through or make use of magic and mysticism, science fiction will use technology and science. Science fiction will often incorporate space, biology, energy, time, and any other observable science. Science fiction (or sci fi) has been an element of film since Georges Melies’ A Trip to the Moon (1902). By 1909, the genre was darker and concerned with the potential disastrous effects of new technology. Booth’s The Airship Destroyer showed what might happen when airplanes became weapons. In the 1930s and 1940s science fiction became lighter with the adaptation of comic books such as Flash Gordon and Captain Marvel. In 1968, Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey marked the emergence of ‘serious’ sci fi films. The trend for sci fi blockbusters has continued. Recent successful films in this genre include: Men in Black (1997, dir. Sonnenfeld ) The Matrix (1999, dir. Wachowski brothers)  Minority Report (2002, dir. Spielberg) Children of Men (2006, dir. Cuaron) Sci fi conventions The sci fi genre covers a wide range of films. Subjects include alien lifeforms, space travel, time travel, and futuristic technology such as robots. Some films are a mixture of more than one genre, for example comedy/sci fi (Men in Black); horror/sci fi (Alien). Sci fi narratives Sci fi films tend to use the ideas of science to explore universal concerns and fears. For example, that humankind will destroy itself through the search for more powerful weapons; or what it means to be human in a world based increasingly upon the advances made by science. Sci fi characters The characters in blockbuster sci fi films are often easily recognisable and their motives easily explained. Heroes are real heroes; villains are despicable. As the villains are often aliens, the audience is unified by its hatred of them and happily cheers as they are defeated.  An Introduction to Media Studies WEEK 10 Representation and Stereotyping Introduction Over the past 3 weeks, we have looked at some ways of analysing how media texts are constructed: Signs and codes Narrative structure Popular genres This week, we are going to look at how these constructed media texts present ideas about the ‘real world’. Representation As we have seen, media texts don’t simply reflect the real world, they re-present it through narratives, conventions of genres, and the use of signs and codes. This process of producing meaning about the real world is called representation. The media doesn’t reflect people, places, objects, events and concepts that exist in the real world; it constructs meanings about them. Why study representation? It is important to study processes of representation because these meanings that are constructed play a part in shaping how we perceive and relate to the world and ourselves. So the question we need to look at is: how do groups, or situations, get routinely represented in the media? Stereotypes Definition Stereotypes are widely circulated ideas or assumptions about particular groups. They involve a process of simplification which provides a short cut to meaning. Characteristics of stereotypes They involve categorising and evaluating the group being stereotyped.  They usually emphasise some easily understandable features of the group(s) in question. The evaluation of the group is often, though not always, a negative one. Stereotypes often try to insist on differences and boundaries between groups. Categorisation The process of categorisation is necessary to make sense of the world and the huge amount of information we receive. We make mental maps of the world to navigate our way through them, and maps necessarily only represent part of the world. We all employ typifications in certain situations. We all also belong to groups that can be typified, and stereotyped - as students, lecturers, Brazilians, Muslims, etc. We often make sense of people we meet on the basis of gestures, dress, voice etc., much in the same way we construct a sense of characters in the media. Easily grasped features Stereotypes work by taking some easily grasped features presumed to belong to a group. They then imply that all members of the group always have those features. In this way they work as ‘short cuts’ to meaning. One of the reasons stereotypes are so effective is that they can point to features that apparently have ‘a grain of truth’. But through repetition, it becomes assumed that this characteristic is and always has been the central truth of this group. Example 1: Arab in Hollywood Muslims and Arabs are often identified in mainstream Hollywood films in several negative connotations: As terrorists as oil sheikhs as barbaric Example 2: the “dumb blonde” stereotype The ‘dumb blonde’ stereotype is common in Western society. Obviously hair colour isn’t related to intelligence. Where does this stereotype come from? Blondeness has historically been deemed attractive in Western societies because of its comparative rarity. But if a woman were attractive and intelligent, then it is likely she would threaten the dominant position of men in society. Blonde women are often thus coded and constructed in a certain way. The Yorkie bar is famous in the UK for its former tag line: “It's not for girls” Nestlé first launched the slogans "Don't feed the birds," "Not available in pink," "King size not queen size" but the bar has always been targeted at men ever since its inception. Yorkie ‘Not for Girls’ Men are strong and fearless. Women are weak and sensitive. Women emphasize on beauty. Men have dominant position. Sex versus gender Sex Is determined by biology Male / female Classified by physical characteristics Gender Socially constructed Masculine / feminine Classified by ideas about how to “act like a man” or “be ladylike”  An Introduction to Media Studies WEEK 11 Audiences and Ratings The people meter The people meter is the standard means of measuring TV audiences. It consists of 5 components: 1. A monitor which sits on top of each TV set in the home 2. A remote control handset with a button for each person in the household, and others allocated to ‘guests’. 3. A data storage unit with a modem which is connected to the telephone, and collects the viewing data from each of the monitors in the house. 4. A “smartprobe” for each VCR in the home. It measures recording and playback of video tapes on the VCR. It ‘finger-prints’ the videotape with date/time/channel identification. 5. A probe for every cable decoder in the household. How does it work? Every second, the people meter monitors: Whether the TV is on. Whether the VCR is on. Which the channel the TV or VCR is tuned to. Which channel, if any, the VCR is tuned to. None of these involve intervention by anyone in the household. When people come into the room, they push ‘their button’ on the remote control, and push it again when they leave the room. The viewing data is retrieved via the telephone line at 02:00 hours daily. The viewing data is available to subscribers by 09:30 each day. How is a rating defined? A rating is measured if a person views a channel for 30 seconds or more within a minute.  If someone watches exactly 30 seconds on 2 channels within a minute, both channels are awarded a minute. The number of minutes a person views within a 15 minute period is taken as a % of that period (e.g. 3 minutes out of 15 = 20%). These fractions of viewers are then built up to give a 15 minute average rating. Ratings questions Why are ratings important to: Advertisers Television networks How are prices for advertising spots calculated? How are ratings tracked? Companies that advertise on television need to know how many viewers they are getting for the money they are spending on air-time. In order to accomplish this, viewers are surveyed and the survey results are called ratings. Ratings make or break a television show. If it doesn't have high enough ratings, it won't be able to draw enough advertisers to make it worth producing. Ratings are also used to determine how much networks can charge for commercial time. Advertising prices are measured in "cost per thousand TV viewers" or CPM. Networks will look at the ratings and the demographics of their viewers (their age, sex, and where they live) to determine a program's CPM. If the CPM is 4$ per minute, and rating surveys show an audience of 2 million viewers, the cost for a 60 second commercial is 8000$. How CPM is identified The interesting thing about CPMs is that television advertising is sold long before a new show appears on the air. When they are creating new programming, network executives arrive at a cost for advertising by estimating the expected viewing audience based on the day and time slot, and the past performance of similar programs. (For example, a half hour sitcom at 9 pm that follows a highly popular show is likely to attract a good audience.) If a show gets more viewers than expected, this is a bonus for advertisers, who have paid for fewer viewers. If a show doesn't live up to expectations and doesn't attract the estimated viewing audience, then network executives would have to provide free advertising to make up for their loss. The Requirements of Programming Handout In television lingo, programming refers to the type of programmes shown and their placement in the schedule. Schedules are made up to please and attract as many viewers as possible. Each network uses a variety of strategies to secure a maximum audience. Before beginning activities to help them understand ratings and the way in which networks schedule their programs, students should be familiar with the following terms: Audience flow The carry-over of an audience from one program to another on the same channel Block programming The running of similar shows to hold the same audience as long as possible Blunting A scheduling ruse designed to prevent a large audience from tuning into a competing network program by offering a similar program Bridge A form of blunting whereby, for example, a network will schedule a big mini- series at 8:00 p.m. to offset a big movie due to start at 9:00 on another network Counter programming Tackling a highly-rated program on another network by scheduling a completely different program to deliver a different kind of audience Hammock The time period between two successful programs, where a new show can be introduced and guaranteed a sizable audience Prime time The time when there are more people watching television than at any other time of the day, that is, from 8:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m. on Mondays to Saturdays and from 7:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m. on Sundays Rating The percentage of all homes with televisions that are tuned to a given program. Each rating point represents approximately 763,000 homes or almost two million people. Each rating point also represents about ten million dollars in advertising revenue each year. share The percentage of all television sets in use that are tuned to a given program. An Introduction to Media Studies WEEK 12 Academic Approaches to Audiences Media audiences We are all part of audiences for different kinds of media products, but what does this actually mean? Since the development of mass media, this has been a central question. Some critics have argued that media audiences are easily manipulated masses who can be persuaded to buy products through advertising, or to follow corrupt leaders through propaganda. There have also been fears that the contents of media texts can cause audiences to behave in different ways, e.g. become more violent. In contrast, there have been critics who have seen the media as having much less influence and working in more subtle ways. Different theories of audience research This lesson will look at three different and quite conflicting theories which try to understand media audiences: The ‘effects’ model; The ‘uses and gratifications’ model; Reception theory. Agenda Setting Theory The effects model Also known as the hypodermic model, this is the name given to approaches that emphasise what media do to their audiences. It implies that the media has direct effects on audiences, like a drug injected into them. The effects model According to this theory the media is like a syringe which injects ideas, attitudes and beliefs into the audience who are powerless mass. So, if you watch something violent, you may go and do something violent. This theory has been particularly popular when people have been considering violence in films. Films such as “Child’s Play” got a lot of criticism because of a belief that they might encourage people to copy the actions of the characters in them. Child's Play 3 was cited as the "inspiration" for the murder of James Bulger. A gang in Manchester, England, kidnapped and murdered a 16-year-old girl. While they tortured her, they forced her to listen to recordings of the gangleader repeating the catchphrase "I'm Chucky, wanna play? Children and teenagers have particularly been considered vulnerable to the harmful influence of popular entertainment. Each medium in turn has been accused of corrupting young people - Hollywood crime films in the 1920s, pop music in the 1950s, video games in the 1990s… The ‘moral panic’ over these media texts often results in more rigid censorship controls over the media. Criticisms of the effects model Many people have seen this theory as simplistic because it doesn't take any account of people's individuality. That is, it assumes all people use media in the same way. Yet the effects model is still very popular in society, particularly for politicians looking for reasons to explain why society has become more violent. Another interesting example of the theory in action is the serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer. Before every one of his murders, he watched a clip from his favourite film. This fact might seem to prove the hypodermic syringe theory; but the film was Star Wars. No- one has ever suggested that that should be banned. Clearly the film meant very different things to him to what it means for you or me. The effects model became seen as problematic in media studies because: It implies that audiences are passive and media causes them to behave in predictable ways Audiences are made up of individuals whose membership of social groups should not be ignored. It is virtually impossible to measure media effects - the media cannot be isolated from all the other potential influences at work within society. The uses and gratifications model In contrast to the effects model’s focus on what media texts do to audiences, uses and gratifications research is interested in what audiences do with the media. According to uses and gratification theory, audiences have different uses for the media and are selective about what they want to watch. In other words, when we consume a media text, it is not just mindless, passive entertainment. We enter the situation expecting to get something from it: some kind of gratification. Four Needs of the audience Through interviews with television viewers, researchers Blumler and Katz (1974) identified four kinds of needs that were fulfilled by watching TV: Diversion - a form of escape or release from everyday pressures. Personal relationships - companionship through identification with TV characters and sociability through discussion about TV with other people. Personal identity - the ability to compare one’s life with the characters and situations portrayed and explore individual problems. Surveillance - information about ‘what’s going on’ in the world. Criticisms of uses and gratifications It ignores the fact that we do not always have complete choice about what we receive from the media. Think, for example, about who chooses what programme the family will watch on TV in the evening. Similarly, you don't have that much choice about the songs that are played on the radio. You may also find media material distasteful - a poster that you see on a billboard may be culturally sensitive. However, you clearly cannot choose a different poster that you want to see that you might find more pleasant. We generally have to choose the media that we consume from what is available. This undermines the idea of uses and gratifications - we may not all have the same ability to use and enjoy the media products that we want. In society there are plenty of groups who feel that the media does not provide the texts that they want. Reception theory The uses and gratifications model argued that people use the media in different ways. Reception theory looks in more detail at how this happens, focusing on the audience themselves and how they decode a text.  Reception theory is based on the idea that no text has a single meaning. Instead, it suggests that the audience themselves help to create the meaning of the text. We all decode the texts that we consume in individual ways which may be a result of our social class, our cultural beliefs and values, the place where we are at the time, in fact any combination of these and all kinds of other factors. The goal of reception theory tries to look at these kinds of differences and to understand them. What reception analysts have found is that factors such as a gender, our place inside society, and the context of the time we are living in can all be enormously important in determining what a media text means to us. Take the example of a performance by Beyonce on television. A 12 year old girl watching this may find it very meaningful for her personally - she may feel that the image of a powerful woman that Beyonce projects has important things to say to her about how she might behave. Her father, on the other hand, may create different meanings for the text - he may disapprove of her clothing or behaviour , for example, and so the same performance that his daughter finds inspiring may be offensive to him. Often when our views of the media differ, it can say as much about us as it does about the media text itself. In this example, the most important factor is probably how Beyonce triggers off in the two people's minds ideas that they have about their own lives. The girl may relate to her because she is of the same gender as her and because, while she is not the same age, she is probably more like the age she would like to be. For the father, his views of Beyonce are probably influenced by the fact that his daughter likes her so much - the idea that she might want to become like her may make her performance seem more frightening. To find out what meanings people attach to texts, reception analysts have to make use of interviews. This can be very time consuming and a simple questionnaire is rarely enough. The ideas that reception theorists come up with are also not so neat and straightforward as those of other approaches. If you remember, Uses and Gratifications made up a simple list of four types of use for the media. Because reception theory concentrates on the individual it can never do this - we are all different and no one theory can comprehend that. Agenda Setting Theory “The media not only tell us what to think but it also tells us what to think about”  Issue 1 Transferring Media Specific Agenda to Influencing Issue 2 Agenda Public by Public Setting Opinion Mass Media Issue 3 Developed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in 1972. For Example: in reflecting what people say during a campaign, the mass media apparently determine the important issues. In other words, the mass media sets the “agenda” for the campaign. Criticism of Agenda Setting Theory Media users are not ideal; people may not pay attention to the same issue even if they are all exposed to the same media content. People have different experiences and perceptions about things, and therefore what one may consider important after filtering the issues through his frame of reference is different from the other person’s. People are therefore not always likely to place importance on the same issues even if they are all exposed to the same media content. This theory fails to consider the personal interest of the individual. The public only considers the issues as important if they personally have interest in them. In such situation, one cannot claim that the issues are considered salient by the audience simply because the media regard them as notable, but rather because they serve the interest of the public. An Introduction to Media Studies WEEK 13 New Media New media technologies Since the 1950s, there has been rapid development in new media technologies and computer networks. Cable and satellite broadcasting Video, CD and DVD recorders Computer networks Word processors Video games consoles The Internet Digital technologies These have all been developed and marketed in recent years. New media technologies and domestic environments New media technologies have contributed to changes in households and domestic environments. People’s homes are now increasingly ‘multi-screen’ (containing multiple television and computer monitors); ‘multi-media’ (using a wide range of different media technologies); and ‘wired’ (connected to the World Wide Web). Digitalisation The shift from analogue to digital systems is at the heart of many recent developments. In analog technology, an information is recorded as it is without any In digital technology, the wave is sampled at some interval, then turned into numbers that are stored in the digital device. Analog vs Digital Analog vs Digital Analog signal is a form of electrical energy (voltage, current or electromagnetic power) for which there is a linear relationship between electrical quantity and the value that the signal represents. The signal whose amplitude takes any value in a continuous range is called analog signal. Analog Signals are continuous in nature which vary with respect to time. Digital signal are the signal, whose amplitude takes only limited values Digital signal are discrete, they contain only distinct values. Digital signals carry binary data i.e. 0 or 1 in form of bits, it can only contain one value at a period of time. Digital signals are represented as square waves or clock signals. The advantages of digital technology Unlike analogue recordings, digital recordings do not degrade over time. As long as the numbers can be read, you will always get exactly the same wave. Unlike analogue recordings, digital recordings don’t degrade with many duplications, so unlimited copies can be made. Digital recordings can be compressed so they take up less space. Much more data can be easily stored. Because all information is converted into numbers, it can be shared across different devices more easily. Convergence Convergence means the coming together of new media technologies. Digital platforms have enabled different media technologies to be merged together. For media producers, this means more profits can be made as media products can be easily and cheaply adapted into different formats and sold in different forms. Burnett and Marshal (2008) have defined media convergence as the blending of the media, telecommunications and computer industries. Due to the advanced media technology and digital revolution various media forms can now be merged together 3 C’s of convergence Communication networks Computing/Information technology Content/ Media Convergence Diagram Interactivity If older media systems were characterised by a ‘one-way’ flow of communication, it is argued that new media provide the possibility of interactive, ‘two-way’ communication. Simply put, it refers to the different ways in which people process and share information or how they communicate with one another Examples: web sites, user-generated content, interactive television, gaming, interactive advertising, blogs and mobile telephony The World Wide Web The World Wide Web (the web) emerged in the mid-1990s as a powerful new mass medium. The web is a system of interlinked documents which people can access using a computer and an Internet connection. A user can view web pages that may contain text, images, audio and video. But the web is not just singular on-screen pages; the pages are linked together. The user can navigate between pages using hypertext links. This feature differentiates the web from traditional, linear media forms: the people browsing the web, not editors and programmers, choose which on-screen pages to go to, and which to pass by, and in what sequence. Virtual communities The web has enabled the emergence of virtual communities, groups of users who communicate via the web. These differ from ‘face-to-face’ communities, especially in that they are widely dispersed in time and space. People can communicate with others in distant parts of the planet. They also differ from communities established under systems of mass communication, as the communication is two-way and interactive. Types of virtual communities Social network:Myspace, Face book is a social networking website which allows friends to communicate in various ways. It allows users to post pictures and videos, write blogs (web diaries), and send messages to one another. Virtual worlds: Online gaming allows people to virtually play interactive games, create avatars, interact with people around the world Messaging platform: whatsapp So the people who are usually the consumers of mass media products are also able to be producers of media texts.