Imperialism PDF

INTRODUCTION TO IMPERIALISM Imperialism - “The domination by one country of the political, economic, and cultural life of another country or region Direct - sending officials and soldiers from the imperial country to administer (manage) their colonies (The French) Indirect - Using Sultans, Cheifs,...

INTRODUCTION TO IMPERIALISM Imperialism - “The domination by one country of the political, economic, and cultural life of another country or region Direct - sending officials and soldiers from the imperial country to administer (manage) their colonies (The French) Indirect - Using Sultans, Cheifs, or other local rulers. Then encouraging the children of the ruling class to get an education in the imperial country to make a new “Westernized” nation and generation of leaders (The British) Protectorate - local rulers were left in place but leaders had to follow European advisors on trade, or missionary activity Sphere of Influence - An era in which an outside power claims exclusive investment or trade Economic Motives: Political Motives: Industrialized Countries needed: -​ A desire for power, gaining colonies -​ Markets -​ To build nationalism, the idea that -​ Raw Materials everyone around the world knows you -​ Land -​ Building military bases -​ Natives for Cheap Labor Technological Motives: Humanitarian/Social Motives: Europeans had better technology such as -​ Spreading Religion machine guns and warships, They also -​ Ending Slave Trade had better medical care so they could live -​ Educating people of other cultures longer and had better health if injured or -​ Spreading Social Darwinism, that sick in the harsh climates of Europeans are superior and need to non-colonized countries. educate other cultures. Weaknesses of the Non-Western Nations: -​ Other strong empires like the Ottoman Empire, Mughal India, and Qing Dynasty in China were in decline -​ In Africa, civil wars and the effects of the lave trade damaged African empires, kingdoms, and cities making them vulnerable to being colonized. Western Nations’ Advantages: -​ European powers had strong economies, well-organized governments, powerful armies and navies, better technology, etc. -​ Better medical knowledge helped significantly, with new medicine they could survive deadly tropic diseases. SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA AND THE BERLIN CONFERENCE For a long time, outsiders viewed Africa with curiosity, awe, and greed. Foreign invasions were prevented for a long time due to Africa's geography, but because of its size, surface features, climate, resources, and strategic importance, it became a prime candidate for conquest by ambitious European empires. Although Africa is physically remote from the power centers of Europe, North America, and Asia, it is surrounded by water and can therefore be reached easily from the other continents. This meant that the Europeans needed to establish rules for dealing with one another if they were to avoid constant bloodshed and competition for African resources. The Berlin Conference established those ground rules. The exploration of Africa by Europeans started with the Portuguese sailing along Africa's coast in 1450. The success the Portuguese had on these voyages encouraged other European naval powers to explore Africa. By the mid-nineteenth century, Europeans had established colonies all along the African coast and competed for control. The push for overseas territories was made even more intense by the Industrial Revolution and the need for cheap labor, raw material, and new markets. The competition between Europeans often led to violent conflict. This violent conflict was terribly wasteful, so Portugal suggested the idea of an international conference that could settle the territorial disputes that arose from European activities in the Congo region. The Berlin Conference was held in Berlin between November 15, 1884 and November 26, 1885, under the leadership of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Although controlling the slave trade and promoting humanitarian idealism were promoted as the focus of the conference, the conference only passed empty resolutions about the ending of slave trade and providing for the welfare of Africa. In truth, the result of the Conference was a method of dividing the continent of Africa between the European powers. No Africans were present at the Berlin Conference. 14 Countries Represented at the Berlin Conference *France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal were the major players in the conference, controlling most of colonial Africa at the time* -Austria-Hungary -Netherlands -Belgium -Portugal -Denmark -Russia, Spain -France -Sweden-Norway (1814-1904 united) -Germany -Turkey -Great Britain -United States -Italy Article 34 of the Berlin Act states that any European nation that took possession of an African coast, or named themselves as “protectorate” of one, had to inform the signatory powers of the Berlin Act of this action. If this was not done then their claim would not be recognized. This article introduced the “spheres of influence” doctrine, the control of a coast also meant that they would control the hinterland to an almost unlimited distance. Article 35 determined that in order to occupy a coastal possession, the nation also had to prove that they controlled sufficient authority there to protect existing rights such as freedom of trade and transit. This was called the doctrine of “effective occupation” and it made the conquest of Africa a less bloody process. The Berlin Act was an important change in international affairs. It created the rules for “effective occupation” of conquered lands, ensuring that the division of Africa would take place without war among the European powers. Through the Berlin Act, the European powers justified dividing a continent among themselves without considering the desires of the indigenous peoples. While this appears extremely arrogant to us now, it seemed to them to be the obvious extension of their imperialism. The Berlin Conference is one of the most clear examples of the assumptions and preconceptions of this era, and its effects on Africa can still be seen today. The arbitrary boundaries the Europeans imposed often divided an ethnic group and also brought enemies under the same government causing strife that still exists today. Some positive effects are that some African cities became industrialized as Western influence spread resulting in modern buildings, roads, and modern technologies. Some negative effects are that the boundaries the Europeans created often divided an ethnic group and also brought enemies (sometimes religious) under the same government causing conflict that still exists today. Also imperialism led to the creation of new classes. For example, some Africans admired industrialization, Western culture, and education. Some became very wealthy and worked with Europeans who exploited the natural resources of their country. Other Africans, valued African traditions and rejected Western society, especially those that did not offer freedom and equality for nonwhites. Some African countries would fight colonialism and gain their independence in the 20th century and others would have to wait until after WWII (1945) until their country became decolonized from Western control.  In 1981, the evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote a book titled The Mismeasure of Man in which he critiques the concept of scientific racism. Throughout the 19th century many scientists interpreted the ideas of Darwin and the ideas of Herbert Spencer (survival of the fittest) to suggest that the European race was biological and culturally superior to others. As a result, these scientists conducted experiments and came to conclusions that, Gould suggests, are both scientifically inaccurate and rooted in prejudice. Significantly, many Europeans used scientific racism to justify the act of imperializing other regions of the world, especially Africa. Among other justifications like access to natural resources to feed Industrial technology and the desire to spread aspects of Western civilization including medicine, law, and Christianity, scientific racism was a significant motive and justification for imperialism. The Mismeasure of Man:​ AMERICAN POLYGENY AND CRANIOMETRY races must have been separate from the start (Morton, 1839. p. 88). But separate, as the Supreme Court once said, need not mean unequal. Morton therefore set out to establish relative rank on "objective" grounds. He surveyed the drawings of ancient Egypt and found that blacks are invariably depicted as menials-a sure sign that they have always played their appropriate biological role: "Negroes were numerous in Egypt, but their social position in ancient times was the same that it is now, that of servants-and slayes" (Morton, 1844, p. 158). (A curious argument, to be sure, for these blacks had been captured in warfare; sub-Saharan socie- ties depicted blacks as rulers.) But Morton's fame as a scientist rested upon his collection of skulls and their role in racial ranking. Since the cranial cavity of a human skull provides a faithful measure of the brain it once con- tained, Morton set out to rank races by the average sizes of their, brains, He filled the cranial cavity with sifted white mustard seed," poured the seed back into a graduated cylinder and read the skull's volume in cubic inches. Later on, he became dissatisfied with mus- tard seed because he could not obtain consistent results. The seeds did not pack well, for they were too light and still varied too much in size, despite sieving. Remeasurements of single skulls might dif- fer by more than 5 percent, or 4 cubic inches in skulls with an average capacity near 80 cubic inches. Consequently, he switched to one-eighth-inch-diameter lead shot "of the size called BB" and achieved consistent results that never varied by more than a single cubic inch for the same skull. Morton published three major works on the sizes of human skulls-his lavish, beautifully illustrated volume on American Indi- ans, the Crania Americana of 1839; his studies on skulls from the Egyptian tombs, the Crania Aegyptiaca of 1844; and the epitome of his entire collection in 1849. Each contained a table, summarizing his results on average skull volumes arranged by race. I have reproduced all three tables here (Tables 2.1 to 2.3). They represent the major contribution of American polygeny to debates about racial ranking. They outlived the theory of separate creations and were reprinted repeatedly during the nineteenth century as irre- futable, "hard" data on the mental worth of human races (see p.116). Needless to say, they matched every good Yankee's preju- dice-whites on top, Indians in the middle, and blacks on the bottom; and, among whites, Teutons and Anglo-Saxons on top, Jews in the middle, and Hindus on the bottom. Moreover, the pattern had been stable throughout recorded history, for whites had the same advantage over blacks in ancient Egypt. Status and access to power in Morton's America faithfully reflected biological merit. How could sentimentalists and egalitarians stand against the dictates of nature? Morton had provided clean, objective data based on the largest collection of skulls in the world. During the summer of 1977, I spent several weeks reanalyzing Morton's data. (Morton, the self-styled objectivist, published all his raw information. We can infer with little doubt how he moved from raw measurements to summary tables.) In short, and to put it bluntly, Morton's summaries are a patchwork of fudging and finagling in the clear interest of controlling a priori convictions. Yet this is the most intriguing aspect of the case find no evidence of conscious fraud; indeed, had Morton been a conscious fudger, he would not have published his data so openly. Conscious fraud is probably rare in science. It is also not very interesting, for it tells us little about the nature of scientific activity. AMERICAN POLYGENY AND CRANIOMETRY Table 2.3 Morton's final summary of cranial capacity by race Liars, if discovered, are excommunicated; scientists declare that their profession has properly policed itself, and they return to work, mythology unimpaired, and objectively vindicated. The prevalence of unconscious finagling, on the other hand, suggests a Conclusions THE MISMEASURE OF MAN Morton's finagling may be ordered into four general cate gories: 1. Favorable inconsistencies and shifting criteria: Morton often chose to include or delete large subsamples in order to match group averages with prior expectations. He included Inca Peruvi ans to decrease the Indian average, but deleted Hindus to raise the Caucasian mean. He also chose to present or not to calculate the averages of subsamples in striking accord with desired results. He made calculations for Caucasians to demonstrate the superiority of Teutons and Anglo-Saxons, but never presented data for Indian subsamples with equally high averages. 2. Subjectivity-directed toward prior prejudice: Morton's mea- sures with seed were sufficiently imprecise to permit a wide range of influence by subjective bias; later measures with shot, on the other hand, were repeatable, and presumably objective. In skulls measured by both methods, values for shot always exceed values for the light, poorly packing seed. But degrees of discrepancy match a priori assumptions: an average of 5.4, 2.2, and 1.8 cubic inches for blacks, Indians, and whites, respectively. In other words, blacks fared poorest and whites best when the results could be biased toward an expected result. 3. Procedural omissions that seem obvious to us: Morton was convinced that variation in skull size recorded differential, innate mental ability. He never considered alternate hypotheses, though his own data almost cried out for a different interpretation. Mor- ton never computed means by sex or stature, even when he recorded these data in his tabulations-as for Egyptian mummies. Had he computed the effect of stature, he would presumably have recognized that it explained all important differences in brain size among his groups. Negroids yielded a lower average than Cauca- sians among his Egyptian skulls because the negroid sample prob- ably contained a higher percentage of smaller-statured females, not because blacks are innately stupider. The Incas that he included in the Indian sample and the Hindus that he excluded from the Caucasian sample both possessed small brains as a consequence of small body size. Morton used an all-female sample of three Hottentots to support the stupidity of blacks, and an all-male sample of Englishmen to assert the superiority of whites. AMERICAN POLYGENY AND CRANIOMETRY 4. Miscalculations and convenient-emissions- All miscalcula- tions and omissions that I have detected are in Morton's favor. He rounded the negroid Egyptian average down to 79, rather than up to 80. He cited averages of go for Germans and Anglo-Saxons, but the correct values are 88 and 89. He excluded a large Chinese skull and an Eskimo subsample from his final tabulation for mongoloids, thus depressing their average below the Caucasian value. Yet through all this juggling, I detect no sign of fraud or con- scious manipulation. Morton made no attempt to cover his tracks and I must presume that he was unaware he had left them. He explained all his procedures and published all his raw data. All I can discern is an a priori conviction about racial ranking so pow- erful that it directed his tabulations along preestablished lines. Yet Morton was widely hailed as the objectivist of his age, the man who would rescue American science from the mire of unsupported speculation. The American school and slavery The leading American polygenists differed in their attitude toward slavery. Most were Northerners, and most favored some version of Squier's quip: "[I have a] precious poor opinion of nig- gers... a still poorer one of slavery" (in Stanton, 1960, p. 193). But the identification of blacks as a separate and unequal spe- cies had obvious appeal as an argument for slavery. Josiah Nott, a leading polygenist, encountered particularly receptive audiences in the South for his "lectures on niggerology" (as he called them). Morton's Crania Aegyptiaca received a warm welcome in the South (in Stanton, 1960, pp. 52-53). One supporter of slavery wrote that the South need no longer be "so much frightened" by "voices of Europe or of Northern America" in defending its "peculiar insti- tutions." When Morton died, the South's leading medical journal proclaimed (R. W. Gibbs, Charleston Medical Journal, 1851, quoted in Stanton, 1960, p. 144): "We of the South should consider him as our benefactor, for aiding most materially in giving to the negro his true position as an inferior race." Nonetheless, the polygenist argument did not occupy a primary place in the ideology of slavery in mid-nineteenth-century America-and for a good reason. For most Southerners, this excellent argument entailed too high a price. The polygenists had railed EACH IMPERIALIZED NATION China - Opium Wars:  Below is an excerpt from Peter Stearns book titled “World History in Documents” published in 2008. The title of the article is “The Opium War” and has been adapted from its original form. “China had no need for Western goods and distrusted the West and their culture. It was true that the West had little to offer China economically since they had its own pre industrial manufacturing and effective internal trade. The British wanted access to Chinese markets but China refused. However, an important factor in changing this was the greater strength of Britain and the West thanks to early industrialization. The West had more wealth which created a demand for Chinese luxury goods like silk and porcelain. With military force, the British forced China to open their country to foreign trade. The first Opium War happened between 1839 and 1842, ending in the Treaty of Nanjing. The second Opium War happened between 1856 and 1860. Overall, they were the beginning of many decades of Western intervention in China and also was the beginning of an explosion of European Imperialism worldwide. Between 1839 and 1842 the British navy, with the help of other Western troops, battled Chinese troops over the right to import Opium in China and trade freely. Before, China opposed Western demands to trade because they were suspicious of foreigners (“barbarians”) and foreign trade and they also knew the negative effects of opium. Opium was produced in India, a British colony, and the British wanted to trade it for silks and other Chinese goods. Overall, the British forced China to buy opium to disrupt their favorable balance of trade and to get access to Chinese goods, goods that China normally wouldn’t sell to the West.” Perspectives on Egypt: Korea was annexed by Japan Positives: ​ After Korea was colonized, Japan contributed to the modernization of Korea under their rule. These changes laid the foundation for Korea's future economic development. ​ Under Japanese rule, Korean legal and financial systems were formed, boosting company formation, establishing the Korean Yen as the gold standard, and expanding financial capital markets (Wan 2023). → As a result, business creation and the scale of Korea's financial market grew ​ Korea also adopted Japan's Commercial Code → The Japanese Commercial Code set business rules that made it easier for foreign entrepreneurs to start a business in Korea (Wan 2023). → This made it simpler for foreign entrepreneurs to invest, helping Korea to modernize its economy and attract international investment  ​ Under Japan's imperialism, Korean infrastructure developed through building national facilities like roads, railroads, and electrical power. Japan also built industrial sectors in the north, such as steel, chemicals, and hydroelectric power (Lee 2021). → Infrastructure such as railroads helped ship and export goods continuously from the local railroad terminals rather than sending them through the marketplaces → Korea was able to increase its revenue by exporting goods more effectively Negatives ​ Koreans were forced to be educated by the Japanese education system and were forced to be taught the Japanese language ​ Korean class in school replaced by Japanese class (Imagine ELA being replaced to Spanish) → Japanese education system: history of Japan (bias towards Japan), Japanese language, culture, etc. ​ Koreans were banned from learning their Korean language, "Hangul, " and banned from Korean education systems (Kwon 2010). (ex: learning, teaching, or even writing books about Korean history) ​ Even the teachers were forced to use the Japanese language instead of the Korean language ​ Anyone against the law was arrested and tortured brutally in jail by the Japanese → This is also one of the many reasons why the March 1st movement in 1919 occurred ​ Korea existed under "military rule" from 1910 to 1919, and by the 1940s, Koreans were being forced to adopt Japanese names and speak Japanese (Rodriguez 2023). ​ In Korean culture, each name made by parents carries familial culture and deep meanings ​ To speak Japanese, people had to learn the language → However, education was a privilege for the rich people, and not everybody could learn languages ​ Koreans were infuriated by military rule, which tried to deracinate Korean culture Goal of Japan:  ​ Japan's goal was to assimilate Koreans into Japanese culture, aiming to instill Japanese values and traditions into the hearts of students and future generations ​ On March 1st, Koreans were enraged enough and started an uprising against the Japanese → Masses came together to show their desire for liberty and independence ​ The protest was a colossal nonviolent demonstration → Despite this, casualties still occurred → Among more than 1,500 revolts during this time, not only 7,000 Koreans were killed by Japanese police or soldiers, but also approximately 16,000 people were wounded and 46,000 were arrested (Britannica). ​ They failed to achieve national independence; however, this led to the birth of the national government ​ On 1945 April 15th, Korea gained independence ​ March 1st is now a national holiday in Korea, which many people celebrate to look back on all the adversity and struggle their ancestors went through → It is a symbol of independence for Koreans today Congo: ​ In the early 1800s, explorers started to explore deeper into the continent of Africa. ​ Dr. David Livingstone and Henry Stanley set the basis for further exploration in Central Africa. ​ Congo was one of the last countries to be found because of its geographic location; it was located in the very center of the continent. ​ King Leopold II hired Stanely to explore the Congo River basin. This marked the start of Belgium's colonization of Congo. ​ The European powers met in Berlin in 1884 to discuss European colonization in Africa. ​ Representatives from African countries like Congo were not invited to discuss at the conference. ​ During the conference, King Leopold strongly argued for his private rule over Congo. The European powers recognized his private claim on Congo, however only with the condition that trading within Congo's rivers had to remain free. ​ The king of Belgium and the private owner of the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908. ○​ He promised his main goal was to bring civilization to the people. ○​ Motivated by wealth and power ​ King Leopold's main reason for colonizing was for Congo's natural resources like copper, rubber, ivory, etc. ​ Congo was technically governed from Brussels, the capital of Belgium, but the actual administrative capital was the city of Boma in Congo. ​ Congolese were forced into harsh labor like digging gold, hunting elephants (for ivories), chopping wood, and setting up rubber plantations. ​ During Leopold’s rule, 50% of the population of Congo died. ​ He made men serve in the Force Publique for seven years ​ The Force Publique was a private army that used violence to enforce compliance. ​ The slave trade was initialized during his rule as King Leopold converted many Congonians to slaves for his wealth. ​ In 1905, the public learned about King Leopold's notorious actions and the constant abuses he had done to the people of Congo. As a result, he finally announced that Congo was now part of Belgium in 1908. ​ Congo was officially colonized by Belgium Through the natural resources available in the country, Congo entered a rapid phase of industrialization with the help of European technologies that Belgium introduced. In the late 1950s, Belgian Congo was the most industrialized country following the Union of South Africa A quarter of the population lived in urban areas, in cities like Leopoldville and Elizabethville. ​ Natural resources were a great motivation for Leopold in his decision to colonize Congo. ​ These natural resources include copper, rubber, and ivory. They were sought after as many were luxurious materials or would be used for their industries ​ Rubber in particular was a valuable material, that was needed for manufacturing items such as tires, industrial machinery, and transportation ​ Copper: machinery, construction, and military ​ Ivory: jewelry and luxury goods ​ The availability of natural resources was a factor that speeded up the industrialization process in Congo. ​ The wealth gathered from natural resources mostly went to Europe allowing the Europeans to become wealthy. However, some Congolese, the so-called elites, were able to gain some wealth from this process as well. ​ The exploitation of ivory caused a decrease in the population of various species, diminishing animal life. ​ These species included African forest elephants, hippopotami, whales, etc. ​ Many of these animals, specifically elephants, were hunted for their tusks. ​ The over-extraction of rubber from rubber trees and vines caused deforestation. ​ Overmining metals and the process caused pollution (air, soil, and water) and damaged ecosystems. ​ Exploitation of natural resources led to more workers being needed to harvest and work  ​ The rubber company held most of the industrial power in the Congo during imperialization. ​ Towns and villages had quotas they had to meet, forcing them to harvest a certain amount of material per town. ​ The material could take weeks to harvest because of the surrounding jungle and the treacherous journeys workers had to make. ​ The Forced Publique, sentries, and European soldiers tortured and beat villagers if town quotas weren't met. (Hands severed, murdered, etc.) The Age of Imperialism led to the creation of a Western-educated elite. ​ An upper class emerged as a result of colonial Western education ​ It consisted of Europeans and some Africans who had access to European-style education ​ Many of the Western societies upheld equality for whites only ​ A system of racial segregation with the Congolese having fewer rights and privileges ​ Europeans would be given more advanced infrastructure and facilities Egypt: Egypt is located in the northeast corner of Africa. ​ Egypt's geography and location made the country an ideal trade route between Africa, Europe, and Asia. ​ The Ottoman Empire is one of the most powerful and largest empires in the world. ○​ The empire stretched along Southeastern Europe, Central Asia, Arabia and North Africa. ○​ The Ottoman Empire controlled Egypt as it was a global powerhouse. ○​ The Ottoman military and utilization of gunpowder separated them from other empires. ​ Muhammad Ali is called “The Father of Modern Egypt.” ○​ Ali seized power in 1805 after Napoleon’s invasion and the Civil War. ○​ He paved many roads, ports, and increased Egyptian participation in world trade. ○​ Ali organized many political and economic reforms. ○​ He defeated the British and forced them out of the country for around 75 years. ​ Suez Canal opened in 1869 and stretches for more than 100 miles. ○​ Allowed faster access to Europe and India. ○​ Connected the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. ​ The Suez Canal and other infrastructure projects near led Egypt to bankruptcy. ○​ Gradually ended in British takeover. ​ In the early 1800s, Muhammad Ali introduced numerous political and economic reforms that refined tax collection, organized the landholding system, and advanced irrigation systems to grow more crops.  ​ Ali increased Egyptian interaction in world trade from the booming of cotton production and development in local industries ​ Muhammed contacted Western military specialists to modernize Egypts army. ​ Nations like Arabia, Syria and Sudan were defeated and conquered by Egypt. ​ Laborers used dredgers and steam shovels to take out sediment. ​ Dredgers: a machine suctions sediment from the bottom of waterways or used to mine minerals. ​ Steam shovels: a steam powered machine to help lift and move rocks and soil. ​ This was used to build railroads. ​ Bucket excavators: used for surface mining. ​ All these machines extracted about 74 million cubic meters of dirt. ​ The Suez Canal allowed trade through the Mediterranean Sea all the way to the Arabian Sea. ​ Created easy access to trade from France, Spain, Libya, Algeria, Palestine and more. ​ Muhammad Ali opened up foreign investors into the country and allowed international trade through the Suez Canal. ​ A dominate trade route for Europe and Asia. ​ Present Day Effects: ​ 3rd largest source of national revenue in 2020-2021. ​ 30% of global ship traffic goes through the Suez Canal; more than 20,00 ships passed in 2021. ​ Egypt came increasingly under foreign control and Lesseps organized a French company to build the Suez Canal. ​ In 1862, 20,000 workers were hired to work the Suez canal with a low access of food and water. ​ 120,000 workers died from the harsh climate, disease (cholera), lack of sanitation and physical abuse. ​ In 1875, the ruler of Egypt was unable to pay loans so he sold his shares of the Canal, which the British bought and gained control and interest. ​ The 1956 Suez Crisis was a war for the Egyptian government to fight for the Suez Canal back. ​ British took control and protected Egypt. ​ Egypt continued to modernize and develop. ​ Egypt was still in control of the Ottoman government but followed policies dictated by Britain. ​ Nationalists weren't happy and started protests and riots. Panama: Panama is located in Central America. It's a narrow piece of land between North America and South America. Depending on which side you are on the climate can vary. On the Caribbean side of the Panama there is heavy rainfall. Meanwhile, on the Pacific side there are more weather types. Based off of the most common weather in the different regions the habitat will be different. Panama was colonized by the Spanish before they gained independence in 1819. ​ Roosevelt Corollary was created as an addition to the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 to prevent European invasion ​ and it stated that the U.S. would intervene if any conflicts violated any of the rights of America. ​ In 1882, France attempted to construct the Panama Canal but due to the engineering challenges the project was ended and abandoned because of bankruptcy ​ In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt was able to convince the U.S. Congress to restart the construction of the Panama Canal. ​ Made trading more efficient by providing a shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Before the construction of the Panama Canal, ships had to navigate around South America which could take months and involved dangerous and unpredictable weathers. ​ The canal made it easier for countries on the opposite side of the world to engage in trade. A majority of the ships that came to trade with Panama were either going to or coming from US ports. ​ The Panama Canal had a significant improvement on the nation's economy because of the increase in trade. This resulted in more access to raw materials, manufactured goods, agricultural products, etc. ​ Construction Workers : construction of the Panama Canal. These workers were responsible for tasks such as digging, moving heavy items, and constructing bridges and other infrastructure ​ Health Care Workers : Due to the harsh diseases like malaria and yellow fever, healthcare workers were needed for to treat sick workers and improve health conditions. ​ Managerial Roles : These people would manage finance and coordinate the workers ​ The construction and operation of the Panama Canal had a lasting impact on the economy and workforce of Panama. ​ Theodore Roosevelt became concerned about possible European invasion, which created the Roosevelt Corollary ​ This allowed them to enforce police power throughout the Western Hemisphere. ​ However, the Corollary wasn't used as it was intended and was instead used to intervene with South American conflicts. ​ Construction workers would often have to move mountains to build it and were at risk of a number of life-threatening situations ​ There were landslides and the workers could be buried alive, mosquitoes carried malaria, and natural disasters put them all at risk of death. ​ Some workers would have to get amputations. ​ The main motives was to have a strong military base, gain economic and political control.  ​ It took away the beliefs and traditions that the indigenous people had. ​ Colonies were required to provide raw materials and viewed as markets. ​ There was a misuse of natural resources in colonies. Hawaii: Hawaii is located in the Pacific Ocean Southwest of California. It is around 2400 miles away from the mainland and is made up of 8 main islands (Heckathorn and Swenson 1998). The Kingdom of Hawaii On November 28, 1843, Great Britain and France formed a join declaration, which guaranteed Hawaii's independence. On December 23, 1826, a signed treaty led to the United States formally recognizing Hawaiian independence (Office of the Historian). During the late 1800's, there was increasing pressure from American sugar growers in Hawaiian islands, but Hawaiian Queen, Liliuokalani, wanted to reduce influence from foreign nations. However, American planters overthrew the queen and later requested that the United States annex Hawaii (Ellis and Esler 2007). When American planters overthrew Queen Liliuokalani, they requested that the United States annex Hawaii. They chose to annex Hawaii because the supporters of annexation claimed that if America didn’t claim Hawaii, another country such as Britain or Japan would do so first (Ellis and Esler 2007). In 1778, Hawaii was first discovered by Captain James Cook, a British explorer. Cook named Hawaii the sandwich Islands, as he got inspiration from the British Earl of Sandwich. King Kamehameha 1st, the Hawaiian king, placed the Hawaiian kingdom under British control from 192-1974; however, the British took no formal action to enforce its control over Hawaii. Kamehameha then united the Hawaiian Islands in his rule in 1810 (Office of the Historian). A major reason for the annexation of Hawaii was the natural resources within the nation. Its climate was very important for vegetation such as sugarcane, pineapple, papaya, banana, and mango. Its climate also was very popular amongst business owners, leading them to invest in Hawaiian land, boosting their economy. Its ocean provided a geographical “border” as it was surrounded by ocean, making it harder for nations to invade (Swenson and Heckathorn 1998). One positive Justification for the Imperialism of Hawaii was that it greatly benefited the U.S Military. In the 1890's the United States faced an economic turmoil (issue), and they realized that they needed new markets across the globe for their goods. In order to access these markets, the U.S would need three things: a merchant navy, a battleship navy (for protection), and naval bases for supplies and fuel. Hawaii's location was perfect to set up a naval base, and since Pearl Harbor was one of the largest harbors in the Pacific Ocean, it was a perfect fit. Around 1900-1908, the Navy constructed storage sheds and houses in Pearl Harbor, as well as a water-pipe system, making it the biggest naval base in the Pacific Ocean. Hawaii's channel was also enlarged to dock larger ships, and its location allowed easy exploration of territories such as Guam and Midway (Why did the US Set Up at Pearl Harbor? 2016). Another Justification for the Imperialism of Hawaii was the economic benefits that emerged with the Rise of tourism.​ Tourism in Hawaii began in the late 1800s when sailors and business workers traveled to the islands for work and vacation; as they were drawn to Hawaii's warm climate, culture, and landscape. Some business owners invested in Hawaiian land, benefiting the economy. The first luxury hotel in Hawaii was built in 1901, called the Moana Hotel. the Moana Hotel solidified Hawaii as a tourist destination and led to the initial growth of the tourism industry in the islands. Increased military presence also helped the island establish itself as a popular tourist spot. After World War 2, more Americans were drawn to Hawaii's weather, beaches, and cultural heritage (Magnum 2023). Imperialism in Hawaii let to the depletion of its natural resources. Hawaii is well known for its natural resources, however, in the past they have been taken advantage of.  In 1778, an explorer named James Crook arrived in Hawaii, and spread many diseases after making contact with natives. The disease reduced the native population from 300,000 to 34,000 in about a century. As a result of a decreased native population, westerners were able to acquire land and resources, such as water. Western Settlers then established property in Hawaii, causing major damage to the environment (Quiroga 2021). The Imperialism of Hawaii led to the banning of pidgin. In 1896, the provisional government banned Hawaiian medium education and discouraged speaking the language at home. As a result of this "law", in only 8 years, only 32 children spoke the language. This led to efforts by the grandchildren of the last generation of native singers to salvage language by teaching children. After they recognized that the education system did not produce fluent Hawaiian speakers, they began an education movement to revive the language. The disappearance of the Hawaiian language is an example of the effects of Western influence, as a language that took centuries to create, was lost in decades (Saving the Hawaiian Language). Lastly, Imperialism led to the loss of Hawaiian Aina (Connection to Land), which led to their culture fading. After the illegal annexation of Hawaii, the culture of Hawaii has declined. As the Aina (sacred land) of Hawaii was being taken over, many Native Hawaiians faced a loss of identity and culture. Western influence has made cultural practices such as fishing, sea navigation, and hula (a form of religious musical expression) uncommon. Despite attempts to restore this culture, these practices were still overshadowed. Today, Native Hawaiians are a minority group in Hawaii and lack affordable housing and health issues (Osorio 2021). COMPARING POV Chinese and Britain CHINESE POINT OF VIEW Below is an excerpt from the Emperor of China, on the Opium Wars, written in 1842. We believe that, although the demands made by the barbarians are unfair, they are little more than a desire for ports and for the privilege of trade. War would lead to great disasters, so we should think about giving in to their demands. The barbarians have asked for $21,000,000 and five ports. If we do not come to an agreement with the barbarians, they will run over our country like beasts, doing anything they like. The ships of the barbarians are strong and their cannons are strong. Before, we didn’t know how strong they were, now we know because we have seen them. After this experience, we are more convinced that we cannot control them by force and we must come to an agreement. BRITISH POINT OF VIEW Below is an excerpt from John Bingham who was a British navy officer during the Opium War and the son of a clergyman. Bingham wrote this account right after the war to celebrate what the British did in China. Some might say that the opium trade was forced on the Chinese, but that is not true. The Chinese are the ones who smoke the opium pipe and many have become addicted. To stop their demand would be impossible. Also, we are not concerned with the health of the Chinese. The fact is, our imports have given a great balance of trade in our favor. Our purchases of tea, silk, and other goods equal……………………………….....3,147,481 Our sales of opium………………….5,637,052 Balance in favor of the British……..2,489,571 Ships were sent to China to remove the embargo (means to stop or limit trade) they had on their trade, which resulted in a favorable balance of trade for the British. Cuba vs U.S.: CUBAN POINT OF VIEW UNITED STATES POINT OF VIEW Cuban patriots struggled for many years The following is an excerpt from Albert J. before Cuba gained independence following Beveridge's speech, delivered September 16, the U.S. victory over Spain. Their hero was the 1898. Beveridge gave this speech while he poet and journalist Jose Martí (1853-1895). was campaigning to become a senator for Martí spent many years as a writer in the Indiana. The speech helped him win the United States, observing that country (which election and made him one of the leading he referred to as "The Other America") for his advocates of American expansion. readers in Latin America (which he referred Fellow citizens, it is a noble land that God has to as "Our America"). Early in 1895 he given us; a land that can feed and clothe the returned to fight in Cuba and was killed in world;....It is a mighty people that he has battle. The excerpt below is from his 1891 planted on this soil... It is a glorious history essay called "Our America." As you read, our God has bestowed upon his chosen notice what Marti believes the people of people;...a history of soldiers who carried the Spanish America must do. Then, on a separate flag across the blazing deserts and through sheet of paper, answer the questions that the ranks of hostile mountains, even to the follow. gates of sunset... From "Our America" by Jose Martí The Opposition tells us that we ought not to The octopus [colonial rule] still sleeps on [top govern a people without their consent. I of] some [Latin American] republics; but answer: The rule of liberty that all just others, in contrast, drain the ocean from their government derives its authority from the lands with a furious, sublime haste, as if to consent of the governed, applies only to those make up for lost centuries. Some, forgetting who are capable of self-government. I answer that Juárez [Mexico's reform leader] rode in a We govern the Indians without their consent, mule-drawn coach, hitch their coach to the we govern our territories without their wind and entrust the reins to a soap bubble; consent, we govern our children without their poison- ous luxury, the enemy of liberty, consent. corrupts the frivolous [silly] and opens the They ask us how we will govern these new door to the outlander. In others, where possessions. I answer: If England can govern independence is threatened, an epic spirit foreign lands, so can America. If Germany can produces a heightened manliness. Still others govern foreign lands, so can America.... spawn a rabble-in-arms in rapa- cious wars What does all this mean for every one of us? It against their neighbors which may yet turn means opportunity for all the glorious young and devour them. manhood of the republic, the most virile, scorn for us and our ways. And since strong ambitious, impatient, militant manhood the countries, self-made by the rifle and the law, world has ever seen. It means that the love and love only strong countries... the resources and the commerce of these pressing need for our America is to show immensely rich dominions will be increased... herself as she is, one in soul and purpose, In Cuba, alone, there are 15,000,000 acres of swift forest unacquainted with the axe. There are conqueror of a suffocating tradition.... The exhaustless mines of iron.... There are millions scorn of our formidable neighbor, who does of acres yet unexplored....It means new not know us, is the greatest danger for our employment and better wages for every America; and it is imperative that our laboring man in the Union.... neighbor know us, and know us soon, so she Ah! as our commerce spreads, the flag of shall not scorn us, for the day of the visit is at liberty will circle the globe.... Benighted hand. Through ignorance, she might go so far peoples will know that the voice of Liberty is as to lay hands on us. From speaking, at last, for them; that civilization is Jose Martí, about 1890 respect, once she dawning, at last, for them.... came to know us, she would remove her Fellow Americans, we are God's chosen hands. One must have faith in the best in men people.... and dis- trust the worst. If not, the worst Source: Albert J. Beveridge's Senate campaign prevails. Nations should have a pillory speech, September 16, 1898. [punishment] for whoever fans useless hates; Vocabulary and another for whoever does not tell them virile: having strength and energy militant: the truth in time. aggressive But there is yet another danger which does dominions: controlled territories benighted: not come from within, but from the dif- pitifully ignorant ference in origins, methods and interests STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP between the two halves of the continent. The sheg.stanford.edu hour is fast approaching when our America will be confronted by an enterprising and energetic nation [the United States] seeking close relations, but with indifference and Source: The America of Jose Martí, trans. Juan de Onis (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, LLC, 1982). Egypt and the Alternate Views: EGYPT POINT OF VIEW ALTERNATE POINT OF VIEW Two Views on the Suez Canal Ferdinand de From Culture and Imperialism by Edward W. Lesseps, 1859 Said, 1993... [T]he cost of the Suez, taking the highest [Egypt's viceroys] involved Egypt ever more estimate, is not out of proportion to the use- deeply in what has been called the 'world fulness and the profits of this great work, economy', but more accurately was the loose which would abridge, by more than half, the agglomeration [jumbled mass] of European distance between the principal countries of financiers, merchant bankers, loan corpora- Europe, America and the Indies.... tions, and commercial adventures.... Mohammed Said [Pasha] has not been slow to...Egypt was opened to schemes of every sort, see that there was no work which, as regards some crazy, some beneficial (like the the grandeur and utility of results, could constructions of railway and roads), all costly, compare with this. especially the canal. Development was What a glorious record for his reign! What an financed by issuing treasury bonds, printing inexhaustible source of wealth for Egypt it money,and increasing the budgetary deficit; will be! The names of Egyptian sovereigns the growth of the public debt added a good who erected the Pyramids, those monuments deal to Egypt's foreign debt, the cost of of human pride, remain unknown. The name servicing it, and the further penetration of the of the prince who opened the great maritime country by foreign investors and their local canal will be blessed from century to century, agents.... Public opinion seems to have down to the most distant posterity. opposed Ismail [the viceroy, Muhammad Said The pilgrimage of Mecca was secured for all Pasha's son] as much because he was time and made easy the future of the perceived to be handing Egypt over to Mohammedans. An immense impulse given to foreigners as because those foreigners for steam navigation and long voyages; the their part appeared to take Egypt's countries along the Red Sea and the Persian quiescence [quiet acceptance] and weakness Gulf, the eastern coast of Africa, India, the for granted. It was noted angrily, says the kingdom of Siam, Cochin China, Japan, the Egyptian historian Sabry, that in Napoleon vast Chinese Empire, the Philippine Islands, III's speech at the canal's opening, he Australia, and that vast archipelago towards mentioned France and its canal but never which tended the emigration of ancient Egypt.... Europe and America;-such are the sudden and immediate results of piercing the Isthmus of Suez... King Leopold’s Ghost A HISTORY OF KING LEOPOLD’S GHOST S. E. D. MOREL, Roger Casement, and their allies caught Europe's pers and magazines ran pictures of burned villages and mutilated bodies, and missionary witnesses spoke of the depopulation of entire districts. Looking at this written and photographic record today immediately raises a crucial question: what was the death toll in Leopold's Congo? This is a good moment to pause in our story to find an answer. The question is not simple. To begin with, history, in this case, cannot have distinct lines drawn around it as it can, say when we ask how many Jews the Nazis put to death between 1933 and 1945. King Leopold II's personal État Indépendant du Congo officially existed for twenty-three (years, beginning in 1885, but many Congolese were already dying unnatural deaths by the start of that period, and important elements of the king's system of exploitation endured for many years after its official end. The rubber boom, the cause of the worst bloodletting in the Congo, began under Leopold's rule in the mid-1890s, but it continued several years after the end of his one-man regime. Furthermore, although the killing in the Congo was of genocidal proportions, it was not, strictly speaking, a genocide. The Congo state was not deliberately trying to eliminate one particular ethnic group from the face of the Earth. Instead, like the slave dealers who raided Africa for centuries before them, Leopold's men were looking for labor. If, in the course of their finding and using that labor, millions of people died, that Why is дитка to them was incidental. Few officials kept statistics about something they considered so negligible as African lives. And so estimating the number of casualties today requires considerable historical detective work. In population losses on this scale, the toll is usually a composite of figures from one or more of four closely connected sources: (1) murder;" (2) starvation, exhaustion, and exposure; (3) disease; and (4) a plummeting birth rate. In the worst period in the Congo, the long rubber boom, it came in abundance from all four: 1. Murder. Although outright murder was not the major cause of death in Leopold's Congo, it was most clearly documented. When a village or a district failed to supply its quota of rubber or fought back against the regime, Force Publique soldiers or rubber company "sentries" often killed everyone they could find. Those times when an eyewitness happened upon a pile of skeletons or severed hands, and a report survives, represent, of course, only a small proportion of the massacres carried out, only a few sparks from a firestorm. But among those scattered sparks are some that burn distinctly: In 1896, a German newspaper, the Kölnische Zeitung, published, on the authority of "a highly esteemed Belgian," news that 1308 severed hands had been turned over to the notorious District Commissioner/ Léon Fiévez in a single day. The newspaper twice repeated the story without being challenged by the Congo state. Several additional reports of that day's events, including some from both Protestant and Catholic missionaries, cited even higher totals for the number of hands. On a later occasion, Fiévez admitted that the practice of cutting hands off corpses existed; he denied only, with great vehemence, that he had ever ordered hands to cut off living people. In 1899, a state officer, Simon Roi, perhaps not realizing that one of the people he was chatting with was an American missionary, bragged about the killing squads under his command. The missionary, Ellsworth Faris, recorded the conversation in his diary Each time the corporal goes out to get rubber, cartridges are given to him. He must bring back all not used; and for every one used, he must bring back a right hand!... As to the extent to which this is carried on [Roi] informed me that in six months they, the State, on the Momboyo River had used 6000 cartridges, which means that 6000 people are killed or mutilated. It means more than 6000, for the people have told me repeatedly that the soldiers kill children with the butt of their guns." The punitive expeditions against the Budja rebels (see pages 193-193] altogether killed more than thirteen hundred Budjas. Reports of this appeared in various Belgian newspapers in 1900, one of which was subsidized by the Congo state. Dozens of other rebellions against rubber-collecting broke out throughout the territory over the next decade. Estimating the death toll caused by suppressing them all is impossible, but sometimes a stray statistic carries appalling implications when we remember that soldiers were severely punished for "wasting" bullets on nonhuman targets. Among a raft of revealing documents from the A.B.I.R. concession company that Morel got hold of is a register showing that in the year 1903, a single one of the thirty-five rubber-collecting posts in A.B.I.R. territory was sent a total of 159 firearms and 40,355 rounds of ammunition. The list of specific massacres on record goes on and on. The territory was awash in corpses, sometimes literally. Where a river flows into Lake Tumba, wrote the Swedish missionary E. V. Sjöblom, "I saw... dead bodies floating on the lake with the right hand cut off, and the officer told me when I came back why they had been killed. It was for the rubber.... When I crossed the stream I saw some dead bodies hanging down from the branches in the water. As I turned away my face at the horrible sight one of the native corporals who was following us down said, 'Oh, that is nothing, a few days ago I returned from a fight, and I brought the white man 160 hands and they were thrown into the river." It was not only missionaries and visitors who recorded the mass murders. Many Force Publique officers kept astonishingly frank diaries about the death and destruction they left behind them. Lorus rules