International Relation Final Notes PDF

International Relation Final Notes **Chapter 3** **Motivations for Exploration: Gold, Glory and God** **Economic Motives:** - The Middle Ages saw high demand for Asian luxury goods such as spices (pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg) and silks. - Spices were used for food preservation, flavoring,...

International Relation Final Notes **Chapter 3** **Motivations for Exploration: Gold, Glory and God** **Economic Motives:** - The Middle Ages saw high demand for Asian luxury goods such as spices (pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg) and silks. - Spices were used for food preservation, flavoring, perfumes, cosmetics, and medicine. - Trade routes were dominated by Middle Eastern and Italian merchants, creating expensive intermediaries. - European merchants sought direct sea routes to Asia to maximize profits and reduce costs. **Religious Motives:** - Spreading Christianity was a key driver of exploration. - European powers viewed voyages as opportunities to convert indigenous populations and combat Islam\'s influence. **Political Motives:** - European monarchs saw exploration as a way to expand their empires. - Gaining new colonies increased wealth, national power, and prestige. **Technological Advances:** - Development of navigation tools (e.g., astrolabes, magnetic compasses). - Innovations in ship design, such as the caravel, allowed for longer and more efficient voyages. - Improved cartography provided explorers with more accurate maps. **Curiosity and Renaissance Influence:** - The Renaissance emphasized curiosity and human achievement, encouraging exploration. - European explorers were motivated to discover and document unknown lands. **Key Themes of Exploration** Gold, Glory, and God: - These three motivations underpinned much of the Age of Exploration: - Gold: Economic gain through trade, resources, and precious metals. - Glory: Enhancing national pride and personal fame for explorers. - God: Missionary zeal to spread Christianity. **Role of Middlemen:** - Before sea exploration, middlemen controlled trade routes from Asia to Europe. - Eliminating these intermediaries became a significant goal for European traders. **Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)** **Background:** - Mediated by Pope Alexander VI to resolve territorial disputes between Spain and Portugal. - Divided the non-European world along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. **Key Points:** - Spain gained lands west of the line, including most of the Americas. - Portugal received lands east of the line, such as Brazil and parts of Asia and Africa. **Impact:** 1. **Global Division:** - Established early boundaries for European colonial empires. - Ignored indigenous populations' sovereignty. 2. **Cultural Influence:** - The division resulted in the mass propagation of Portuguese and Spanish cultures globally. - Millions in Latin America speak Spanish, while Portuguese is dominant in Brazil. 3. **Colonialism and Inequality:** - The treaty laid the foundation for widespread inequality and global power imbalances still felt today. **Key Historical Developments** **1492 vs. 1648:** **1492:** - Marked the beginning of European exploration and colonization of the Americas. - Initiated the spread of European influence and the rise of global empires. **1648:** - End of the Thirty Years\' War and the Peace of Westphalia. - Transitioned from religious to state-centric politics. - Established principles of national sovereignty and non-interference, contrasting with 1492's colonizing ambitions. **Comparative Analysis:** 1. **Emergence of European Global Influence:** - 1492: Began colonization of the Americas. - 1648: Expanded European influence across the Americas, Africa, and Asia. 2. **Shift in Political Structures:** - Early 1500s: Dominated by religious conflicts. - Post-1648: Sovereign nation-states prioritized secular power. 3. **Westphalian System:** - 1648 established modern diplomacy and national sovereignty.  **Christopher Columbus's Voyages** **Why 1492 Marks a Turning Point in Global History** - **Key Idea:** Columbus\' voyage in 1492 connected Europe and the Americas, initiating major exchanges of people, goods, and ideas. - **Impact on Global Trade:** - The Columbian Exchange revolutionized agriculture, trade, and diets worldwide. - Introduced new crops like maize, potatoes, and cacao to Europe, while wheat, rice, and livestock transformed the Americas. - **Cultural Shifts:** - Sparked widespread cultural exchanges between the Old and New Worlds. - Significantly influenced global geopolitics by shifting power dynamics towards Europe. **2. How Columbus's Voyages Changed Europe's Relationship with the Wider World** - **Opening New Trade Routes:** - Europe gained access to previously unknown lands, creating new economic opportunities. - **Colonization:** - Marked the start of European exploration and colonization of the Americas. - This led to competition among European powers for colonies, wealth, and resources. - **The Columbian Exchange:** - Facilitated the exchange of goods, cultures, and technologies between the Old and New Worlds. - **Globalization:** - Initiated the era of global trade and the spread of European influence across continents. **3. Debating Columbus's Legacy** **Positive Perspective:** - Connected Europe to the New World, opening up opportunities for trade, exploration, and cultural exchanges. - Advanced Europe's understanding of geography and global relations. **Negative Perspective:** - This led to the colonization and exploitation of Indigenous populations. - Introduced diseases, slavery, and violence, causing significant harm to native cultures and societies. **Key Argument (Negative):** - Columbus's expeditions initiated centuries of European dominance, leading to the mistreatment of indigenous peoples. - His legacy is often criticized for prioritizing European expansion over human rights and cultural preservation. **Key Argument (Positive):** - Columbus's discovery fostered the sharing of ideas and resources, boosting European economies and enriching global cultures. **Black Lives Matter (BLM)** **Origins and Purpose:** - Founded in 2013 by Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi. - Emerged in response to systemic racism, police brutality, and violence toward Black communities. **Global Impact:** - Inspired movements worldwide addressing racial injustice. - Highlighted intersections between colonialism, race, and justice. **UK:** Protests have focused on addressing historical injustices, including the legacy of slavery and colonialism. **South Africa:** BLM resonates with ongoing struggles against systemic inequality rooted in apartheid. **Australia:** Movements highlight the treatment of Indigenous peoples and deaths in police custody. **Brazil:** Protests emphasize racial disparities in law enforcement and socioeconomic inequality. **Chapter 4** **Freedom of the Seas: Historical Roots** - **Ancient Times**: Early civilizations recognized the importance of free maritime passage for trade and exploration. Examples include the Phoenicians and Greeks. - **17th Century**: **Hugo Grotius** published *Mare Liberum* (\"The Free Sea\"), advocating that the seas should be free for all nations to use for trade and navigation. - **19th Century**: The concept gained widespread acceptance as maritime trade grew globally, influencing international law. - **20th Century**: Freedom of the seas becomes a cornerstone of international maritime law, ensuring unhindered global trade. ### **UNCLOS: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea** - **UNCLOS** stands for the **United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea**, an international treaty adopted in **1982** and entered into force in **1994**. It establishes the legal framework governing the rights and responsibilities of states regarding the use of the world\'s oceans and their resources. ### **Key Components of UNCLOS:** #### **1. Territorial Waters:** - Extends up to **12 nautical miles** from a coastal state\'s baseline (the low-water line along the coast). Within this zone, the state has **full sovereignty** over the waters, airspace, seabed, and subsoil. However, foreign ships have the right to **innocent passage**, meaning they can pass through as long as they do not threaten the peace, security, or order of the coastal state. #### **2. Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs):** - An **EEZ** extends up to **200 nautical miles** from a coastal state\'s baseline. In this zone, the state has exclusive rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage the natural resources in the waters, seabed, and subsoil. This includes fishing rights, oil and gas exploration, and mineral extraction. - **Resource rights**: The state has the right to regulate resource use within the EEZ but does not have full sovereignty over the waters. - **Environmental regulations**: UNCLOS establishes provisions for the sustainable management of living and non-living marine resources. #### **3. Contiguous Zone:** - The **Contiguous Zone** extends **12 to 24 nautical miles** from the baseline, providing a state with limited enforcement powers. It can exercise control to prevent and punish violations of customs, immigration, and fiscal and sanitary laws occurring in its territorial waters. #### **4**. **International Waters (High Seas):** - Beyond the EEZ, the **high seas** are areas of **international waters**. No state has sovereignty here. The high seas are open to all nations for free navigation, fishing, and scientific research. - **Freedom of navigation**: UNCLOS ensures all nations have equal rights to use the high seas, provided they do not harm the marine environment or engage in piracy. #### **5. The Continental Shelf:** - The **continental shelf** is the submerged prolongation of a coastal state's land territory, extending beyond the territorial sea. UNCLOS grants states the right to explore and exploit natural resources on their continental shelves up to **200 nautical miles** and beyond if scientifically proven. ### **UNCLOS: A Comprehensive Maritime Framework** - **Codification**: UNCLOS codifies customary international law and introduces new legal frameworks for ocean governance. - **Negotiations**: Adopted in 1982 after nine years of discussions involving over 160 nations. - **Implementation**: Entered into force in 1994. - **Ratification**: As of 2023, 168 parties have ratified UNCLOS. #### **Maritime Zones Under UNCLOS:** - **Internal Waters**: Waters within the baseline; full state sovereignty applies. - **Territorial Sea**: Up to 12 nautical miles; states exercise sovereignty, but innocent passage is allowed. - **Contiguous Zone**: Up to 24 nautical miles; states can enforce specific laws like customs and immigration. - **Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)**: Up to 200 nautical miles; states have rights to resources but no full sovereignty. **Economic Interdependence through Maritime Trade**: Modern globalized trade depends on open seas for transporting goods across nations. The interdependence encourages international cooperation to maintain security, environmental standards, and dispute resolution. #### **Environmental Protection and Resource Management:** 1. **Marine Pollution Prevention**: UNCLOS requires states to protect the marine environment. 2. **Sustainable Fisheries**: Establishes frameworks for managing living marine resources. 3. **Seabed Mining Regulations**: Regulates mineral resource extraction in international seabed areas. 4. **Marine Scientific Research**: Encourages international cooperation in marine research while respecting coastal state rights. #### **Dispute Resolution Mechanisms:** - **International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea**: Specialized court for maritime disputes. - **International Court of Justice**: Handles legal cases, including those related to UNCLOS. - **Arbitration**: Parties can choose arbitration to resolve disputes. #### **Modern Challenges to Freedom of the Seas:** - **Piracy**: UNCLOS defines piracy and allows universal jurisdiction for its suppression. - **Territorial Disputes**: Disputes like those in the South China Sea are addressed within the framework of UNCLOS. - **Climate Change**: Rising sea levels impact maritime boundaries, with UNCLOS offering limited provisions for adaptation.  **Chapter 6** ### **National Interest** - **Definition**: The set of priorities and strategic objectives a state pursues to ensure survival, sovereignty, and prosperity. - **Key Issues Considered Part of National Interest**: - **Environment**: Policies addressing climate change and resource conservation. - **Weapons of Mass Destruction**: Controlling nuclear proliferation through treaties like the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). - **Water Rights and Territorial Boundaries**: Disputes over shared rivers (e.g., Nile, Indus). - **Trade and Energy**: Negotiating beneficial trade agreements and securing energy resources. - **Disease Control and Hunger**: Addressing global pandemics and food insecurity. ### **Internationalism, Neutrality, and Isolationism in Global Politics** #### **Internationalism** - **Definition**: A foreign policy approach where countries actively engage in global affairs to address issues that have cross-border impacts. - **Rationale for Internationalism**: - **Global Interdependence**: Issues like cybercrime, pandemics, climate change, and terrorism cannot be confined to national borders. - **Shared Consequences**: Instability in one nation can create ripple effects, including economic disruptions, refugee crises, or security threats. #### **Neutrality** - **Definition**: A policy of non-alignment in international conflicts, focusing on staying impartial while maintaining sovereignty. - **Case Study - Switzerland**: - Known as the most prominent neutral nation. - **Military Policy**: While Switzerland has a robust defensive military and occasionally participates in international missions (e.g., the Swiss Guard protecting Vatican City), it avoids alliances that may entangle it in wars. - **Historical Success**: - **World War I & II**: Switzerland\'s neutrality, combined with its strategic geography (surrounded by mountains), helped it avoid direct involvement in both wars. This policy allowed Switzerland to serve as a hub for humanitarian activities and diplomacy during global conflicts. - **Economic Strategy**: By staying neutral, Switzerland has become a stable financial center and a mediator in international disputes. #### **Isolationism** - **Definition**: A foreign policy stance where a nation minimizes its involvement in international politics and conflicts, focusing on domestic issues instead. - **Historical Example - United States**: - In the early 20th century, the U.S. practiced isolationism, aiming to avoid entanglement in European conflicts. - **World War I**: - Initially, the U.S. avoided involvement despite the escalating war in Europe. - **The Lusitania Incident (1915)**: A turning point where German U-boats sank the British liner *Lusitania*, killing 1,198 passengers, including 128 Americans. This act, combined with Germany\'s continued unrestricted submarine warfare, pushed the U.S. to abandon isolationism. - **Impact**: The U.S. entered the war in 1917, significantly influencing the Allied victory. - **Shift to Internationalism**: - After World War I, the U.S. briefly returned to isolationism, as seen in its refusal to join the League of Nations. - By World War II, the U.S. permanently embraced internationalism, recognizing that global engagement was essential to national security and prosperity. ### **Theories of International Relations** #### **1. Realism** - **Key Principles**: - The international system is anarchic, lacking a central authority. - States are the primary actors, motivated by survival and power. - Conflict is inherent as states pursue their interests. - **Notable Figures**: - **Thomas Hobbes** described the \"state of nature\" as a condition of perpetual conflict. - **Niccolò Machiavelli**: Advocated for pragmatism and power-centric governance. - **Hans Morgenthau**: Formalized classical realism with a focus on state behavior driven by human nature. - **Applications**: - Cold War dynamics of U.S. and USSR competition. - Power balancing and alliances like NATO. #### **2. Liberalism** - **Key Principles**: - States can cooperate to achieve mutual benefits. - International institutions and laws regulate state behavior. - Democratic peace theory: Democracies rarely go to war with each other. - **Notable Figures**: - **Immanuel Kant**: Advocated for perpetual peace through republicanism and cosmopolitanism. - **Woodrow Wilson**: Championed the League of Nations to promote collective security. - **Applications**: - Creation of the United Nations and multilateral trade agreements. - Collaborative efforts on global issues like climate change. #### **3. Constructivism** - **Key Principles**: - The international system is socially constructed and shaped by ideas, norms, and identities. - State interests are not fixed but influenced by social interactions. - Changes in norms (e.g., human rights) can alter global politics. - **Applications**: - End of apartheid in South Africa due to global pressure and evolving norms. #### **4. Marxism** - **Key Principles**: - Focus on economic factors as the primary drivers of state actions. - Highlights class struggles between the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and proletariat (working class). - Views capitalism as inherently exploitative, creating global inequalities. - Emphasis on colonialism and imperialism as tools for economic exploitation. - **Applications**: - Analysis of globalization and its impact on economic disparities. - Examination of the global labor market and trade systems. ### **In-Depth Focus on Karl Marx and Marxism** #### **About Karl Marx** - **Background**: - Born in 1818 in Trier, Germany. - Studied law, history, and philosophy, influenced by German Idealism and British political economy. - Co-authored the *Communist Manifesto* with Friedrich Engels in 1848. - His major work, *Das Kapital*, provides a critique of political economy. - **Philosophy**: - Advocated for a classless society through the abolition of private property. - Believed that the economic base (infrastructure) determines the superstructure (society\'s culture, laws, and politics). #### **Key Marxist Concepts**: - **Historical Materialism**: - History is driven by material conditions and class struggles. - The transition from feudalism to capitalism arose from changes in production methods. - **Class Struggle**: - Central to Marxism, the conflict between capitalists and workers shapes societal development. - **Exploitation**: - Capitalism relies on extracting surplus value from labor, perpetuating inequality. - **Alienation**: - Workers become estranged from their labor, products, and fellow humans in a capitalist system. #### **Applications of Marxism in IR**: - **Colonialism**: - Seen as a capitalist endeavor to exploit weaker nations for raw materials and markets. - **Globalization**: - Critiqued as a modern form of imperialism, benefiting wealthy nations at the expense of poorer ones. - **Revolutions**: - Inspired movements such as the Russian Revolution of 1917 and socialist uprisings globally. ### **Historical Event Applications** 1. **Realism**: - Cold War: Power struggles between the U.S. and USSR. 2. **Liberalism**: - Formation of United Nations: Institutional cooperation to prevent wars. 3. **Constructivism**: - End of Apartheid: Changing global norms influenced state behavior. 4. **Marxism**: - Colonial Exploitation: Economic motivations behind imperial expansion.  **Chapter 6 Test bank & Answers are on Canvas!!!!** **Chapter 7** A diagram of different types of learning Description automatically generated with medium confidence #### **1.** **Postcolonialism in International Relations** **Key Concepts:** - **Postcolonialism** studies the effects of colonialism on countries that were once under foreign rule. - Even after gaining independence, the impacts of colonialism, like poverty, inequality, and social division, continue to shape these nations. - It aims to understand the ongoing consequences of colonialism and how these issues persist in contemporary global relations. **Lasting Effects of Colonialism:** - **Economic Exploitation**: Colonized countries often have economies structured to serve the interests of colonial powers, leading to long-term economic dependency. - **Social Inequality**: Colonial powers often divided societies along racial, ethnic, and class lines, leading to enduring social inequalities. - **Cultural Disruption**: Colonialism frequently involved the imposition of foreign languages, traditions, and systems of governance, disrupting local cultures and identities. - **Neocolonialism**: Postcolonial nations may still experience indirect control through multinational corporations, foreign policies, and international trade relations. **Example of Postcolonialism:** - **A. Analyzing the cultural impact of British rule in India today.** - This reflects postcolonial analysis as it examines the enduring effects of colonial rule on India\'s culture and social structures. #### **2. Poststructuralism in International Relations** **Key Concepts:** - **Poststructuralism** challenges the accepted truths and frameworks that are often presented as stable and real, questioning whether these are just socially constructed beliefs. - It argues that power structures, institutions, and ideas (such as states, governments, or even truth itself) are narratives created by powerful individuals or groups. - Poststructuralists question the fixed definitions of concepts like sovereignty and authority, suggesting these are contingent upon historical and social contexts rather than absolute truths. **Main Argument of Poststructuralism:** - **Questioning Reality**: It questions the objective reality of established concepts and calls for a deconstruction of traditional power and authority structures. - **Inviting Multiple Perspectives**: Poststructuralism invites us to consider the world from different viewpoints, recognizing that interpretations of reality can vary greatly based on language, culture, and power. **Example of Poststructuralism:** - **D. Global responses vary to international conflicts due to diverse interpretations.** - This highlights how different countries interpret global events differently, influenced by their own narratives and power dynamics, an important idea in poststructuralism. #### **3. Similarities Between Postcolonialism and Poststructuralism** - **Deconstruction of Power**: Both theories critique the established power structures and challenge the authority of dominant groups (e.g., Western powers). - **Focus on Language and Discourse**: Both emphasize the role of language in shaping our understanding of reality and identity. They argue that language plays a crucial role in shaping how power is exercised and perceived. - **Critique of Western Dominance**: Both theories critique the Western-centric view of the world, with postcolonialism focusing on the legacies of colonialism and poststructuralism focusing on how Western ideologies are imposed and naturalized through language and discourse.  #### **Exit Ticket Questions** **Post-Colonialism in International Relations:** - Which of the following is an example of post-colonialism? - **A. Analyzing the cultural impact of British rule in India today.** **Post-Structuralism in International Relations:** - Which example best illustrates post-structuralism\'s impact on international relations? - **D. Global responses vary to international conflicts due to diverse interpretations.** **Intersections of Post-Colonialism and Post-Structuralism:** - Which scenario best represents an intersection of post-colonialism and post-structuralism theories? - **B. A conference discussing the colonial roots and linguistic framings of international aid.** - This scenario addresses both the ongoing effects of colonialism (postcolonialism) and how language shapes perceptions of aid and development (poststructuralism). **Chapter 8** ### **Key Terms and Concepts for International Organizations** **International Organization (IO)**: An entity made up of multiple countries that cooperate on global issues, usually structured around treaties or multilateral agreements. ### **United Nations (UN) Organs:** 1. **The General Assembly**: - Composed of representatives from all 193 UN member states, each with one vote. - It is the main deliberative body where discussions on international issues take place. - Decisions, such as budget approvals and the election of non-permanent Security Council members, are made here. 2. **The Security Council**: - Responsible for maintaining international peace and security. - Composed of 15 members: 5 permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) with veto power and 10 rotating members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly. - Actions by the Security Council are binding on all UN members, including sanctions or military intervention. 3. **The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)**: - Facilitates discussions and policy recommendations on global economic, social, and environmental challenges. - Works with a variety of specialized UN agencies to promote development. 4. **The Trusteeship Council**: - It was established to supervise the transition of trust territories to self-government or independence. - Its work ended in 1994 when the last trust territory became independent. The Council now only exists symbolically. 5. **The International Court of Justice (ICJ)**: - Located in The Hague, Netherlands, it settles legal disputes between states and provides advisory opinions. - It is different from the International Criminal Court (ICC), which prosecutes individuals for crimes such as genocide and war crimes. 6. **The Secretariat**: - Composed of staff from around the world who carry out the work of the United Nations. - It administers the programs and policies set by the UN organs and oversees peacekeeping operations. ### **Key International Organizations and Their Functions**: - **International Monetary Fund (IMF)**: Provides financial assistance to countries in economic trouble, especially through loans with conditions like austerity. - **World Bank**: Provides loans and grants to reduce poverty and support development. Focuses on long-term economic improvement. - **World Health Organization (WHO)**: Directs international health initiatives, combats global health challenges (e.g., pandemics), and reduces the global disease burden. - **Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)**: A regional intergovernmental organization in Southeast Asia aimed at economic, political, and security cooperation. ### **World Bank vs. IMF**: - **World Bank**: Focuses on long-term development projects (infrastructure, education) with a focus on poverty reduction. - **IMF**: Provides short-term financial assistance and policy advice to countries facing economic crises. - **Differences**: The World Bank targets development, while the IMF is more concerned with financial stability and crisis management. ### **The Impact of International Financial Institutions**: - **Ghana and the IMF**: - **Reasons for seeking IMF assistance**: Economic instability, high debt, fiscal deficits. - **Effectiveness**: IMF programs have helped stabilize Ghana's economy, but austerity measures have led to social unrest. - **Alternative Strategies**: Ghana could focus on domestic economic reforms, diversifying industries, or focusing on sustainable economic growth without heavy reliance on external loans. ### **Global Health Initiatives (WHO)**: - **WHO's Role in Global Health**: WHO coordinates international health responses, funds medical research, and provides technical assistance. - **Impact on Global Disease Burden**: WHO has contributed to controlling infectious diseases (e.g., polio, Ebola) and provides health policy advice to countries. ### **International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs)**: NGO's: Nongovernmental organizations like the Red Cross and Red Cresent. - **Roles**: INGOs address humanitarian needs, human rights, and environmental issues and provide direct relief during crises. - **Challenges**: Balancing effective action with respecting national sovereignty and avoiding political interference. - **Examples**: Red Cross, Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders), Greenpeace. ### **Supranationalism**: - **Definition**: Supranationalism refers to an organization where member states give up some sovereignty for collective decision-making. **Example**: European Union (EU). - **EU**: Has its own legislative and executive powers, distinct from member states' national powers. - **Brexit**: The UK\'s decision to leave the EU was based on concerns over the loss of national sovereignty and the desire for greater political independence. ### **Exploring the Role of International Organizations:** #### **1. Comparison of ASEAN and EU**: - **ASEAN** is a regional organization focused on political and economic cooperation in Southeast Asia. Still, it does not have the level of integration or authority over its members that the EU does. - **EU**: A highly integrated political and economic union with supranational powers, including its ability to pass laws that override national laws in certain areas. #### **2. Brexit and Supranationalism**: - The **Brexit** debate concerned the UK\'s desire to reclaim its sovereignty and reduce the EU\'s influence over domestic policies. - The UK\'s exit from the EU highlighted the tensions between national sovereignty and supranational governance. #### **3. Venn Diagram: EU vs. UN**: - **EU**: Supranational governance, political and economic integration, binding legal authority. - **UN**: Intergovernmental, non-binding resolutions, in many cases, focused on global peace and security, human rights, and development. ### **Vocab Matching:** 1. **An economic intergovernmental group to raise the standard of living and status of Southeast Asia**: - **ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)** 2. **Helps countries in financial trouble**: - **International Monetary Fund (IMF)** 3. **Entities made up of multiple countries that work together on global issues**: - **International Organizations (IOs)** 4. **An organization that can govern members with a degree of independence in decision-making from its member states**: - **Supranational Organizations (e.g., European Union)**