INFO 102 Week 2 Overview on Ethics PDF

INFO 102: Data Ethics WEEK 2: OVERVIEW OF ETHICS – CONSEQUENTIALISM/NONCONSEQUENTIALISM DR. GEORGE TSAKIRIDIS [SLIDES ARE ADAPTED FROM PHIL 220 AND USING A COUPLE OTHER BOOKS INCLUDING LEWIS VAUGHN, DOING ETHICS, 5TH EDITION.] Definitions  Objectivism – moral norms are valid for everyone and c...

INFO 102: Data Ethics WEEK 2: OVERVIEW OF ETHICS – CONSEQUENTIALISM/NONCONSEQUENTIALISM DR. GEORGE TSAKIRIDIS [SLIDES ARE ADAPTED FROM PHIL 220 AND USING A COUPLE OTHER BOOKS INCLUDING LEWIS VAUGHN, DOING ETHICS, 5TH EDITION.] Definitions  Objectivism – moral norms are valid for everyone and culture does not matter (p. 20, 5th edition)  This is not absolutism, where there are no exceptions. (p.20)  Cultural Relativism – “[A]n action is morally right if one’s culture approves of it.” (p. 20/21) – Culture is the defining principle in morality.  Subjective Relativism – “[A]n action is morally right if one approves of it.” (p. 20/21) This means the individual holds moral power in decision making. – Each person is an authority on morality and there isn’t much room to disagree (p.21)  Emotivism – Moral statements are not true or false. They are a representation of the true emotion of the one stating them. (p.21) Emotivism (pp. 28-31)  Cognitivism – One can apply moral concepts to actions and people that can be labeled true or false.  Noncognitivism – Moral properties cannot be applied to actions or people.  Emotivism is a subset of this category.  Emotivism is geared towards changing attitudes/behaviors.  “moral judgments cannot be true or false because they do not make any claims – they merely express emotions or attitudes” (28)  “moral disagreements are disagreements in attitude.” (29)  A.J. Ayer on Emotivism – page 28 Consequentialist Theories  Consequentialist Theories – The consequences matter.  Teleological  Utilitarianism – The most happiness for everyone  Act Utilitarianism  Rule Utilitarianism  Ethical Egoism  Ego = I in Greek Nonconsequentialist Theories (Deontological)  Kant’s Categorical Imperative  Sort of like the Golden Rule  Natural Law Theory  Follows the “dictates of nature” (p.69)  Divine Command Theory Divine Command Theory  Euthyphro Dilemma  Reliability of a Source  Authority of a Claim  Why do some Christians accept the Ten Commandments, but not the 613 commandments of the Jewish Law?  How do we interpret divine commands?  Hermeneutics  Authorial Intent  The Eye of the Reader  The Meeting of the Horizons – Gadamer  How Does Divine Command Theory differ from Natural Law Theory? Evaluating Theories (pp.70-74)  The Moral Criteria of Adequacy  Coherent – Internally Consistent (p.70)  We evaluate moral theories similarly to how scientists evaluate scientific theories.  Conservatism - How does it fit with what scientists know  Fruitfulness – “how many successful novel predictions the theory makes” (71)  Three Criterion:  “Consistency with Considered Moral Judgments” (pp.71-2)  “Consistency with Our Moral Experiences” (pp. 72-3)  “Usefulness in Moral Problem Solving” (pp.73-4) Ethical Egoism (pp.85-86)  Ethical Egoism – A right action is one that is in an individual’s best interests.  This is not necessarily selfishness. (85)  Act Egoism - “to determine right action, you must apply the egoistic principle to individual acts.” (p.85)  Rule Egoism – The individual falls under a broader rule that maximizes self-interest. (85)  Ego = “I” = self Epicurus  Lived 341-270 B.C.E.  Know for Epicureanism – Do what gives you the maximum pleasure.  Epicurus on the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ( https://iep.utm.edu/epicur/#H5)  No middle state between pleasure and pain  Moving Pleasures  Static Pleasures  Physical Versus Mental Pleasure and Pain  Reminiscent of Some Buddhist Ideals Psychological Egoism (pp.87-88)  Basis for Ethical Egoism  We are motivated by self-interest.  Three Stage Argument (pp.87-88)  1. “We are not able to perform an action except out of self-interest (psychological egoism).”  2. “We are not morally obligated to perform an action unless motivated by self-interest.”  3. “Therefore, we are morally obligated to do only what our self- interest motivates us to do.”  What kind of a logical argument is this? Application to the Moral Theory of Adequacy (pp.89-90)  Criterion 1: Considered Moral Judgments  Criterion 2: Consistency with Moral Experience  Criterion 3: Do What is Useful  Moral Reciprocity – Evolutionary Theory Ayn Rand on Ethical Egoism  Ayn Rand – 1905-1982  Often referenced in relation to selfishness or ethical egoism  Novel Atlas Shrugged (1957)  Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry:  https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ayn-rand/  She states:  “Parasites, moochers, looters, brutes and thugs can be of no value to a human being – nor can he gain any benefit from living in a society geared to their needs, demands and protections, a society that treats him as a sacrificial animal and penalizes him for his virtues in order to reward them for their vices, which means: a society based on the ethics of altruism. (James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, 1999, p.87) Ayn Rand on Ethical Egoism  James Rachels summarizes Rand’s argument as thus (quotation):  “1. A person has only one life to live. If we value the individual – that is, if the individual has moral worth – then we must agree that this life is of supreme importance. After all, it is all one has, and all one is.  2. The ethics of altruism regards the life of the individual as something one must be ready to sacrifice for the good of others.  3. Therefore, the ethics of altruism does not take seriously the value of the human individual.  4. Ethical Egoism, which allows each person to view his or her life as being of ultimate value, does take the human individual seriously – it is, in fact, the only philosophy that does so.  5. Thus, Ethical Egoism is the philosophy that ought to be accepted.”  Quoted from: James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, 1999, pp.87-88 Utilitarianism  Do what causes the most happiness for everyone.  Main Figures:  Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)  John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)  “Happiness is an intrinsic good – the only intrinsic good.” (p.92)  Hedonism states that happiness is the ultimate good. (Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, p.108) Types of Utilitarianism  Act Utilitarianism – 3 Propositions (Rachels, 107)  Actions are judged by their consequences.  Only the total amount of happiness produced matters.  Everyone is counted equally in this equation.  Rule Utilitarianism  The rule that causes the most overall happiness is correct.  Even if this means that it doesn’t cause the most happiness in individual cases. Bentham and Mill  Bentham: Principle of Utility – “the right action is the one that directly produces the balance of happiness over unhappiness for all concerned.” (Vaughn,p.92)  Mill called it the “Greatest Happiness Principle.”  Hedonic Calculus  Bentham’s calculation to find the greatest amount of net happiness, not accounting for distribution of happiness.  “Classic utilitarianism, though, does ask that any given amount of happiness be spread among as many people as possible…” (93)  “The greatest happiness for the greatest number.” (93) Bentham and Mill  Jeremy Bentham argues that the quantity of pleasure is what matters (93)  John Stuart Mill argues that there is a quantification of pleasures – ranking them. (93)  Eating and Drinking – Lower Pleasures  Knowledge and Art – Higher Pleasures  What is his justification for doing so?  Animals vs. Humans  “better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.” (93)  See the essay in Vaughn pp.111-115 Learning from Utilitarianism (p.100)  1. It forces us to consider the consequences of our actions.  Consequences matter so we must relate to them in our moral deliberations.  2. It is impartial.  It takes into account everyone equally and the total amount of pleasure matters.  3. It promotes human welfare.  It takes everyone in a group/society into account, so it tries to find the best action for everyone. Critiques of Utilitarianism (Rachels, 110-115)  1. Justice  What if utility suggests accusing an innocent person of a crime will serve the greater good?  2. Rights  Look at example on page 111-2 of Rachels  3. Does Not Deal With Past Actions Well  What if you don’t feel like doing something in the present that you promised in the past? Would your current pleasure trump their disappointment?  4. Too Demanding  It demands we know more than is possible. It is not practical.  5. Does Not Take Into Account Personal Relationships Responses to Critiques (Rachels, 116-121)  1. There are real consequences to bad actions in the real world. The examples Rachels gives would have punishment.  2. Rule Utilitarianism is a compromise that allows for exceptions.  3. It argues that feelings are flawed, so our instincts on what is moral may not hold up. Social Contract Theory  A consequentialist (of sorts) theory that builds off of belief in a materialist approach to the world. (100)  “morality arises from a social contract that self-interested and rational people abide by in order to secure a degree of peace, prosperity, and safety.” (101)  Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) (101-102)  Leviathan – people must consent to give up some freedoms to be ruled by a “leviathan” that enforces a social contract.  Rules are in place to promote social harmony. (103)  Do people actually consent to this contract? (103-104)  Page 103 mentions a reply might be that we are duty-bound to follow this, but doesn’t this make it a Nonconsequentialist theory at that point?  Do we see examples of this today?  What about when the contract is broken – i.e. government fails to protect its citizens? Wireless Philosophy Videos on Utilitarianism  Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uvmz5E75ZIA  Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uGDk23Q0S9E  Part 3: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MoCuVa9UeR4  Watch any ones that we don’t get to in class on your own.  Bonus – Consequentialism: https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=hACdhD_kes8 Nonconsequentialist Ethics  Deals with doing something because it is natural, commanded, or right.  The ends/consequences do not matter.  Sometimes Called Deontological Ethics  Comes from the Greek “deon” – duty.  The study of duty.  Do your duty and don’t worry about the consequences. Immanuel Kant – Hypothetical Imperative  Hypothetical Imperative  “tells us what we should do if we have certain desires” (p.133)  It is only if we want something that we should do this. Categorical Imperative (p.133)  “It tells us that we should do something in all situations regardless of our wants and needs.”  Definition: “act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”  Perfect Duties – Duties without exception  Breaking a Promise  Not Lying  Committing Suicide  Imperfect Duties – Duties with exceptions  Developing Talents  Helping Others Categorical Imperative (p.135)  Means-End Principle  “we must always treat people (including ourselves) as ends in themselves, as creatures of great intrinsic worth, never merely as things of instrumental value, never merely as tools to be used for someone else’s purpose.”  TLDR: Don’t use people.  People have intrinsic worth – “they also have equal intrinsic worth.”  BOTH Categorical Imperatives must work for Kant.  It is possible to imagine something that is allowed, but fails to treat a person as an end.  You must have it be both universal and treat humans as an end. Overview of Kant  Three Major Moral Features  Universality  Impartiality  Respect for Persons  Why should we have respect for people?  Why do people have intrinsic worth?  Should this be assumed? Natural Law Theory  Found in Aristotle and the Stoics (p.139)  Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE)  Prominent Medieval Philosopher/Theologian  Made Natural Law Theory more popular  “how nature is reveals how it should be.” (139) Doctrine of Double Effect  You may commit a good action that has bad effects, but you may not commit a bad action that has good effects. (140)  Four requirements (140):  “The action is inherently (without reference to consequences) either morally good or morally neutral.”  “The bad effect is not used to produce the good effect (though the bad may be a side effect of the good).”  “The intention must always be to bring about the good effect.”  “The good effect must be at least as important as the bad effect.”  Intention matters in natural law theory. Summa Theologica Reading – Question 91  Assignment: Read pages 155-159 (Question 91)  Second Article: Natural Law is humanity’s participation in the divine/eternal law (156)  Third Article: Aquinas is arguing that human nature is limited and only receives the divine law as much as it is able.(157) Divine Command Theory  Euthyphro Dilemma  Reliability of a Source  Authority of a Claim  Why do some Christians accept the Ten Commandments, but not the 613 commandments of the Jewish Law?  How do we interpret divine commands?  Hermeneutics  Authorial Intent  The Eye of the Reader  The Meeting of the Horizons – Gadamer  How Does Divine Command Theory differ from Natural Law Theory? Summary of the Euthyphro Argument  “1. Either God has reasons that support His commands, or God lacks reasons for His commands.  2. If God lacks reasons for His commands, then God’s commands are arbitrary – and that renders God imperfect, undermining His moral authority.  3. If God has reasons that support His commands, then these reasons, rather than the divine commands, are what make actions right or wrong – thereby refuting the Divine Command Theory.”  4. Therefore, either God is imperfect, or the Divine Command Theory is false.  5. God is not imperfect.  6. Therefore, the Divine Command Theory is false.”  (Shafer-Landau, Russ. The Fundamentals of Ethics, Third Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015) Religious Hermeneutics First we have to understand how to interpret a text before we can apply it.  Hermeneutics – The “study of the interpretation of words and actions.” (Velasquez, 430)  Genre – Different Types of Religious Texts  Three Approaches to Interpreting a Text  Authorial Intent  Meeting of the Horizons – Hans Georg Gadamer  Meaning Found with the Reader  4 senses of interpreting Christian Scripture Factors in Deciphering Sacred Texts (p. 55 in Myhre, Introduction to Religious Studies)  Definition, Composition, and Canon – What is the purpose of the text in the tradition? What is it made up of? Can tradition change the text?  Authorship – Who wrote the text? Is it God? Or one human? Or multiple humans? Or unknown?  Transmission – How was the text passed down to the current adherents of the religion? What are the oldest manuscripts we have?  Authority – Is the text inerrant or inspired or historical or metaphor or all of the above? None of the above?  Genre – What genre does the text fit into? Is it poetry, narrative, history, myth, apocalypse, wisdom writings?  Interpretation – How do we interpret the text? Is it through the genres and the authority? (these play a huge role) Do we or the adherents of a religion look at the text differently?  Role – How is the text used by the religious tradition itself?