Influenza Diagnosis and Treatment PDF

Influenza: Diagnosis and Treatment David Y. Gaitonde, MD; Cpt. Faith C. Moore, USA, MC; and Maj. Mackenzie K. Morgan, USA, MC Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center, Fort Gordon, Georgia Influenza is an acute viral respiratory infe...

Influenza: Diagnosis and Treatment David Y. Gaitonde, MD; Cpt. Faith C. Moore, USA, MC; and Maj. Mackenzie K. Morgan, USA, MC Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center, Fort Gordon, Georgia Influenza is an acute viral respiratory infection that causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Three types of influ- enza cause disease in humans. Influenza A is the type most responsible for causing pandemics because of its high susceptibility to antigenic variation. Influenza is highly contagious, and the hallmark of infection is abrupt onset of fever, cough, chills or sweats, myalgias, and malaise. For most patients in the outpatient setting, the diagnosis is made clinically, and laboratory con- firmation is not necessary. Laboratory testing may be useful in hospitalized patients with suspected influenza and in patients for whom a confirmed diagnosis will change treatment decisions. Rapid molecular assays are the preferred diagnostic tests because they can be done at the point of care, are highly accurate, and have fast results. Treatment with one of four approved anti-influenza drugs may be considered if the patient presents within 48 hours of symptom onset. The benefit of treatment is greatest when antiviral therapy is started within 24 hours of symptom onset. These drugs decrease the duration of illness by about 24 hours in otherwise healthy patients and may decrease the risk of serious complications. No anti-influenza drug has been proven superior. Annual influenza vaccination is recommended for all people six months and older who do not have contraindications. (Am Fam Physician. 2019;100:online. Copyright © 2019 American Academy of Family Physicians.) Published online November 11, 2019 BEST PRACTICES IN INFECTIOUS DISEASE Influenza is an acute respiratory infection caused by a negative-strand RNA virus of the Orthomyxoviridae fam- Recommendations from the Choosing ily. There are three distinct types of influenza viruses that Wisely Campaign infect humans: influenza A, B, and C. Influenza A infects Recommendation Sponsoring organization multiple species, including humans, swine, equines, and birds. It is more susceptible to antigenic variation and, Do not routinely avoid American Academy of Allergy, influenza vaccination in Asthma, and Immunology hence, is the cause of major pandemics.1,2 The surface of egg-allergic patients. the virion envelope is covered with proteins hemaggluti- nin (HA), neuraminidase (NA), and matrix 2.1 Antigenic Source: For more information on the Choosing Wisely Campaign, see https://www.choosingwisely.org. For supporting citations and variation is associated with changes in the HA or NA sur- to search Choosing Wisely recommendations relevant to primary face proteins and is generally classified as antigenic drift or care, see https://www.aafp.org/afp/recommendations/search.htm. shift.1 Antigenic drift involves small, gradual amino acid substitutions of the HA or NA proteins that can result in smaller outbreaks. Antigenic shift occurs when there are novel influenza subtypes with the potential to cause wide- significant changes in the HA or NA proteins that create spread pandemics.1,3 Each influenza A subtype is charac- terized by numbering both the HA and NA proteins (e.g., H3N2, H5N1). See related Practice Guideline at https://www.aafp.org/ Epidemiology afp/2019/1015/p505.html. From 2010 to 2018, estimated seasonal influenza activity Author disclosure: No relevant financial affiliations. in the United States ranged from 9.3 million to 49 million cases and 12,000 to 79,000 deaths per year.4 The 2017-2018 Patient information: Handouts on this topic are available influenza season was the third most severe since 2003-2004 at https://familydoctor.org/preventing-the-flu and https:// familydoctor.org/flu-myths. and was characterized by high severity of disease in all age groups.5 Most cases were secondary to the A/H3N2 subtype, and low vaccine effectiveness was a significant contributing Downloaded from November 11, the American 2019 ◆ ePub Family Physician website at www.aafp.org/afp. AmericanFor Copyright © 2019 American Academy of Family Physicians. www.aafp.org/afp Family Physician the private, 1 noncom- mercial use of one individual user of the website. All other rights reserved. Contact [email protected] for copyright questions and/or permission requests.  TABLE 1 People at Increased Risk of Complications from Influenza factor.5 Based on public health laboratory specimens, the People with coexisting medical conditions predominant influenza A subtype for the 2018-2019 season Any condition that may compromise the handling of respira- tory secretions (e.g., neuromuscular diseases, cerebral palsy, was (H1N1)pdm09 (56.6% of positive specimens), followed stroke, seizure disorder, dementia) by the A/H3N2 subtype (43.6%) and influenza B (4%).6 Asthma or other chronic pulmonary disease Seasonal influenza occurs primarily in the colder months Chronic kidney disease in temperate regions. The primary mode of transmission is Chronic liver disease via inhalation of infectious respiratory particles (large drop- let transmission) when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Heart disease (acquired or congenital) There is also evidence of airborne (small particles transmit- Immunosuppression (e.g., HIV infection, cancer, transplant recipients, use of immunosuppressive medications) ted by talking or exhalation) and fomite transmission.6,7 The typical incubation period is 24 to 48 hours. Patients are Long-term aspirin therapy in patients younger than 19 years infectious one to two days before symptom onset and for five Metabolic disorders (acquired [e.g., diabetes mellitus] or inherited [e.g., mitochondrial disorders]) to seven days afterward. Children and immunosuppressed Morbid obesity people may exhibit prolonged viral shedding.8,9 In 2009, a novel H1N1 subtype (pH1N1) emerged from Sickle cell anemia and other hemoglobinopathies a quadruple reassortment of two swine viruses, one avian Special groups virus, and one human virus.10 First identified in Mexico Adults 65 years and older in 2009, it caused millions of cases worldwide and an esti- American Indians and Alaska Natives mated 18,500 laboratory-confirmed deaths.11 Children younger than 5 years (particularly those younger Since 2011, outbreaks of a swine-origin H3N2 virus have than 2 years) been reported in the United States. Cases predominantly Institutionalized adults (e.g., residents of nursing homes or involved young children exposed to swine, often at state chronic care facilities) fairs.12,13 Additionally, the H5N1 avian influenza virus has Pregnant and postpartum women (up to 2 weeks postpartum, become a global concern. First identified solely in wild geese including pregnancy loss) populations in China in 1997, the virus quickly spread to Adapted with permission from Erlikh IV, Abraham S, Kondamudi VK. domestic poultry and ultimately to human populations. Management of influenza. Am Fam Physician. 2010;82(9):1088, with There are now avian influenza cases reported worldwide, additional information from references 18 and 19. although poultry-to-human and human-to-human trans- mission remains relatively low. Despite low transmissibility, Si the reported fatality rate is high (approximately 60%).14 immunosuppressed people, children younger than two years, children two to four years of age who have had asthma Prevention -6 months or wheezing in the past 12 months, and adults 50 years and The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC’s) older.15 For children six months to eight years of age, two Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) doses of IIV administered at least four weeks apart are rec- and the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) ommended if the child has not received at least two doses recommend annual influenza vaccination for all people six of the influenza vaccine previously. RIV is not licensed for ! months and older who do not have contraindications.15,16 Vaccination efforts should target people at increased risk of children younger than 18 years.15 In August 2019, ACIP recommended that LAIV may be complicated or severe influenza (Table 117-19) and those who used in age-appropriate patients without contraindications care for or live with high-risk individuals, including health for the 2019-2020 influenza season because it was deemed care professionals.15 Two previous FPM articles provided as effective as the IIV for prevention of the H3N2 and communication strategies and tools for increasing influenza influenza B viruses.15,22 Notably, influenza-specific antiviral vaccination rates in practice.20,21 medications may reduce the effectiveness of LAIV if given Multiple formulations of the influenza vaccine are avail- within two days before to 14 days after vaccine administra- able, including inactivated influenza vaccines (IIV); a recom- tion.15 The AAFP has made a preferential recommendation binant inactivated vaccine (RIV); and a live, attenuated for vaccination with IIV over LAIV.16 influenza vaccine (LAIV). For physicians and patients con- A high-dose, inactivated trivalent vaccine (Fluzone High- cerned about egg allergy, quadrivalent RIV and cell culture– Dose) is licensed for adults 65 years and older, and multiple based quadrivalent IIV are completely egg-free.15 studies show superior effectiveness compared with the stan- An age-appropriate IIV or RIV is suitable for most dard-dose trivalent IIV (number needed to treat to prevent patients; LAIV is contraindicated in pregnant women, one additional case of laboratory-confirmed influenza = 220 2 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp ePub ◆ November 11, 2019  INFLUENZA SORT: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE Evidence Clinical recommendation rating Comments Annual influenza vaccination is recommended for all people 6 months and older. 15,16 A Reports of expert committees The decision to begin antiviral treatment should be based on the clinical diagnosis C Reports of expert committees of influenza, not on test results. Laboratory diagnosis should be obtained when results will change clinical management and for patients with severe illness.19,28 Patients with severe illness or who are at high risk of complications from influenza B Observational studies and a should receive antiviral treatment regardless of symptom duration, although early meta-analysis of observa- treatment is most beneficial.18,28 tional studies Oseltamivir (Tamiflu), peramivir (Rapivab), baloxavir (Xofluza), or zanamivir A Systematic review of random- (Relenza) may be considered to reduce symptom duration in patients with influ- ized trials enza or influenza-like illness, but only if administered within 48 hours—and ideally 24 hours—of symptom onset. 18,28 Oral oseltamivir is the preferred treatment for influenza during pregnancy.18,28 B Pharmacokinetic studies and cohort studies A = consistent, good-quality patient-oriented evidence; B = inconsistent or limited-quality patient-oriented evidence; C = consensus, disease-oriented evidence, usual practice, expert opinion, or case series. For information about the SORT evidence rating system, go to https:// www.aafp.org/afpsort. compared with standard-dose vaccine).23,24 An adjuvanted Diagnostic Testing inactivated trivalent vaccine (Fluad) is also licensed for use According to the CDC, influenza testing can be consid- in adults 65 years and older.15 ered when the results will modify management or when a patient with signs or symptoms of influenza is hospitalized.19 Clinical Manifestations and Complications Influenza most often causes an uncomplicated respiratory infection with cough, fever, myalgias, chills or sweats, and TABLE 2 malaise that persists for two to eight days. Onset is typically & rapid. Atypical gastrointestinal symptoms such as vomiting Complications of Influenza and diarrhea can occur in children. A minority of patients, Cardiovascular 26 Ocular 26 especially older adults, young children, and those with Cerebrovascular accidents Conjunctivitis (most medical comorbidities, will experience severe disease due Ischemic heart disease common) to viral or secondary bacterial pneumonia with respiratory Myocarditis Optic neuritis and multiorgan failure.8,25 Extrapulmonary complications Hematologic 26 Retinopathy Uveal effusion syndrome are rare (Table 2).8,19,25-27 Hemolytic uremic syndrome Hemophagocytic syndrome Pulmonary 8,25,27 History and Physical Examination Thrombotic thrombocytope- Acute respiratory nic purpura distress syndrome In outpatient and emergency department settings, testing Musculoskeletal 19,26 Diffuse alveolar for influenza virus is not necessary to start antiviral treat- hemorrhage Myositis ment in a patient with suspected influenza infection, espe- Hypoxic respiratory Rhabdomyolysis cially during seasons when influenza A and B viruses are failure Neurologic 26 circulating in the local community.19,28 Rather, the diagno- & Primary viral pneumonia Acute disseminated sis is made clinically based on presenting signs and symp- encephalomyelitis Secondary bacterial pneumonia toms, or if the patient has a suspected influenza-associated Encephalitis complication, such as exacerbation of a chronic disease, Renal 26 Guillain-Barré syndrome Acute kidney injury concomitant pneumonia, or rhabdomyolysis.19,28 Postinfluenza encephalopathy (e.g., acute tubulo- A symptom-only clinical prediction rule may aid cli- (neurologic symptoms occur- interstitial nephritis, ⑭ nicians in diagnosing influenza.29 It assigns 2 points for ring after resolution but within glomerulonephritis, 3 weeks of primary infection) fever and cough, 2 points for myalgias, 1 point for chills minimal change disease) Reye syndrome or sweats, and 1 point for symptom onset within the past Multiorgan failure Transverse myelitis 48 hours. Patients with 2 or fewer points are at low risk of influenza, whereas those with 4 or more points are at high Information from references 8, 19, and 25-27. risk and may be considered for empiric treatment.29 November 11, 2019 ◆ ePub www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 3  INFLUENZA TABLE 3 Accuracy of Point-of-Care Tests for Influenza Low prevalence (5%) High prevalence (33%) Positive Negative Positive Negative Positive Negative likelihood likelihood predictive predictive predictive predictive Test ratio ratio value (%) value (%) value (%) value (%) Influenza A Adults Commercially available rapid influenza tests 85 0.58 82 3 98 22 Digital immunoassays 23 0.25 55 1 92 11 Rapid nucleic acid amplification tests 44 0.13 70 1 96 6 Children Commercially available rapid influenza tests 76 0.39 80 2 97 16 Digital immunoassays 46 0.13 71 1 96 6 Rapid nucleic acid amplification tests 90 0.10 83 0 98 5 Influenza B Adults Commercially available rapid influenza tests 332 0.67 95 3 99 25 Digital immunoassays 47 0.44 71 2 96 18 Rapid nucleic acid amplification tests 108 0.24 85 1 98 11 Children Commercially available rapid influenza tests 164 0.34 90 2 99 15 Digital immunoassays 69 0.18 78 1 97 8 Rapid nucleic acid amplification tests 192 0.04 91 0 99 2 Information from reference 31. dapata tal - Similarly, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) adults and children, the clinical benefit is greatest when suggests testing if the results will curtail the use of unneces- treatment is initiated within 24 hours of symptom onset.28 sary antibiotics or laboratory testing, or result in prophylactic Although anti-influenza drugs have been approved by the treatment of high-risk household contacts.28 A prospective U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use within 48 hours study performed at a university health clinic found that of symptom onset, most clinical trials enrolled patients who rapid polymerase chain reaction testing decreased antibiotic had been symptomatic for no more than 36 hours. The pri- ⑭ prescriptions as well as the likelihood of the patient return- mary benefit of treatment is a decrease in symptom dura- ing for a second visit within two weeks.30 tion by approximately 24 hours when treatment is initiated There are several types of point-of-care diagnostic tests within 36 hours, and a reduction in disease severity.32,33 for influenza. In otherwise heathy outpatients, more expen- Among adults and children with influenza in the outpatient sive rapid molecular assays may be preferred because of setting who are treated with an NA inhibitor, systematic their higher sensitivity compared with other rapid testing reviews of published and unpublished randomized trials methods.28 Because of the prolonged time to obtain results found no decrease in hospitalizations or death.29,33 However, from viral culture or reference laboratory polymerase chain in hospitalized adults and children, three observational reaction testing, these tests are not practical for clinical studies found an association between the use of NA inhibi- decision-making in influenza management. Table 3 sum- tors and mortality benefit.34-36 marizes the accuracy and estimated positive and negative The CDC and the IDSA recommend antiviral therapy for predictive values of point-of-care influenza tests in low- and patients with severe or progressive illness, who are at high high-prevalence populations.31 risk of influenza-associated complications, or who are hos- pitalized.18,28 Although early treatment is most beneficial, Treatment treatment should be initiated in these patients regardless Treatment with an anti-influenza drug is an option, with the of symptom duration.28 The IDSA also recommends that decision to prescribe based on balancing potential benefits, treatment be considered for household contacts of peo- harms, cost, and patient preferences. In otherwise healthy ple at high risk of influenza-associated complications.28 4 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp ePub ◆ November 11, 2019  INFLUENZA TABLE 4 Treatment of Influenza FDA-approved Contraindications Drug/formulation Cost* Dosages indications and precautions Oseltamivir (Tami- $50 to $100 Adults and children 13 years Prevention of influenza Contraindicated in people with flu), available as ($160 to $310) and older: 75 mg 2 times per A and B in patients 12 serious hypersensitivity to osel- oral capsules or depending on day for 5 days months and older tamivir or any component of the suspension dosage product Children: Treatment of uncom- 2 weeks to < 12 months of plicated acute Potential adverse effects include age (any weight): 3 mg per kg influenza A and B in nausea, vomiting, and allergic 2 times per day for 5 days patients 2 weeks and reactions (e.g., rash, facial swelling) < 33 lb (15 kg): 30 mg 2 times older who have been May use during pregnancy; pre- per day for 5 days symptomatic for no ferred drug for influenza treatment; 33 to 50 lb (15 to 23 kg): 45 more than 48 hours consider increased dose in preg- mg 2 times per day for 5 days nant women who are hospitalized > 50 to 88 lb (23 to 40 kg): with influenza complications; 60 mg orally 2 times per day bat a risk of embryo-fetal toxicity not mas for 5 days expected based on human data > 88 lb (40 kg): adult dosage Zanamivir (Relenza), NA ($65) Adults and children 7 years Prevention of influenza Contraindicated in people with available as powder and older: A and B in patients 5 milk allergy, underlying reactive for inhalation 10 mg 2 times per day for years and older airway disease (e.g., asthma, 5 days (2 doses should be chronic obstructive pulmonary Intravenous formu- Treatment of uncom- taken on the first day of disease), or history of allergic lation available only plicated acute treatment, provided there reaction to zanamivir or any com- as an emergency influenza A and B in is at least 2 hours between ponent of the product investigative new patients 7 years and doses; on subsequent days, drug older who have been Potential adverse effects include doses should be about 12 symptomatic for no headaches, diarrhea, nausea, vom- hours apart at approximately more than 48 hours iting, allergic reaction, nasal symp- the same time each day) toms, bronchitis, cough, sinusitis, dizziness, fever, chills, arthralgia, and articular rheumatism; serious and sometimes fatal cases of bron- chospasm have occurred May use during pregnancy; risk of embryo-fetal toxicity not expected based on human data continues FDA = U.S. Food and Drug Administration; NA = not available. *—Estimated retail cost for one treatment course based on information obtained at http://www.goodrx.com (accessed September 12, 2019). Generic price listed first; brand name in parentheses. Clinicians caring for high-risk patients can also be consid- reduced by approximately 32 hours when oseltamivir or ered for treatment.28 baloxavir was given within 24 hours of symptom onset, but Four antiviral drugs have been approved for the treat- only 13 hours if given 24 to 48 hours after onset.38 Given D ment of influenza (Table 4): the NA inhibitors oseltamivir their cost, modest benefits, and adverse effects (primarily (Tamiflu), zanamivir (Relenza), and peramivir (Rapivab), nausea and vomiting with oseltamivir), these drugs are and the cap-dependent endonuclease inhibitor baloxa- not routinely recommended for otherwise healthy patients vir (Xofluza).18,37 Any of these agents can be used in age- with influenza.39 appropriate, otherwise healthy outpatients with uncom- Oseltamivir is the preferred treatment for patients with plicated influenza and no contraindications.18 Baloxavir is severe influenza. Intravenous peramivir is an option for indicated for the treatment of uncomplicated influenza in these patients if there are contraindications to or con- patients 12 years and older.38 In a study comparing baloxa- cerns about reduced bioavailability of oral oseltamivir.18,28 vir with oseltamivir and placebo in 1,436 otherwise healthy Inhaled zanamivir is not recommended for patients with people 12 to 65 years of age who had influenza, oseltamivir severe disease because it has not been well studied. It is and baloxavir reduced symptom duration by approximately contraindicated in patients requiring mechanical ventila- one day compared with placebo.38 Symptom duration was tion and in those with underlying lung disease because of November 11, 2019 ◆ ePub www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 5  INFLUENZA TABLE 4 (continued) Treatment of Influenza FDA-approved Contraindications Drug/formulation Cost* Dosages indications and precautions Peramivir (Rapivab), $1,000 Adults and children 13 years Treatment of uncom- Contraindicated in people available as solu- and older: single dose of plicated acute with serious hypersensitivity or tion for injection 600 mg influenza A and B in anaphylaxis to peramivir or any patients 2 years and component of the product Children 2 to 12 years of age: older who have been single dose of 12 mg per kg Potential adverse effects include symptomatic for no (up to 600 mg) diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and more than 48 hours neutropenia Weigh risks and benefits during pregnancy; no human data available; no known risk of embryo-fetal toxicity based on animal data at 8 times the recom- mended human dose; possible risk of embryo-fetal toxicity with continuous intravenous infusion based on limited animal data Baloxavir (Xofluza), NA ($160) Adults and children 12 years Treatment of uncom- Contraindicated in people with available as oral and older: plicated acute a history of hypersensitivity to tablets 88 to 174 lb (40 to 79 kg): influenza in patients baloxavir or any component of the single dose of 40 mg 12 years and older who product ≥ 175 lb (80 kg): single dose have been symptom- Potential adverse effects include of 80 mg atic for no more than diarrhea, bronchitis, nasopharyngi- 48 hours tis, headache, and nausea Avoid use during pregnancy; no human data available; no known risk of fetal harm based on animal data at 5 and 7 times the maximum recommended human dose FDA = U.S. Food and Drug Administration; NA = not available. *—Estimated retail cost for one treatment course based on information obtained at http://www.goodrx.com (accessed September 12, 2019). Generic price listed first; brand name in parentheses. · the risk of bronchospasm.18,28 Adamantanes (amantadine trimester and continues for four weeks postpartum.28 Osel- and rimantadine [Flumadine]) are approved for influenza treatment but are not currently recommended. These med- ications are not active against influenza B, and most influ- tamivir has good safety data in pregnancy, and the CDC recommends it as first-line treatment for pregnant women.18 No change in dosing is necessary. · enza A strains have shown adamantane resistance for the past 10 years.18 Chemoprophylaxis ⑯ There is no demonstrated benefit to treating patients Although chemoprophylaxis with NA inhibitors can pre- with more than one antiviral agent or using higher than vent influenza infection, it is recommended only for specific recommended dosages.28 However, extended treatment populations 18 (Table 4). Vaccination is the preferred method courses may be indicated in critically ill patients.18 Support- for prevention, and routine chemoprophylaxis within the ive treatment and management of complications, including community is not recommended.18 Clinicians can opt to potential secondary bacterial pneumonia, are paramount. closely monitor symptoms in exposed patients; early initia- * Corticosteroids are not recommended unless the patient has another approved indication for their use.18,28 Treatment resistance should be considered in patients who take anti- tion of treatment is an alternative strategy.18,28 Indications to consider chemoprophylaxis are summarized in Table 5.18,28 However, most of these indications are based on poor-quality virals and develop lower respiratory tract disease, although evidence and expert opinion. In a long-term care facility, an this is less likely than natural disease progression and more influenza outbreak is defined as two laboratory-confirmed common in immunosuppressed patients.18 cases within 72 hours in residents on the same unit.40 In Pregnancy is an independent risk factor for complicated the setting of outbreak in a nursing care facility or hospital, influenza. The risk of maternal death increases with each chemoprophylaxis is recommended for all asymptomatic 6 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp ePub ◆ November 11, 2019  INFLUENZA TABLE 5 Infectious Diseases Society of America Indications to Consider Chemoprophylaxis for Influenza Indications Duration OPostexposure prophylaxis for people at high risk of complications of influenza should be initiated within 48 hours of initial exposure if unable to vaccinate or if vaccine effectiveness is likely to be low after close contact exposure to a person with influenza 7 days after initial exposure -Postexposure prophylaxis in conjunction with vaccination for unvaccinated people in close contact with a person at high risk of influenza complications should be initiated within 48 hours of initial exposure to a person with influenza At least 7 days after initial exposure or until vaccine effectiveness is likely achieved Postexposure prophylaxis in unvaccinated people at high risk of influenza complications should 14 days or until vaccine effec- be initiated within 48 hours of initial exposure in conjunction with vaccination after exposure to a tiveness is likely achieved person with influenza Preexposure prophylaxis for people at high risk of developing complications of influenza if unable Duration of influenza activity to vaccinate or vaccine likely to be ineffective when influenza is present (immune deficiency) Preexposure prophylaxis for people at the highest risk of complications of influenza, such as Duration of influenza activity hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients within 12 months posttransplant or lung transplant recipients (people with severe immune deficiency) Preexposure prophylaxis for unvaccinated people at high risk of complications of influenza in con- 14 days or until vaccine effec- junction with vaccination when influenza activity is present in the community tiveness is likely achieved Preexposure prophylaxis for unvaccinated people in close contact (including health care profes- Duration of influenza activity sionals) with people at high risk of influenza complications if unable to vaccinate, high-risk contacts cannot take chemoprophylaxis, and influenza activity is present in the community Note: Most of these recommendations are based on poor- to moderate-quality evidence. Information from references 18 and 28. patients and can be considered for certain staff (especially Address correspondence to David Y. Gaitonde, MD, Dwight unvaccinated or recently vaccinated people).18 D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center, 300 E. Hospital Rd., Fort Gordon, GA 30905 (email: [email protected]). Reprints This article updates previous articles on this topic by Erlikh, et are not available from the authors. al.17; Montalto41; and Montalto, et al.42 Data Sources: We searched the websites of the Centers for The content presented is the opinion of the authors and does Disease Control and Prevention and the Infectious Diseases not reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Army, the Depart- Society of America, Essential Evidence Plus, the Cochrane data- ment of Defense, or the U.S. government. Mention of trade base, PubMed, and UpToDate using the following search terms: names, commercial products, or organizations does not imply influenza epidemiology, influenza neuraminidase, H1N1 pan- an endorsement by the U.S. government. demic, H1N1 pandemic mortality, H3N2 variant influenza, H5N1 influenza, influenza mortality, influenza complications, influ- enza complications American Indians, influenza treatment, and References influenza universal vaccine. The search included meta-analyses, 1. Taubenberger JK, Morens DM. Influenza: the once and future pan- randomized controlled trials, clinical trials, and reviews. Search demic. Public Health Rep. 2010;125(suppl 3):16-26. dates: December 1, 2018, to October 5, 2019. 2. Barberis I, Myles P, Ault SK, et al. History and evolution of influenza con- trol through vaccination: from the first monovalent vaccine to universal vaccines. J Prev Med Hyg. 2016;57(3):E115-E120. The Authors 3. 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