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INDIAN POLITY UPLOADED TO https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK EMAIL [email protected] [email protected] DOWNLOAD ALL THESE BOOKS FROM THE LINK GIVEN BELOW FEBRUARY 2014 CURRENT AFFAIRS https://www.facebook.com/groups/bankpoandclerk/630857426982808/ JANUARY 2014 CURRENT AFFAIRS https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/614450315290186/ DECEMBER 2013 https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/600800526655165/ OXFORD PRACTICE GRAMMAR BY John Eastwood PAGES-436 SIZE-4.79MB https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/596752047060013/ English Grammar in Use By Raymond Murphy A self-study reference and practice book https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/504274782974407/ OXFORD GUIDE TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR BY John Eastwood https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/516255345109684/ GEOMETRY BOOK FOR SSC AND UPSC EXAMS PAGES 646 SIZE - 6.49 MB https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/511616678906884/ IDIOMS AND PHRASES By DAVID HOLMES Pages 525 size - 1.63mb https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/524778944257324/ History of India and Indian National Movement https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/505044499564102/ ENGLISH BOOK FOR GRAMMAR WrenNMartin.pdf https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/456548784413674/ REASONING BOOK https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/456549541080265/ ENGLISH GRAMMAR english grammar.pdf https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/467225943345958/ IDIOMS AND PHARSES IDIOMS AND PHARSES.pdf https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/478055668929652/ Math with Tricks and Shortcuts Math with Tricks and Shortcuts.pdf https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/479663672102185/ Speed mathematics Speed mathematics.pdf https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/482759501792602/ BANKING AWARENESS BOOK FOR IBPS,SBI & ALL OTHER BANK EXAMS PAGES-229 SIZE-1.35 MB https://www.facebook.com/groups/BANKPOANDCLERK/535608753174343/ Meaning and Scope of Political Science MODULE - 1 Individual and the State 1 MEANING AND SCOPE OF Notes POLITICAL SCIENCE Your course in Political Science begins with this lesson. This lesson tries to explore the meaning of Political Science. Political Science, traditionally, begins and ends with the state. So considered, it is the study of the state and government. The modern view of Political Science lays emphasis on its being the study of power and authority. Political Science also explains its ever-widening scope. Its scope includes study of the state and the study of political system; covering the study of government, study of power; study of man and his political behaviour and study of political issues which influence politics directly or indirectly. In this lesson, you will study some of the core concepts like Justice and its relevance to citizens. Objectives After studying this lesson you will be able to l explain the meaning of Political Science in the light of some standard definitions; l distinguish between Political Science and Politics; l describe the scope of Political Science in terms of role of the State, functions of government and its relationship with citizens; l recognize the relevance of Justice for citizens and State. 1.1 Meaning of Political Science Political Science is that part of social science which deals with the foundations of the state and the principles of the government. According to J W Garner, “Politics begins and ends with the state.” Similarly, R G Gettel wrote that Politics is the “study of the state in the past, present and future”. Harold J Laski stated in the same vein that the study of Politics concerns itself with the life of men and women in relation to organized state. Thus as a social science, Political Science deals with those aspects of individuals in society which relate to their activities and organizations devoted to seeking of power, resolution of conflicts and all these, within an overall framework of the rule and law as laid down by the state. 1 MODULE - 1 Meaning and Scope of Political Science Individual and the State 1.1.1 Changing Meaning of Political Science The term Politics is derived from the Greek word polis which means city-state. That is why many commentators, as you saw, rightly define Politics in terms of the state or government. However, this definition does not exhaust the meaning of Politics. Politics also deals with power. Harold D. Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan define Political Science as “the study of shaping and sharing of power”. In a word, Politics deals with both state and power. However, the power that Political Science deals with is, more often than not, Notes the legitimate power. Since science is the systematic study of any phenomenon through observation and experiment, it follows that Political Science studies the state and power in all their aspects. You will learn more about the state and power later in this lesson. Political Science deals with both empirical facts and normative issues. Facts are in the domain of “what is” and value preferences are in the domain of “what should be.” For example, if somebody says India is a parliamentary democracy, he or she is making a statement of empirical fact. This is what India today actually is. But if she or he were to make a statement like the one that India should switch over to presidential form of democracy, the statement would be a normative one. Political Science is not satisfied with describing the state of affairs, it wants to change or improve upon them. Empirical statements are true or false by virtue of what observation shows to be the case. Evaluative statements are ethical/moral imperatives, which are often said not to be true or false in any sense at all. Formal statements (such as the propositions of mathematics) are true or false by virtue of the meanings of their constituent terms alone. Political Philosophy deals with formal statements. Political Science deals with empirical statements and also evaluates the existing political institutions, practices and focuses on how to improve them. Intext Questions 1.1 Fill in the blanks : (a) Political Science deals with both.................... and..................... issues (empirical, normative, formal). (b) Political Science studies....................and.................... (society, state, nation, power, class). (c) The term Politics is derived from the word.................... (polis, police, state). (d)........................ said Politics begins and ends with the state (Gettel, Garner, Lasswell). (e)....................... defined Political Science as the study of shaping and sharing of power. (Kaplan, Easton, Garner). 1.1.2 Growth of the Discipline of Political Science Systematic study of Politics started with the Greeks in the fourth century BC. Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle used it in the most comprehensive sense. Aristotle called Politics a “master science”. For him, it comprised of not only the institutions of state or government but also family, property and other social institutions. Politics, for the Greeks, was an all- encompassing activity. The ancient Greek view about Political Science was mainly ethical. In contrast, the ancient 2 Meaning and Scope of Political Science MODULE - 1 Romans considered the legal aspect of Politics more important for their governance. Individual and the State During the Middle Ages, Political Science became a branch of religious order of the Church. Political authority was, then, subordinated to the authority of the Church. Normally a lay man associates Politics with party politics. But as students of Political Science, we know that Politics is much larger than that: it is systematic study of state and power. As the state grew in size and became more complex, Political Science acquired a realistic Notes and secular (non-religious) approach. After the Industrial Revolution, the role of the State, which was limited to maintenance of law and order and providing defence against external aggression, underwent considerable changes with the emergence of the new economic system called capitalism. In the twentieth century, after the Second World War, the ‘behavioural approach’ offered a new dimension of Political Science. The behavioural movement in American Political Science in the 1950s and the 1960s placed a lot of emphasis on the ‘science’ part of Politics. It wanted to model Politics after the methods followed by natural sciences like Physics, Botany, etc. The behaviouralists built theory inductively from empirical propositions. Those who follow inductive method would come to the conclusion after study, observation and experiment. For example, when some behaviouralists saw African-Americans (Blacks) of the southern United States of America (USA) voted for the Democratic Party of the United States, they came to the conclusion that the African-Americans do vote for the Democrats. This behavioural approach shifted the focus of its study from political institutions and structures to their functions. It placed stress on political activity and the behaviour of men and women who control these institutions. It replaced the study of ideas by the study of facts, evidence and behaviour. It considered political activity manifested in behaviour as the true subject of Political Science. A political activity may be in the form of an individual contesting an election. It may be the activity of a group seeking the adoption of a particular policy in its favour by the government. As different people pursue different interests, such activities tend to generate disagreement, competition and conflict. But the distinctive quality of Politics is that it includes physical coercion or force by the government. It may and usually does involve the persuasive influence and effort of the government to resolve conflicts through its balanced policy decisions. Politics is also viewed as a process whereby individuals, groups or communities seek to achieve their specific but conflicting goals. Politics, as the process, seeks to allocate resources (Easton calls it, values) authoritatively. Politics, as the study of structures, institutions, processes and activities, recognizes the possibility of the use of power. The Marxist approach, which is derived from the writings of the nineteenth century German philosopher Karl Marx, views Politics as a study of irreconcilable conflicts between the two classes ‘haves’ (those who have private property, or simply the rich) and the ‘have-nots’ (those who do not have any private property, or simply the poor); in other words, the exploiters and the exploited. The emancipation of the have-nots will come only through a revolution which would put an end to the institution of private property, thus changing the class society to the classless society. But Politics, as against the Marxist view, has another view also, the liberal view, according to which 3 MODULE - 1 Meaning and Scope of Political Science Individual and the State Politics is considered as an as effort for conciliation and accommodation to bring about rule of order and Justice. Incidentally, the Marxist view of politics comes as a reaction to the liberal view of politics. 1.2 Distinction between Political Science and Politics The terms ‘Political Science’ and ‘Politics’ are often used interchangeably. However, the distinction between the two needs to be understood. Some scholars define Politics to be Notes “the science and art of government.” But this is only a part of the total explanation of the subject of Political Science. Now-a-days the term Politics is used to mean the problems of the citizens interacting with the instrument of political power in one form or the other. Sometimes, Politics was and still is used as the technique of compromise or the method to capture power and retain it. According to many political scientists, the study of Political Science comprises theory of the state, concept of sovereign power, forms and functions of government, making and execution of laws, elections, political parities, rights and duties of citizens, policy functions and study of welfare activities of the State and government. There is another aspect of Politics that needs to be emphasised. Politics, many a time, implies practical politics. Practising politics is different from studying it. Practical politics includes actual formation of government, the working of government, administration, laws and legislation. It also includes international politics including matters such as peace and war, international trade and economic order, protection of rights, etc. All these also comprise the subject matter of the study of Politics. While the knowledge of Political Science as a discipline is acquired through study, the skill of practical politics is acquired through politicking or manipulations and craftiness or by exploiting caste and regional loyalties and religious sentiments. Practical politics is often described as the ‘dirty game’ and a ‘corrupting’ process in the common people’s mind. But we find that there are hardly any human groupings or societies, which are free from ‘politics’ and hardly any individual who does not know the implications of the “game of politics”. Practical Politics also has many positive aspects. In this era of welfare state many positive programmes such as removal of untouchability, land reforms, release of bonded labourers, prohibition of trafficking in human beings and begar (forced labour), introduction of minimum wages, employment generation programmes, empowerment of the other backward classes are all examples of positive aspects of practical politics. ‘Politics’ refers to the process of actual happenings in society and in institutions, which Political Science refers to its understand in a systematic manner. Intext Questions 1.2 Fill in the blanks : (a).................... called Political Science a ‘master science’ (Plato, Aristotle, Laski). (b) Behaviouralism stressed on the.................... part of Political Science (science, philosophy, political) 4 Meaning and Scope of Political Science MODULE - 1 (c) The.................... view Politics as a conflict between two classes of the haves and Individual and the State the have-nots (Greeks, Romans, Marxists). (d) Skill of practical politics is acquired through.................... (honesty, morality, craftiness). 1.3 Scope Of Political Science Notes Here we shall learn about the scope of Political Science in terms of role of the State, functions of government and its relationship with citizens. 1.3.1 Role of the State The term ‘State’ in its modern sense was first used by Machiavelli (1469-1527), the Italian statesman. The study of the State has since remained the focal point for the political scientists. The State consists of four elements. These are: (a) the people; (b) the territory on which they live; (c) the government to rule and regulate the lives of the people and (d) sovereignty, which implies unrestricted authority to take decisions and manage its own affairs. You will read in detail about these four elements in the second lesson. The role and nature of the State have been interpreted differently. Modern western liberal thinking, about which you will study more in the fourth lesson, arose with the commerial (Mercantile) Revolution in Western Europe in the sixteenth century and became prominent with the Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth century. These Revolutions brought into focus a new economic system called capitalism. Market is a place where goods and services are sold and bought. It operates on the basis of demand and supply. Many people regard it as a self-regulating, self-correcting place, provided there is no interference by the state. Competition is the chief hallmark of market. Capitalism and market are considered two sides of the same coin. The social group consisting of traders, merchants and businessmen and later the industrialists (also known as the bourgeois) was the major beneficiary of this system. The liberals emphasized that the consent of the people is the true basis of the state. Early liberal thinkers also considered the state as a ‘necessary evil’- an evil but necessary for the purpose of protecting the individual from the external and internal enemies. According to this view, that government is the best which governs the least. In other words, the state should be a ‘police state’ and hence a limited one. It should also be limited in a different sense: as John Locke, the famous English liberal philosopher of the seventeenth century, said it is there to protect the individual’s natural right to life, liberty and property. Rights are claims by an individual on the state. Natural rights are those rights with which an individual is supposed to have been born. These are, so to say, God-given rights. More importantly, individual is supposed to have acquired them even before the state came into existence. The important implication is that since the state has no role in the creation or granting of these rights, it cannot take away or abridge these rights. By contrast, the Marxist view, about which you will study more in the fourth lesson, does 5 MODULE - 1 Meaning and Scope of Political Science Individual and the State not consider the State as an impartial institution. It asserts that, throughout the centuries, the state has been a tool in the hands of the “haves” for exploiting and dominating the “have-nots.” In the future classless society like the communist society, the state would “wither away,”. In Gandhian view, the State would justify its existence, by acting as a “trustee” of the people. It should help the poorest and the weakest one. It should restore to him or her, a control over his or her own life and destiny. The Welfare State, which slowly emerged during the 1930s, tries to promote the well Notes being of its citizens, especially the poor, the needy, the unemployed and the aged. It is now generally agreed that the Welfare State exists to promote common good. So the functions of the state have increased manifold. The state to act as ‘trustee’ of the people means that it should hold people’s power as a trust for welfare of the people. It should not consider people as helpless subjects, but as co-rulers in its governance. Power refers to the ability of one person affecting the attitudes or action of another. I have power over you if I can make you do what you would not have done otherwise. But power is not always exercised openly. It can be exercised in unseen way, as in controlling the agenda. However, power can be best exercised when I can convince you about what is good/bad for you. To that extent, my power over you would be complete. And this dominance would always go unchallenged. By power of the government, we think of the different aspects of government. We think of ministers who have departments under them for the exercise of power over the area of their domains. There is the bureaucracy and the enormous structure of governmental administration, which has power over us. It can control our lives in various ways by making, administering and implementing laws. Here, one thing is to be noted. Power does not lie only in the highly publicized areas of social life, like government, administration, elections, etc. It also exists in small institutions like family etc.Many feminists are of the opinion that inside the private world of family man exercises power or dominance over woman. Hence, it is very aptly said, “even the personal is political.” Another thing to be noticed is that there is a distinction between legitimate and illegitimate power. There can be power, which is considered right or proper, while another may be improper. A dacoit’s power over me is very real, because if I do not comply with his wishes, I might lose my life or limb. But it is not proper power as is generally understood. Contrary to it the power that the government’s representatives, policemen or judges exercise over me is proper power. The dacoit’s power is illegitimate power while the government’s is legitimate. And the power of constitutional authorities over me is called authority. Authority contains the two ideas of power and legitimacy. Authority is that form of power which is legitimate. It is power plus ligitimacy. 1.3.2 Citizens and Government The government is the most important instrument of the State through which the latter realizes its objectives. Through its three organs i.e; the Legislature, the Executive and the 6 Meaning and Scope of Political Science MODULE - 1 Judiciary, it makes laws and rules, implements them, maintains peace and order in the Individual and the State country and resolves clashes of interests. It also tries to ensure territorial integrity or unity of the country. Modern democratic governments perform many other functions for the development and welfare of citizens and the society, as a whole. This is especially so in a developing country like ours. The relationship between citizens and the government is reciprocal. The citizens are Notes members of the State. The state recognizes certain rights of the citizens and in turn expects certain duties from them. So far as the rights of the citizens are concerned, they can be divided into three: civil, political and social. CIVIL RIGHTS are those rights which are necessary for the freedom/ liberty of the individual. They include the right to life and personal liberty, right to freedom of speech, expression and thought, right to own property, right to enter into contract, right to equality before law and equal protection by law. Equality before law means absence of special privileges; equal protection of laws implies equals should be treated equally. POLITICAL RIGHTS include the right to vote and the right to contest election. SOCIAL RIGHTS include the right to some degrees of economic welfare and security and the right to live the life of a civilized being according to standards prevailing in the society. It is the primary duty of the citizens to pay taxes to the government. They should co- operate with the government and abide by the laws and rules; should help in preventing diseases by immunization and by keeping neighborhood clean. They should have small families to help the government check the population growth. They should preserve public property, help in catching and punishing anti-social and anti-national elements. Further, the citizens of different castes, religions, languages and regions should solve their problems by understanding and agreement and not by violent means. In this way, a lot of resources, energy and time of the government can be saved for constructive purposes. 1.3.3 Liberty The term liberty is derived form the Latin word liber meaning free. Thus liberty means freedom. Freedom is of paramount importance for the development of an individual’s personality. Historically speaking, the term liberty was initially defined as absence of all restraints on an individual. This is known as the negative concept of liberty. Early liberalism championed negative liberty. John Stuart Mill, the nineteenth century English political philosopher, described, “Restraint as an evil”. Mill was especially worried about the restraints coming from the state and society. However, since individuals live together in a society, complete absence of restraints would be neither possible nor desirable. Further, differentiating between the self-regarding and other-regarding action is not always possible. It has been very aptly said that your liberty to swing your arm ends there where my nose begins. For liberty to be enjoyed by everyone, it should have reasonable restraints. This is the concept of positive liberty. This concept further means freedom to be a master of one’s own self. Harold J Laski supported this concept. Freedoms are opportunities which history has shown to be essential to the development of personality. The freedom of many requires restraint of law on the freedom of some. Later liberals supported the positive liberty. 7 MODULE - 1 Meaning and Scope of Political Science Individual and the State 1.3.3.1 Safeguards of Liberty Declaration of rights of the individuals in the Constitution is considered as an important safeguard of liberty. This way the government can be prevented from encroaching upon the freedoms of the people. Impartial judiciary is rightly called the watchdog of liberty. Without it the liberty of the individuals would be meaningless. Notes Decentralization of powers is another important safeguard of liberty. History is witness to the fact that concentration of power has very often led to despotism. Separation of powers, i.e. the executive, the legislature and the judiciary being separate, is a great ally of liberty. Montesquieu said, “Power should be a check on power.” Rule of law or equality in the eyes of the law is also an important safeguard of liberty. This is the bulwark against discrimination based on caste, class, colour, creed, etc. A large measure of social justice or diffusion of social and economic privileges is a prerequisite for liberty. If privileges become the prerogative of the select few, then effective liberty would be denied to a vast majority. A well-knit party system is also indispensable for the preservation of liberty. All these institutional safeguards are inadequate to preserve liberty if the citizens themselves do not possess the proud spirit to preserve it. People should always be on their toes to ensure that their liberty is not encroached upon. Eternal vigilance, it has been rightly said, is the price of liberty. Intext Questions 1.3 Fill in the blanks : (a) The term ‘State’ was first used by.................... (Plato, Machiavelli, Kautilya). (b) The term Liberty is derived from the........................ word liber (Greek, Roman, Latin). (c)........................ liberalism advocated negative liberty (Early, Modern, Libertarian). (d) Your liberty to swing your........................ ends there where my nose begins (nose, arm, head). (e) The freedom of many may require restraints of law on the freedom of........................ (all, some, none). (f) Eternal................... is the price of liberty (vigilance, liberty, freedom). 1.4 Justice and its Relevance for Citizens and State The term Justice is derived from the Latin word jus, which means a bond. Thus the word Justice means joining or fitting. “Justice”, says E Barker, “is the reconciler and the synthesis of political values.” 8 Meaning and Scope of Political Science MODULE - 1 The best general definition of Justice is to “render to everyone his/her due.” Individual and the State 1.4.1 Aspects of Justice When we turn to the broader question of Justice, it has other constitutions, we find a number of views. Herein comes the concept of distributive Justice – what is the proper way of distribution of income or social position in a given society. There are two major conceptions of distributive/social Justice, one involves the notion of merit and the other involves need and equality. Notes 1.4.2 Merit The first conception argues that each person’s social position and (material) wealth must be decided on the basis of merit. When people talk of careers open to talents and equality of opportunity, they have merit in view. However, the question arises as to how to measure merit or talent? The liberals say that the price that someone can command in a free market is the reasonable indicator of his/her value to others. The socialist critics are of the opinion that market receipts are often affected by chance and social background which have nothing to do with merit. 1.4.3 Need and Equality The second conception views that goods, positions, etc. should be allocated on the basis of a person’s needs. But how to define needs? Everybody agrees on food, shelter and clothing. Beyond this, there is no agreement. Communism (Marxism) believes that each person should define his needs and sufficient resources can be created under communism to meet all the needs of all individuals. However, others are of the opinion that needs can be satisfied by two agencies – welfare state and the market. Some needs can be satisfied through the welfare state and others being allocated through the market. 1.4.4 Equality of Opportunity Equality does not mean identity of rewards or identity of treatment, i.e. same reward or treatment for everybody, regardless of efforts and circumstances. For example, there would be no equality if all the students were awarded sixty marks regardless of the quality of answer. Ideally, those who write better should get higher marks. And this is compatible with equality. Likewise, in a society some people have more income and some have less. However, this state of affairs does not violate equality provided two conditions are met: (a) absence of privileges and (b) equality of opportunity (a) Absence of privileges strengthens equality; the existence of privileges would, conversely, promote inequality. This means that no one be given facilities/opportunities more than those given to others. Privileges create a situation of inequality, and in the process, harms equality. (b) Equality of opportunity means everybody should have the same chance to access public position and office. An example of the working of the equality of opportunity in India is the Civil Services examination conducted by the Union Public Services Commission (UPSC). Any Indian graduate from any university of India can take the examination. Allied to the concept of equality of opportunity is equality of (starting) conditions. 9 MODULE - 1 Meaning and Scope of Political Science Individual and the State Everybody should get a chance to be at the initial starting line; then the race of life could begin. Some would come first, some, second and others would fail. But this would not be a violation of equality. Many people are convinced that equality of conditions can only be achieved when the historically disadvantaged groups (like the Dalits/the Scheduled Castes) are compensated through reservation of jobs or (as is known in the United States of America) affirmative action. Equality is closely connected to equity, i.e., even-handed treatment. Equity demands like Notes cases to be treated alike. Relevantly similar cases are to be treated in similar ways. 1.4.5 Overall Results (Communitarian Justice) There is the other kind of theory of Justice that does not take either merit or need into account. It takes into account the overall results. John Rawls’ theory belongs to this category. In his book A Theory of Justice he argues that inequalities in the allocation of goods are permissible if and only if those inequalities work to the benefit of the least well-off members of society. In other words, a society having income inequality is just if and only if that inequality benefitted the least advantaged members of that society. For example, a professor’s higher salary can be just if and only if it, directly or indirectly, benefits, so to say, the bricklayer. On the other hand, scholars like Nozick argue in favour of traditional meaning of Justice: as respect for law and entitlements. Entitlements mean established/ conventional rights. According to this theory, individuals have natural rights, especially the right to property. These entitlements accrue to the individuals because they are human beings. Nozick says nobody, not even the state, can override these entitlements. Putting simply, Nozick is arguing against excessive taxation imposed by the (welfare) state. He thinks that taxation interferes with rights of the individual to dispose of the income as she or he thinks fit. Taxation is an instance of curtailment of liberty of the individual. Justice is a dynamic concept. It has been undergoing changes from the ancient times till today. So no final word can be said about Justice. Justice is concept which keeps evolving. 1.4.6. Justice and its Relationship with Liberty and Equality The nineteenth century scholars like Lord Acton and Alexis de Tocqueville considered liberty and equality as incompatible. They thought that too much of stress on equality would lead to the dilution of liberty. Many later scholars also agreed with them. Progressive taxation by the welfare state was considered violative of the liberty of the propertied people. However, it remained a fact that proceeds of tax went towards financing the programmes to ameliorate the plight of the poor, the unemployed, the needy, the handicapped and the aged. A largely egalitarian society was made possible by these programmes. In times of conflict like this, prevailing notion of Justice decides what should be the right mix of liberty and equality. Thus freedom and equality are two aspects of Justice. The ultimate objective of both freedom and equality is Justice. Intext Questions 1.4 Fill in the blanks : (a) According to........................ Justice is the reconciler of political values (Plato, Aristotle, Barker). 10 Meaning and Scope of Political Science MODULE - 1 (b) Equality does not mean........................ (identity of treatment, equality of opportunity). Individual and the State (c) Justice for Nozick meant respect for........................ (entitlements, duties, need). (d) According to Rawls, inequality is permissible if and only if it benefits the........................ (the richest, middle class, least well-off). (e) Equality means........................ (absence of special privileges, identity of rewards, freedom). Notes What You Have Learnt 1. The ancient Greeks thought of Political Science as Political Philosophy. They laid stress on the ethical aspects of Politics. During the Middle Ages, Political Science became a branch of the Church, subordinating political authority to the authority of the Church. 2. In modern times, Political Science acquired a realistic and secular approach. As a result of the emergence of capitalism following the Industrial Revolution, the role of the State underwent considerable changes. 3. The subject of Political Science became a specialized science of the state. It studied about different forms of government and its organs like Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. 4. Laski stated that the study of Political Science concerned itself with the life of men or women in relation to organized states. 5. In the twentieth century, the behavioural approach shifted the focus of study from political institutions to their functions and to the study of political activities and behaviour of men and women. 6. The scope of Political Science includes the study of the role of the State, functions of Government and its relationship with citizens. 7. Political Science is distinct from Politics. While the former deals with the study of Politics, the latter refers to the problems of man and woman which interact with political power and conflict with each other. 8. Power is the ability to control others. It is the capacity to get things done as one would like others to do. Power in combination with legitimacy is called authority. 9. Generally, freedom is defined as absence of restraints in the behavior of a person. But positive freedom means self-realization and that individual should be free to act only to the extent that others’ freedom is not curtailed. Law protects freedom. Generally it is considered that there is Justice in society if it rewards people on the basis of merit without being oblivious of the needs of the worst-off. Further, freedom and equality are considered important pillars of Justice. Terminal Exercises 1. Explain the meaning of Political Science. 11 MODULE - 1 Meaning and Scope of Political Science Individual and the State 2. Write a note on the growth of the Discipline of Political Science. 3. Describe the scope of Political Science in terms of role of the State and functions of government. 4. Distinguish between Political Science and Politics. 5. Write a note on the rights and the duties of an individual. 6. Define Liberty in their negative and positive dimensions. Notes 7. What do you mean by Equality of Opportunity ? 8. Explain the term Justice and bring out the different conceptions of it. Answers to Intext Questions 1.1 (a) empirical, normative (b) State, power (c) polis (d) Garner (e) Kaplan 1.2 (a) Aristotle (b) science (c) Marxists (e) craftiness 1.3 (a) Machiavelli (b) Latin (c) Early (d) arm (e) some (f) vigilance 1.4 (a) Barker (b) identity of treatment 12 Meaning and Scope of Political Science MODULE - 1 (c) entitlements Individual and the State (d) least well-off (e) absence of special privileges Hints of Terminal Exercises 1. Refer to Section 1.1 and 1.1.1. Notes 2. Refer to Section 1.1.2 3. Refer to Section 1.3.1 4. Refer to Section 1.2 5. Refer to Section 1.3.2 6. Refer to Section 1.3.3 7. Refer to Section 1.4.4 8. Refer to Section 1.4 13 MODULE - 1 Political Science Individual and the State 2 Notes NATION AND STATE The evolution of modern nation state as a political organization took a long period of time. In ancient times human beings lived in communities. The obvious fact is that human beings are social animals and they cannot live in isolation. They belong to society. The collective life that they need assumes certain rules and regulations and gradually such a group life has led to the formation of political communities and the emergence of State. In its earlier form, the State was very simple in its organisation. From that simple organisation it has evolved and grown into the modern complex organization. Over the years it has acquired different forms and has become a reality found everywhere. In this lesson you will read about the concepts of nation, nationality and state. You will also learn about the elements of State. Objectives After studying this lesson, you will be able to l explain the concept of nation and nationality; l make a distinction between nation and nationality; l describe the elements of nationality; l identify the State as a political entity with sovereign power; l explain elements of the State. 2.1 Nation And Nationality The term nationality is derived from the Latin word natus, which means ‘to be born’. Therefore in its derivative term, nationality means belonging to the same racial stock or being related by birth or having blood relationship. This understanding of nationality is however misleading. There is today not a single nation in the world whose people belong to the same racial stock. Every nation has people of mixed racial background. It is very difficult to find racial purity because of increased racial combinations due to immigrations, inter-caste and inter-racial marriages. The development of nationality is definitely more of 14 Nation and State MODULE - 1 a psychological phenomenon neither political nor racial. In the words of J.W. Garner, Individual and the State nationality is a culturally homogeneous group that is at once conscious of its unity. According to Ramsay Muir, a nation may be defined as a body of people who feel themselves to be naturally linked together by certain affinities, which are so strong for them to live together, they are dissatisfied when disunited and cannot tolerate subjection to people who do not share the same ties. The development of nationality is definitely psychological phenomenon or as Hayes says, it is primarily cultural, conscious of unity. Notes 2.2 Distinction between Nation and Nationality The distinction between the nation and nationality is a thin one. This is more so because both the terms are derived from the same word. Some even consider them as interchangeable. But certainly there are differences between the two, which can be summed up as follows: 1. Nationality is a cultural term. It is a psychological, which is generated in a group of people having geographical unity and who belong to a common race, common history, religion, customs and traditions, economic interests and common hopes and aspirations. The people of a nationality must have a sense of unity. They must feel that they have something in common which differentiates them from other people. But nation is a people organised; a people united. What unites people in a nation are feelings of oneness. Nation gives an idea of an organisation; nationality gives an idea of sentiment. 2. Nationality is basically a cultural term; it is ‘political’ only incidentally as Hayes tells us. Nation is basically a political term, cultural only incidentally. This, however, does not mean that nationality is not political and nation is not cultural/concepts. 3. The evolution of the state has shown that there may be states with more than one nationalities and there may be nationalities spread over more than one states. The former USSR, as a state, had a considerable number of nationalities; the Korean nationality, to take another example, is spread over two states. Thus a state may or may not co-exit with nationality. 4. Nation and nationality are distinct terms in yet another sense. Some use the term ‘nationality’ to signify the principle or characteristic that creates a nation. This means that nationality preceds nation. In terms of origin, therefore, they are not at par. The Jewish nationality created the Jewish nation. 5. If we use the term ‘nation’ to mean a population of the same race, language and tradition, inhabiting the same territory and constituting the larger part of its population, we may, and in fact, have the Britishers as the nation. If on the other hand, we use the term ‘nationality’ to mean one of the several distinct ethnic groups scattered over an area and forming but a comparatively a smaller part of its population, we may, and in fact, have the Welsh nationality; the latter as a nationality becomes a part of the British nation. Intext Question 2.1 Fill in the blanks: 1. In its derivative term nationality means belonging to the _____ racial stock 15 MODULE - 1 Political Science Individual and the State 2. It is very difficult to find _____________ __________because of increased fusion of blood due to immigrations, inter-caste and inter-racial marriages. 3. The development of nationality is definitely a __________and __________ phenomenon. 4. Nationality is derived from the Latin word________. Notes 2.3 Elements of Nationality It is very difficult to define nationality in terms of its elements. It is a psychological concept or a subjective idea and therefore it is impossible to find out any common quality or definite interest, which is everywhere associated with nationality. We cannot say with certainty that this particular element makes for a separate nationality. We can at best list out some factors, which are as follows: 2.3.1 Common Geography People living in a common territory constitute one of the major elements of nationality. This is because such a people are likely to develop a common culture. This is also the reason why the countries are called as motherland or fatherland. We also see an identity of people with their country. Thus people of Denmark are called the Danes, France as the French, India as the Indians, America as the Americans and so on. But this point should not be stretched too far. Common territory is not an absolutely essential element of nationality. The Jews were scattered all over the world before the creation of Israel. They had no common territory, yet they constituted a strong nationality. Similarly, the Poles were denied their homeland for a long time before 1919 but they were a nationality. 2.3.2 Common Race Common race denotes the idea that a people belonging to a particular nationality belong to one group or they have a social unity. Some people suggest that purity of race makes a nationality. This is scientifically wrong. As pointed above, today due to immigrations and intercaste marriages, purity of race has become almost an impossibility. Today this phenomenon has become a myth. But certainly the belief that one belongs to the same race, real or fictitious, has contributed to the idea of nationality. The idea of a common race is also important because it strengthens common language, common traditions and common culture. 2.3.3 Common language A common language is a medium of communication, which enables the people to express their ideas. It is the basis of all the other elements of nationality. A common language not only means a common literature but also a common heritage of historical traditions. Common historical experiences and common traditions as reflected in the literature bind together members of a nationality by certain bonds. A common language creates a cohesive society. Most of the European nations developed out of a common language as England from the English language, France from the French language or Spain from the Spanish language. But this factor is not a necessary one. Today we find many bi-lingual or multi- lingual nationalities. Further, the English language is a global language which is spoken in all parts of the world and it cannot be associated only with England. 16 Nation and State MODULE - 1 2.3.4 Common religion Individual and the State Religion is also an important element of nationality. A common religion is a strong incentive to national feeling. England fought against the Spanish Armada largely due to her determination to defend Protestantism. However this factor is also not a necessary one. In fact in modern times, nationalities tend to become multi-religious and under such circumstances religion is regarded as a private affair of individual and secularism prevails in the collective life. Further religion cannot always be a cementing factor. The two wings Notes of Pakistan fell apart and Bangladesh was created despite the common religious affinity. Religion, rather, works negatively as a divisive factor in the Indian Sub-Continent, when Pakistan came into existence due to the partition of India. 2.3.5 Common political framework The existence of a common political framework or a State, whether in the past or present, is another element of nationality. People living in a State are knit together through the laws. Living under one common state creates a sense of unity. Various crises like wars further develop the feelings of patriotism. In fact the government also encourages this idea through various methods. As Gilchrist aptly observes that “a nationality lives either because it has been a nation, with its own territory and State or, because it wishes to become a nation with its own territory and State.” 2.3.6 Economic factor The economic activities bring people closer. It has been argued that historically, nationality emerged as a result of fusion of various tribes and clans. One cannot think of nationality in a primitive society. The Marxists also believe that nationality emerged due to economic factors. According to them nationality had no place in a slave owning or a feudal society and it emerged due to the emergence of capitalist mode of production. Undoubtedly economic factor is an important element of nationality. It is also an important factor in the maintenance of nationality. But on its own single-handedly, it cannot create a nationality. 2.3.7 Common subjugation Common subjugation has been a dominant factor in the rise of national movements in the Afro-Asian countries. They were invaded by the various European imperialist powers. The feelings of nationality arose due to common subjugation as it created a feeling of oneness among the people. In India, a common Indian nationality arose due to the common colonial exploitation. 2.3.8 Common political aspirations The will to be a nation is regarded by some as the principal factor of nationality. Before the First World War, the Poles always wanted Poland. Similarly there were many minorities living in Europe, which desired a separate nationhood. In 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference, this was accepted in the principle of self-determination. While all the factors mentioned above help in the growth of nationality, none of them is absolutely essential. In fact nationality is a subjective sentiment which cannot be defined in terms of any objective factor. The presence or absence of any one or more of these factors does not imply the presence or absence of the spirit of nationality. 17 MODULE - 1 Political Science Individual and the State Intext Questions 2.2 Fill in the blanks: 1. People living in a common territory are likely to develop a common ____________. 2. Purity of race is __________ a wrong idea. 3. Most of the European nations developed out of a common __________. Notes 4. The common order fosters the sense of ____________. 5. Historically, nationality emerged as a result of _________the various tribes and clans. 6. In India, a common Indian nationality arose due to the common _______ ________. 2.4 The State The term ‘State’ is central to the study of Political Science. But it is wrongly used as synonym for nation, society, government etc. The term ‘state’ is also used as State management, State aid and so on. Also as the States of Indian union or the fifty States that make the United States of America. But in Political Science, we use this term differently; it has a more specific meaning. Some of the definitions of the concept of State are as follows: “The State is the politically organized people of a definite territory” -Bluntschli State is “a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent, or nearly so, of external control, and possessing an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.” –Garner State is “a territorial society divided into governments and subjects, whether individuals or associations of individuals, whose relationships are determined by the exercise of this supreme coercive power.” –Laski State “is a people organized for law within a definite territory”. –Woodrow Wilson “The State is a concept of political science, and a moral reality which exists where a number of people, living on a definite territory, are unified under a government which in internal matters is the organ of expressing their sovereignty, and in external matters is independent of other governments.” –Gilchrist Human beings are social animals and cannot live alone. When people live together, they fulfill their socials needs. But everybody is not good and kind. There are all sorts of men and women, who exhibit various emotions such as pride, jealousy, greed, selfishness and so on. According to Burke, “Society requires not only the passions of individuals should be 18 Nation and State MODULE - 1 subjected, but that even in the mass and body as in the individuals the inclination of men Individual and the State should be thwarted, their will controlled and their passions brought into subjection.” The best is to control human perversity through means of political authority. Therefore people are bound by rules of common behaviour. If these are broken then they can be punished. Society fulfills people’s need for companionship; the state solves the problem created by this companionship. The state exists for the sake of good life. It is an essential and natural institution and as Aristotle said, “The State comes into existence originating in the bare needs of life and Notes continues its existence for the sake of good life.” It is only within a state that an individual can rise to his or her ability. If there is no authority, no organisation and no rules, then society cannot be held together. The state has existed where human beings have lived in an organized society. The structure of the state has evolved gradually over a long period of time, from a simple to a complex organisation that we have today. The essence of state is in its monopoly of coercive power. It has a right to demand obedience from the people. However, the Marxists believe that state is a class organisation, which has been created by the propertied class to oppress and exploit the poor. They refuse to believe that the state is a natural institution. To them the propertied class created the state and it has always belonged to them only. Thus, the state is just a means of exploitation. Therefore, they visualize a situation of classless society or communism in which there will not be any need of the state. State will, thus, wither away. Intext Questions 2.3 Fill in the blanks: 1. The State exists for the sake of ____________life. 2. The essence of State is in its monopoly of__________ __________. 3. The State has a right to demand ______________from the people. 4. According to the Marxists, State is a __________ ____________. 5. In a classless society, there is no__________. 2.5 Elements of The State As pointed above, the state possesses four essential elements. These are: 2.5.1 Population The State is a human institution. It is the people who make a State. Antarctica is not a State as is it is without any human population. The population must be able to sustain a state. But the question is; how much should be the population? Plato’s and Aristotle’s ideals were the Greek City – States of Athens and Sparta. Plato fixed the number of people in an ideal state at 5040. Aristotle laid down a general principle 19 MODULE - 1 Political Science Individual and the State that the state should neither be large nor small; it should be large enough to be self- sufficing and small enough to be well-governed. Rousseau put the number at 10,000.But it is difficult to fix the size of the people of a state. In modern times we have India and China which have huge population and countries like San Marino with a very small population. Countries like former Soviet Union gave incentives to mother of large families. In India, over-population is a big problem while China has enforced a one-child norm. Dictators like Mussolini had openly encouraged large population of the state. Notes So no limit-either theoretical or practical-can be put on population. But it must be enough to constitute governing and governed classes, sufficient to support a political organization. The population should be in proportion to the available land and resources. It should be remembered that the differences in the size of population, other things remaining the same, does not make any difference in the nature of State. The quality of the population is also important. A state requires healthy, intelligent and disciplined citizens. They should be possessed with qualities of vitality. The composition of population is also very important. A state with a homogenous people can be governed easily. 2.5.2 Territory Just as every person belongs to a state, so does every square yard of earth. There is no state without a fixed territory. Living together on a common land binds people together. Love for the territory inculcates the spirit of patriotism. Some call their countries as fatherland and some call it motherland. But there is a definite attachment with one’s territory. The territory has to be definite because it ensures exercise of political authority. Mobile tribals had some sort of political authority but they did not constitute a State because they lacked a fixed land. The Jews were living in different countries and they became State only with the creation of Israel, which had a definite territory. Without a fixed territory it would be difficult to conduct external relations. It is essential for the identification if one state attempts to conquer the territory of another. The territory may be small or large. But the state has to have a definite land. It may be as small as San Marino, which has an area of 62 Square kilometers, or it may be as large as India, USA, Russia or China. The size of a state influences the form of government. For example, smaller states can have a unitary form of government but for the large states like India and the USA, the federal system is relatively suitable. The quality of land is also very important. If the land is rich in minerals and natural resources, it will make the state economically powerful. It should be able to provide enough food for its people. The States of West Asia were insignificant but they acquired prominence after the discovery of oil. Large territory of a State gives it strategic and military advantage during the times of war. Mostly the territory of a state is contiguous and compact though there are exceptions also. Before the creation of Bangladesh, the two wings of Pakistan were miles apart. Hawaii and Alaska are far away from the main territory of USA. Land, water and airspace comprise the territory of the state. The sovereignty of a state is exercised over its land, its rivers, mountains and plains and airspace above the land. The sea up to a certain limit from the land border is also a part of the territory of a State. 20 Nation and State MODULE - 1 2.5.3 Government Individual and the State The purpose for which people live together cannot be realized unless they are properly organized and accept certain rules of conduct. The agency created to enforce rules of conduct and ensure obedience is called government. Government is also the focus of the common purpose of the people occupying the definite territory. It is through this medium that common policies are determined, common affairs regulated and common interests promoted. Without a government the people will lack cohesion and means of collective action. There would be groups, parties and warring associations and conditions of wars Notes and chaos. So there is a need for common authority and order where people live. This is the pre-requisite of human life. The state cannot and does not exist without a government, no matter what form a government may assume. The government is a must, though it may take any form. It may have a monarchy like Bhutan or republic as in India. It may have a parliamentary form of government like India and Great Britain or a presidential form of government as in the United States of America. 2.5.4 Sovereignty A people inhabiting a definite portion of territory and having a government do not constitute a state so long as they do not possess sovereignty. India before 15 August 1947 had all the other elements of the state but it lacked sovereignty and therefore it was not a State.Sovereignty is the supreme power by which the state commands and exerts political obedience from its people. A state must be internally supreme and free from external control. Thus sovereignty has two aspects, internal and external. Internal sovereignty is the state’s monopoly of authority inside its boundaries. This authority cannot be shared with any other state. The state is independent and its will is unaffected by the will of any other external authority. Therefore every state must have a population, a definite territory, a duly established government and sovereignty. The absence of any of these elements deprives it the status of statehood. So the term generally used for the 28 provinces of Indian Republic at times creates confusion and as is the case of ‘50 States’ in the United States of America. Intext Questions 2.4 Fill in the blanks: 1. The four elements of State are________, _________,________and __________. 2. Plato fixed the number of persons of the State at _____________ and Rousseau at _____________. 3. Love for the country inculcates the spirit of_____________. 4. __________, ___________ and_______________ comprises the territory of the State. 5. A unitary form of government is good for a small State and a _____ ______is ideal for big States. 6. The agency created to enforce rules of conduct is called________. 7. Sovereignty has two aspects_________ and ____________. 21 MODULE - 1 Political Science Individual and the State What You Have Learnt You have understood the meaning of nation, nationality and the state. You also know that the terms nation and nationality are derivative of Latin word natus and in its derivative term nationality means belonging to the same racial stock or being related by birth or having blood relationship. You have understood the differences between nation and nationality. You know now there are many elements of nationality but no single element or Notes a combination of elements is indispensable. The presence or absence of any one or more of the elements does not imply the presence or absence of a spirit of nationality. You also know that state is a political organisation. It establishes order in the society. But the Marxists believe that state is a class organisation. You have also understood the four elements of State-population, territory, government and sovereignty. Terminal Exercises Define the following terms: 1. (a) Nation (b) State (c) Government 2. Name the elements which help the formation of nationality and explain any two of them? 3. What is the State? Briefly explain the elements of the State. 4. Are the following States? Give reasons for your answer in a single line. (a) India (b) United Nations (c) Bihar (d) United States of America Answers To Intext Questions 2.1 1. Same 2. racial purity 3. psychological 4. Natus 2.2 1. Culture 2. Scientifically 3. language 4. unity 5. fusion 6. colonial exploitation 22 Nation and State MODULE - 1 2.3 Individual and the State 1. good 2. coercive power 3. obedience 4. Class organisation Notes 5. state 2.4 1. Territory, population, government and sovereignty. 2. 5040,10000 3. Patriotism 4. Land, water and airspace 5. federal system 6. government 7. internal, external Hints of Terminal Exercises 1. (a) Refer to section 2.1 (b) Refer to section 2.4 (c) Refer to section 2.5.3 2. Refer to section 2.3 3 Refer to section 2.4 4. (a) Yes, because it has all the four elements of a State. (b) No, because United Nations lacks two elements of a State-territory and sovereignty (c) No, because it does not have sovereignty. (d) Yes, because it has all the elements of a State. 23 MODULE - 1 Political Science Individual and the State 3 Notes DISTINCTION BETWEEN SOCIETY, NATION, STATE AND GOVERNMENT You have studied about the concept of the state, its elements, and concepts such as nation, nationality and the distinction between nation and nationality in the last lesson. You have also known, in the previous chapters, the meaning of Political Science and Politics and what makes the two distinct from each other. In this lesson you would know about some other concepts, especially about ‘society’, ‘government,’ and ‘other associations’ and thereafter distinction between them. Objectives After studying this lesson, you will be able to l know the meaning of society, government and other associations; l distinguish between state and society; l distinguish between state and other associations; l distinguish between state and government; l distinguish between state and nation. 3.1 State and Society You have known the meaning of the state in the last chapter. It is, as you know, a political society with its four elements: population, fixed (definite) territory, government and sovereignty. You also know that it acts through law and endowed to this end with coercive power, maintains within a community the universal external conditions of social order. Society, as a concept, is both an organization as well as a system of social relationships. It is an organization, a social organization encompassing a web of social relationships. 24 Distinction between Society, Nation, State and Government MODULE - 1 Individual and the State 3.2 Distinction between State and Society We must differentiate between state and society otherwise we will be justifying state interference in all aspects of human life, thereby affecting human liberty. Considering the two as interchangeable terms lead to the growth of deceptive social and political theories. Maclver rightly warns: “To identity the social (i.e. the society) with the political (i.e. the state) is to be guilty of the grossest of all confusions which completely bars any understanding of either society or the state.” In fact, the ancient Greek philosophers (Socrates, Plato and Notes Aristotle) did not make distinction between the state and society. For them, polis was both the city, i.e. the society and the state. The idealists such as Rousseau, a French political philosopher of the 18th century, also regarded the two as one. The distinction between the state and the society can be explained as under: (a) Strictly speaking, the state is a political organization; it is society politically organized. Society, on the other hand, is a social organization and has within it, all types of associations (social, economic, religious, political, cultural and the like). Society is both broader as well as narrower than the state. It is broader when it is used to describe the whole community of mankind; it is narrower when it is used to describe a small group of a village. (b) In terms of origin, society is prior to the state. Society may be said to have been born the day the human life must have begun. But the state did not begin with the society; it must have started at a later stage of social development. Human beings are social being first and then political beings. (c) Being prior to the state, society is clearly a natural and therefore, an instinctive institution. The state, on the other hand, is artificial, a created institution; its was made when it was needed. That is one reason that we see the state as a formal and legal organization with its body, its structure. The society, too, is a body, an organization; it is not as formal an organization as the state is. (d) The state exists for the society in the same way as a means exists for its end. The state is, therefore, a means and the society is an end. It is always the means that exists for the end; the end never exists for the means. (e) The state is sovereign: no sovereignty means no state; the society is not sovereign; it exists without being sovereign. As sovereign, the state is supreme over all other organizations, institutions and individuals within its boundaries; as sovereign, the state is independent of all other like states; sovereignity gives the state a separate and independent existence. (f) The state has to have a definite territory. You have read that definite territory is an essential element of the state. It is, therefore, a territorial organization in so far as it stays on the definite portion of territory: its territorial boundaries are fixed, definite and permanent. Society does have a territory but its territory is not permanent; its place of operation may extend or may get limited. The Islamic society, for example, transcends national boundaries. So does the Free Mason Brotherhood. (g) The state has general rules of conduct called the laws; the society, too, has general rules of conduct but they are called rituals, norms, habits and the like. Laws of the state are written, definite and clear; those of the society, are unwritten, indefinite and vague. 25 MODULE - 1 Political Science Individual and the State (h) The state’s laws have a binding sanction. The violation of the laws of the state is followed by punishment: physical or otherwise or both. The rules of the society, if violated, lead to social boycott, i.e. social exclusion. The area of the state, we may say, is the area of that of taking action in case of disobedience; it has power is force. The area of society, on the other hand, is the area of voluntary cooperation and its power is goodwill; its method is its flexibility. Inspite of these distinctions, society and state are closely inter-connected and inter- Notes dependent. Social conduct and the structure of the society must conform to the laws of the state. The state, on the other hand, must be responsive to the will of the society. Intext Questions 3.1 Fill in the blanks : 1. Polis, for the ancient Greeks, was both the city and the......................... 2. Society, in terms of origin, is........................ to the state. 3. Society being instinctive is a........................ organization, the state, being mechanical is an........................ organization. 4. The state exists to act as a........................ of society. 5. The society provides an.............................. to the means of the state. 6. The area of society is........................ cooperation; the area of the state is........................ action. 3.3 State and other Associations An association is an organized group of people which seeks to achieve some specific objectives through joint efforts. An association has, therefore, three features: (a) organization of the people (b) some common/ specific objectives (c) joint efforts. So understood, family is an association. Its people are organized through ties of blood; all the members of the family work together to attain objects common to the family. The other examples of the association are Cricket Club, the Church, the Red Cross Society, the Residents’ Welfare Association and the like. Associations make up the society. The state is also an association which exists, along with other associations in the society. But the state as an association is different from other associations. These differences may be explained as under: (a) All the associations, including even the state, consist of people. But while the membership of the state is compulsory, that of the other associations is voluntary. A person has to be a member of a state: no person, as he/ she becomes adult, is a member of two states; his/ her membership of the state is a matter of compulsion. The membership of an association, say a Church, Cricket Club, the Red Cross Society 26 Distinction between Society, Nation, State and Government MODULE - 1 is voluntary i.e. it depends on the will of the person: a person may join an association Individual and the State or may not. (b) A person is a member of one state at one time; he/ she can not be a member of two or three states at the same time. But a person may be, a member of numerous associations at the same time. X is a member of the Cricket Club, the Church and the Residents Welfare Association – all at the same time. (c) All associations function on territory. But while for a state as an association, territory Notes has to be definite, the other associations do not have permanent territory. The other associations must have place to conduct their activities but that place need not be definite: that place may be Green Avenue today, Blue Avenue the next month. The state’s territory does not change, it is fixed for all times. (d) All associations, including the state, exist to perform and achieve certain ends. While for the state, the purpose is always general (maintenance of law and order for example) for the other associations, the purpose is usually specific, particular. The Cricket Association exists for playing cricket, a specific and a particular purpose. We can say that the sphere of state’s activity is all inclusive while that of any other associations, is always limited. (e) The character of the state is national. The character of other associations may be local, provincial, national and even international (The Indian National Congress, for example, is a national political party, and therefore it is of national character). The Residents’ Welfare Association is local in character; the Government Teachers Association of Haryana is a provincial association; the United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is international in character. (f) The other associations differ from the state in so far as they are not sovereigns while the state is. The other associations may be and actually always are autonomous but they have to work within the rules of the state. The state is sovereign because it is supreme over all other associations and is independent of all other states. (g) The violation of the state’s laws is accompanied by punishment like imprisonment. No other association has the power to punish its members physically. At best they can only employ pressure or expel a defiant member. The relationship between the state and other associations is significant in many respects. The other associations help the state reduce its burden; they perform functions even greater than those of the state; some of them, (for example, the family, friendship groups, church) have been in existence much before the state. The state need not take away their powers; it need not dominate them. What at best, the state can do and in fact, should do is that it should supervise their activities; should co-ordinate their activities, and should see that the other associations function properly within their spheres. Important as these other associations are in their internal domains and in their functions, they need not override the authority of the state, and should never challenge the state’s sovereignty. The state, on the otherhand, need to ensure the other associations their autonomy. 27 MODULE - 1 Political Science Individual and the State Intext Questions 3.2 Choose the correct answer from the words given in the brackets: 1. The features of an association are (a) organized group of people (b)......................... interests, and (c) joint efforts. (common, particular) 2. The membership of the state is......................................... (voluntary, compulsory) Notes 3. Family, as an association, is......................... to the state. (prior, later) 4. The other associations do not possess......................... the state does. (sovereignty, population, fixed territory) 3.4 State and Government The government, as you know, is one element of the state. It is the agency through which laws are made, enforced and those who violate laws, are punished. It is the visible manifestation of state authority. It consists of all the persons, institutions and agencies through which the will of the state is expressed and carried out. Though the state speaks through the government, it is proper to differentiate between the two. (a) The state has authority inherent in itself whereas the government has no inherent powers. The government gets its structure, authority and power from the Constitution of the State. The Constitution being the collection of basic rules, is the fundamental law according to which the government of a state is organized. (b) The state is a larger entity that includes all the citizens; the government is, relatively a smaller unit that includes only those who are employed to perform its functions. We are all citizens of the state, but we are all not functionaries of the government. Garner writes: “The government is an essential organ or agency of the state but it is no more than the state itself than the board of directors of a corporation is itself the corporation.” (c) The idea of state is quite abstract. The government is the concretization of the idea of the state. We see the government, not the state. (d) The state is a near permanent institution; it is so because it does not die unless it is attacked and made a part of the other state. The government is temporary; it is so because it may change: today’s rulers may not be tomorrow’s rulers. To put it the other way, the state may be the same everywhere whereas, the government may vary from one state to another. India, the United States, Great Britain and France for example, are all states. But the governments which work in these states may not be of the same type. In India and Great Britian there is a parliamentary government, whereas in the United States of America there is presidential government. Parliamentary Government is a system of government where the legislative organ of the government is closely related to its executive organ; the cabinet is taken from the legislature and is responsible to it, especially to the lower house of the legislature. 28 Distinction between Society, Nation, State and Government MODULE - 1 Presidential government is a system of government where the legislative Individual and the State organ of the government is independent of the executive organ; the executive exists separately from the legislature and is not responsible to it. (e) The sovereign powers lay with the state; it is the state which is sovereign. The government only exercises power. The government’s powers are delegated and derivative; the state’s powers are real and original. (f) The opposition to the state is different from the opposition of the government. We Notes criticize the government; we never condemn the state. The criticism of the state is a revolt; the criticism of the government is not a rebellion. We would never hear from an Indian that India is bad; but we would usually hear that the policies of the Indian Government headed by a political party or a multitude of political parties are bad. It is a crime to condemn one’s state; it is a duty, in fact it is a right to criticise one’s government. (g) The government is merely an element of the state. Accordingly, it is one part of the state. It is a part of the whole (of the state). As a part, the government is not greater than the whole. When we talk of the state, we talk of the population, the definite territory, the government and sovereignty. But when we talk of the government, we talk of one part, one element of the state. (h) The state’s territory is always definite. It remains unchanged. Its boundaries remain where they are. The government’s territory is never permanent. Muhammad Tughlaq had changed his capital to a place called Daulatabad. Many governments had changed their capitals to London during the World War II, fearing the German attack. Intext Questions 3.3 Answer the following questions. Give one word only: 1. Which organ of the government makes laws? 2. Which organ of the government enforces laws? 3. With whom does sovereignty lay? 4. Through which organ does the state express its will? 5. If the state is an abstraction, what is its concrete form? 3.5 State and Nation By nation, as you know, we mean a historically constituted stable community of people formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life and physhological make up manifested in a common culture. Nation, Bluntschilli says, is “a union of masses of men bound together specially by language and customs into common civilization which gives them a sense of unity”. A nation is a culturally homogeneous social group. NATION connotes the concept of people who are conscious of their historical and cultural background and who wish to perpetuate this background politically, i.e. within the framework of a state. 29 MODULE - 1 Political Science Individual and the State The state, as we know, is a people organized for law within a definite territory; it is always sovereign-supreme internally and independent externally. The nation is a group of people psychologically bound together while sharing common joys and sorrows. The distinction between state and nation

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