Imagining Europe Exam Prep PDF

1B- The development of European identities ========================================== 1. **What is the definition of antiquity?** - Antiquity is a period 3000BC- 476. Time before the Middle Ages, before Christianity became official religion. Antiquity is the ancient past, before Middle...

1B- The development of European identities ========================================== 1. **What is the definition of antiquity?** - Antiquity is a period 3000BC- 476. Time before the Middle Ages, before Christianity became official religion. Antiquity is the ancient past, before Middle Ages. It is known as "The great civilizations of antiquity". It is know for its important culture: arts, philosophy, languages. We always go back to it, it is when history got written down for the first time.It is the closest relation to political happening today **Myth of Europa** The myth of Europa symbolized the cultural and political opposition between Europe and Asia, influencing European identity by establishing a narrative of unity and distinctiveness from other regions. 2. **How have the frontiers moved since ancient Greece?** - Frontiers were vague- only city-states called polis. Polis is self-contained political community considered the basis of democracy. Borders shifted due to wars, which were tied to political changes. Great movement: Alexander the Great conquered the Persians and expand trading. 3. **European foundations that can be traced back to antiquity** - Romans: introduced concepts of democracy and freedom of thought, which laid the groundwork for early European governance. Their diverse city-states showcased various governmental forms, influencing modern democratic principles and legal systems. - Greeks: Hellenistic period- developing of Latin language, philosophy, culture and diplomacy - Differences excluding system- inequality (e.g.- women were not equal to men) 4. **Why is antiquity glorified?** - Lots of science and starting points in antiquity - Concepts that came from that time resonate with modern values - Medieval times are seen as a step back Arab culture was developing; translation and preserving the papyrus and information from antiquity (information was lost when time passed because the papyrus did not last long) - Problem in modern conception of Europe forgotten about culture clash that Europe formed from Asia, Africa, Romans and Greeks - Today's perception of antiquity is limited to narratives like big philosophers. 5. **Did they see themselves as European?** - Greeks Greek civilization saw themselves as superior and civilised and saw the middle east as the most like them. They focused on their community, individually, without considering the outer world and other city-states. - Romans They didn't define deserves as 'Europeans' but were multicultural and differentiated. They focused on Mediterranean Sea. They see themselves as the center of the world with Rome as the capital. - in general, The feeling of European came with Christianity (3^rd^ century BC). The idea of identity going beyond national borders was already known. The region that is seen as Europe today: a lot of migration and groups of Nomads which were not real civilization. 2A- A Christian Continent ========================= 1. **Definition of Christianity.** - Christianity is a religion, it can be interpreted as people who are faithful and have hope, people who believe that Jesus was a son of God. Christianity is one of the oldest religions in the world. If we think about baptism, most Europeans are Christians 2. **ORIGINS OF CHRISTIANITY** - Many resemblances between mystery cults and Christianity - The origins of Christianity can be traced back to its roots as a sect of Judaism. Monotheistic religion originated from the Middle East (Asia) spread throughout the Roman Empire where citizens had polytheistic beliefs - The New Testament written in Greek (50-200 CE) 3. **HISTORICAL IMPACT** - Medieval Europeans looked to Christianity as a cultural model based on redemption; shared values; solidarity; justice. This influence shaped Europe's character and formed a formal system of theology. Christianity established a framework of shared values and justice in medieval Europe, influencing cultural norms and social cohesion. It provided a moral foundation that shaped community life and governance, fostering unity among diverse populations. - Shaped by conflicts in religious beliefs among elites and masses 4. **SPREAD** - Christianity spared throughout the Roman Empire through Emperor Constantine in 300BC. Under his ruling Christianity had its 1^st^ major boost. Emperor Constantine played a crucial role in spreading Christianity throughout the Roman Empire by converting to the faith and promoting it during his reign. His support marked the beginning of Christianity\'s rise as a major religion in the empire. - Became official religion under Emperor Theodosius **Great Schism (1054)-** The Great Schism resulted in a permanent division between Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) Christianity, leading to religious conflicts, altered political alliances, and further fragmentation of Christian unity in Europe. *Martin Luther: laid the foundations of Protestantism-\> Reformation* Martin Luther\'s posting of the Ninety-Five Theses in 1517 is considered the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. It challenged the Catholic Church\'s practices, particularly the sale of indulgences, and sparked widespread religious and political change in Europe. - Gospel- the message of salvation in God - 1521-1555: Lutheranism- not the same as Calvinism (developed capitalism) **RELIGIOUS WARS** *Thirty years war (1618-1648)* \- Protestant reformation and Catholic counter-reformation divided Europe to extend that Christianity could never be a source of unity again. - within the Holy Empire Violation of protestant privileges- Coup d'etat and beginning of the war \- Ended with the *Treaty of Westphalia*: foundation for modern diplomacy and state sovereignty, allowing rulers to determine their state\'s religion, which promoted religious tolerance and reduced the likelihood of future religious wars. **4. Is Christianity still just as important to Europe?** - \- Christianity remains culturally important to Europe, but its influence. Has diminished in public life due to secularization. Secularization started mainly in the 18^th^ century. It prompted the separation between church and state. Secularization not only reduced church influence but also allowed for more diverse beliefs within society, impacting governance significantly. - Christian holydays, symbols and values continue to shape European cultural practices. Christianity's legacy is still visible in European art, architecture and traditions, but its direct impact on daily life and governance is less significant than in the past. in numerous cathedrals, religious paintings, and sculptures that reflect biblical themes, showcasing its historical importance in shaping European culture and artistic expression. 5. **How did Europe shape Christianity?** - In the West, the catholic church became a rival to the state. In the East, the orthodox church worked with a state and heavily influenced government. Given the diverse forms of Christianity that developed in the western and eastern parts of the Roman Empire (Reformation and Counter-Reformation), the Christian legacy is defined one. 2B Religious Othering ===================== 1. **Concept of 'other'** - Othering is a social construction; it is a way of identifying a civilization or group by identifying what they are not through another. Othering is based on religion, politics, values, and beliefs. - 2 types of Othering: - 1\. Internal Othering: from within Europe - 2\. External Othering: form outside of Europe 2. **Historical aspects** - Fear of Muslims in Middle Ages in multiple parts of Europe as Muslims were stronger until the end of Middle Ages. Muslims were often seen as invaders and danger to Europe 3. **Representations** - Represented as violent, aggressive, oppressed, or part of a terrorist association. Media contributes to entertain the effect of Othering and makes it become the normality. A state or non-state actor can use propaganda to influence a large public or population since it reaches a lot of people. - European and Islamic are shown as opponents. Asians are generally depicted as a Turk with beard, bald or as a merchant from the Orient - The Crescent was a symbol of Asia, it got then used for Islam from the Ottoman Empire 4. **Impact of the perceived European superiority** 4a) on politics: - The framing of Europe as superior justified colonization, imperial expansion, domination. Today: continue to influence contemporary European policies regarding immigration (from Muslim majority countries) b\) on European identity - Europe has historically positioned itself as a Christian civilization in opposition to the Islamic world. Cultural dichotomy helped shaping European identity that saw itself as moder, rational and superior 3A -- A Republic of Letters =========================== 1. **Definitions** - *Renaissance:* Period from 14^th^ to 17^th^ century, the term is French and means "rebirth". This is a historical period inspired by Antiquity. Can be seen as the expression of European consciousness and it marked the end of the medieval age and the birth of modernity. The Renaissance led to the emergence of cultural identity and laid the basis of a nascent political identity. It emphasized the individual human being as an object of study and reflection. Renaissance divided European history in three eras: ancient, medieval and modernity. It impacted Christianity as it brought Protestantism with Luther and the printing press. It focuses on going back to the classical era, discovering the culture and knowledge from Antiquity thanks to Arab scholars. Often characterized by a raise in humanism, radical changes in ideas of politics and science - *Humanism* The view of human nature as shaped by the culture which allows the individual to renew themselves. Intellectual movement started in late Middle Ages, prioritized education, history, solidarity, philosophy and sciences. Key figures of this movement were Voltaire, Montesquieu, Erasmus. Study of ancient texts with a scientific approach. Idea that society is not a natural entity but something that can be staged and designed. - *Enlightenment* Intellectual movement occurred during the 18^th^ century in France. Critical reflection on the past, rational questioning and belief in progress through questioning. This movement believed more in science than faith. Key figures Montesquieu, Voltaire, Adam Smith. It was a contribution of the Renaissance in its globality, republican freedom and the emancipation of the self. Enlightenment allowed the diffusion of science and scholarship to the wider public. It separated the church from science and law exactly to preserve it from the critique of science. It is consequence of the Scientific Revolution - *Republic of letters* Long distance intellectual community of scholars, writers, thinkers included figures like Voltaire, Montesquieu etc., aiming the spread of knowledge and ideas leading to advancements in science, philosophy, literature. Aim of the scholars was to ensure the survival of valued texts through printing press. Since the 16^th^ century in Europe and the Americas. Established by Erasmus, linking elites of every country, feeling of solidarity and community through common knowledge going beyond political divisions and geographical borders. - *Republicanism* The developments in science were reflected in new political ideas. Machiavelli believed in the republican idea- the idea of self-governing political community based on citizenship and the consent of the governed, developed alongside nationalism. Machiavelli was one of the founders of modern republicanism. 2. **Effect of oversea discoveries (America)** Started with the Columbus discovery of the "New world"- 1462. Innovations and products were brought over from other countries. Encouraged the development of cartography which led to the rise of a global consciousness which helped shape Europe's self-consciousness and increased the desire to control these foreign regions. Atlases allowed Europe to be regarded as the first continent on the grounds of fertility, population. Explorations led Europe to steal appropriate knowledge of other civilizations-\> new discoveries led to new relations to authority changing the role of Christianity. Scientific developments led to new political ideas-\> started questioning the authority of the church and republicanism was born. 3. **The separation between Christianity and society** At first the Church resisted against the new movement of Enlightenment, it eventually realized that they had to follow the time in their own way. Used colonization to expand Christianity. Its perception changed with the secularization of science, a new authority was found in science and politics. Machiavelli separated moral from politics which impacted the organization of authority. After the secularization the Church and state had no authority on each other. Church would not be the only authority anymore and the legitimation of power was based on a political foundation rather on a religious one. European identity was no more based on religion but also on territory and politic. It was now based on beliefs of freedom, reason, science, self-examination growing the idea of a European civilization. 3B -- European Modernity ======================== 1. **Definition of modernity** Modernity is a social, cultural and political development that distinguish the modern period from the past often associated with rationality, secularism and technological progress. Modernity is characterized by freedom, individualism, rise of the nation-state and the idea of surpassing the ancients. According to Bhambra modernity is often framed as a European achievement, but this ignores the global influences and connections that helped shape modern European development. Gilman notes that modernization theory would represent itself as an heir of the Enlightenment. He also argues that the idea of nationhood emerged everywhere in the postcolonial world with the concept of modernization, which brought political unity and the need for economic development, urban growth, and the rise of intellectual movements like the Enlightenment. It also paved the way for technological advancements and innovations that continue to shape the modern world. 2. **Diffusionism** Diffusionism refers to the idea that cultural innovations, technologies, and ideas originate from a single source and then spread to other societies. Bhambra argues that cross-cultural exchanges, particularly between Europe and the Islamic world, contributed to what is often seen as European achievements, such as the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. As example of diffusionism we can refer to Renaissance: Italy or modernity: England. The term is used during the colonial expansions. 3. **Evolution of modernity** - Enlightenment changed the cultural and intelectual aspects - French Revolution changed the political and individual aspects - Industrial Revolution changed the technical and economic aspects - The Renaissance created the concept of Humanism and scholars of the time wanted to reconstruct the ancient world. 4. **Concept of modernity- how it changed** - Postcolonial scholars argue that modernity was shaped by global exchanges, not just European innovations. Modernity is now increasingly understood as a process that involves interactions between Europe and other world regions, rather than a purely European achievement. 5. **The role of Renaissance in the creation of the myth of European modernity and European identity** This narrative constructs a myth of European modernity, which overlooks the significant influence of non-European cultures, particularly the Islamic world. By positioning the Renaissance as a uniquely European event, this narrative has reinforced the idea of European superiority and shaped European identity as distinct and \"modern\" compared to other cultures. Bhambra seeks to dismantle this myth by showing the interconnectedness of European and non-European developments during this period. Voltaire saw Europe as a 'republique litteraire', equating an enlightenment Europe to modernity. He believed that before the Enlightenment and this modern distinction between the past and the present, Europe was in its dark ages. 4A- Nationalist Europe ====================== 1. **Definition of Romanticism** Romanticism was a cultural and artistic movement that emerged in Europe during the late 18th and early 19th century.Romanticism emphasized emotion, individualism, nature, and a return to the past, often tied to a sense of national identity. This movement often glorified the past, particularly the medieval period, and promoted a rediscovery of cultural and historical roots. Romanticism inspired nationalistic movements in Europe, linking it with the rise of ethnic nationalism. Romanticism had a profound impact on European culture, influencing literature, art, music, and philosophy. It fostered a sense of national pride and identity, the formation of the modern nation-state, played a role in the reaction against Enlightenment rationalism, and continues to shape artistic and intellectual endeavours to this day. 2. **Compare Romanticism to Enlightenment** - The Enlightenment is modern, it focuses on rationality, reason and logic. It sets the basis for the French Revolutio and Republicanism. On the other hand Romanticism is opposed to the Enlightenment making it not modern. Romanticism value the individual, hulman sensibility, emphasizing emotion. 3. **Definition of Nationalism** - 2 Types of nationalism Civic nationalism- form of nationalism that adheres to traditional liberal values of freedom, tolerance, equality, individual rights and is not based on ethnocentrism. It is a determining factor in the development of modern constitutional and democratic forms of government. 4. **What was the role of the French Revolution in relation to Nationalism? ** - The French Revolution played a vital role in developing nationalism. It promoted the idea of a united nation under common values like liberty and equality. Revolutionary France sought to unify the country by erasing regional differences and promoting the French language and identity​.** ** 5. **How has nationalism impacted Europe and European identity?** Nationalism united countries like Italy and Germany, which were previously divided. In these regions, nationalism fostered state-building and centralized governance.Disunity: Nationalism also led to disunity, particularly in multi-ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, where different ethnic groups sought independenceAs nationalism grew, it led to the rise of distinct national identities, contributing to unity in some cases and conflicts in others. The rise of nationalism reshaped European politics, social structures, and how individuals identified with their nation​. Belonging to a nation meant the other nations are an "Other". 6. **The "Concert of Europe"** The Concert of Europe was a system of diplomacy among the major European powers after the Napoleonic Wars (1815). It consisted of 2 phases. The first from 1815 to early 1860s. After the Congress of Vienna (1814-15) it sought to maintain peace and balance through collective decisions made by the five Great Powers ( Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia). They were also members of the Holy Alliance, used system to oppose revolutionary movements and weaken the forces of nationalism as this movement posed a challenge to this balance as new nation-states emerged and existing empires fractured. The second phase is from early 1880s to 1914. German chancellor Otto von Bismark, recreated the Concert of Europe to avoid future conflicts escalating innto new wars. The revitalised concert included Austria, France, Italy, Russia, Britain and Germany. Eventually the concert split itself into the Triple Alliance and the Triple Etente, which became the principal groups of belligerens at the start of World War I in 1914. 4B Unity in diversity ===================== 1. **Cosmopolitanism** Cosmopolitanism is an ethic that embraces cultural borrowing and transcends national boundaries Beck highlights the phenomena like multilingualism, multinational networks, and transnational careers. Cosmopolitans advocate for cooperation between states to address shared challenges, suggesting that global issues can no longer be effectively addressed within national borders. He discusses how national boundaries traditionally legitimize social inequalities, but as European integration progresses, the comparability of inequalities across nations challenges the old framework. He uses the example of wage differences between European countries to illustrate the shift in perceptions of fairness within the EU. Beck suggests that Europe must embrace cosmopolitanism, where cooperation between states addresses shared challenges, such as economic competition, unemployment, and social welfare reforms. He emphasizes that these problems can no longer be effectively addressed within national borders. 2. **Nation, state and nation-state** a. **Nation-** A nation is a group of people with a common language, history, culture, and geographic territory. b. **State -** A state is an association of people characterized by formal institutions of government, including laws; permanent territorial boundaries; and sovereignty c. **nation-state-** a territorially bounded sovereign polity---i.e., a state---that is ruled in the name of a community of citizens who identify themselves as a nation. **Beck** Beck's central argument advocates for a cosmopolitan Europe achieved through the process of Europeanization, where equality, particularly in terms of fair pay for work, should be the top priority. Unlike a traditional nation-state, Europe's unique strength lies in its unity through democracy, allowing for collective problem-solving. This goal is attainable through the implementation of five key pathways that outline a vision for a more integrated and cooperative Europe. First, the dynamics of inequality within Europe must be addressed. Inequality cannot be overcome with a purely national approach; only through an international outlook can the fundamental asymmetries that drive it be identified and tackled. A general Europeanization, focused on addressing issues like unemployment and an aging population, is crucial. The paradox of nationalism must also be confronted, as Europeanization is often driven by secondary effects, such as migration, which cannot be stopped by individual states acting alone. Secondly, a shared memory culture is essential to European unity. The Second World War once divided Europe, yet today, these once-hostile nations live as neighbors. However, forgiveness, though \"infinitely difficult,\" has allowed Europe to evolve. This shared memory provides a foundation for further integration. Third, Europe must be seen as a regional world, one that faces global risks such as climate change and environmental challenges. However, Europe often becomes too inwardly focused. Like the United States, it must learn to engage beyond its borders, as cultures across the continent and the world risk drifting apart. Fourth, Europe must embrace a vision of itself as a \"European empire of law,\" one defined not by military resources, but by soft power---through shared values, cooperation, and functioning as a model for others. Diversity should be recognized not as a problem, but as a solution. Finally, in agreement with the European slogan, the future of Europe lies in cooperation. By choosing not just to address global risks, but to forge a shared vision of the world, Europe can embody a model of peaceful diversity and unity. **Kundanini** Kundanini's argument contends that nationalism remains a persistent force that will not simply fade away. Despite the rise of nationalistic movements across the globe, Europe cannot serve as a universal model for overcoming these tendencies, as deep divisions still exist within the continent itself. Europe, often seen as a regional project, must recognize that cosmopolitanism stretches far beyond its borders. The challenges of nationalism extend globally, and Europe is not immune. Within Europe, a shift from civic nationalism to ethnic nationalism is emerging, complicating the European integration process. This integration, often framed in ethnic and cultural terms, has led to the development of the concept of \"Eurowhiteness.\" This notion underscores how Europe, in striving for unity, may reinforce divisions based on ethnicity and race. The European Union, while a beacon of cooperation for some, can also be seen as an expression of nationalism, drawing boundaries that define who belongs and who does not. At its core, this argument suggests that Europe\'s trajectory risks linking itself to a form of imperialism. By positioning itself as an exclusive club, Europe\'s integration process mirrors imperialistic tendencies, where the project of unity is deeply intertwined with notions of superiority and exclusion. Nationalism, in this sense, is not disappearing but evolving, shaping both Europe's internal dynamics and its relations with the world. **Ignatieff** **Ignatieff central argument posits that cosmopolitanism is inherently dependent on the capacity of nation-states to provide security. Without a stable foundation, cosmopolitan ideals struggle to thrive. However, the presence of nationalism complicates the European Union's efforts at integration, even though nationalism and cosmopolitanism can coexist.** **The key to this coexistence lies in managing nationalism, particularly by promoting civic nationalism, which is more compatible with cosmopolitan ideals than ethnic nationalism. Civic nationalism is grounded in shared political and moral values rather than ethnic identity, making it easier to live with in a diverse society. Yet, the deep roots of ethnic nationalism remain powerful, forming stronger emotional bonds for many people. This attachment has historically led to ethnic conflicts, including ethnic civil wars.** **Despite these challenges, Ignatieff's text takes a positive view of civic nationalism, framing it as a pathway for harmonious coexistence. Civic nationalism is seen as more inclusive and adaptable, able to foster a sense of belonging without the exclusionary tendencies of ethnic nationalism.** **Three doctrines---political, moral, and cultural---play a role in shaping this modern cosmopolitan outlook. Furthermore, two key features of contemporary cosmopolitanism are highlighted: the social and "racial" diffusion seen across societies and the fact that the global market is no longer ordered by the stable imperial systems of the past. These shifts create a more fluid and interconnected world, where cosmopolitanism must navigate the persistent forces of nationalism.** 5A Europe rule the waves ======================== 1. **Imperialism** Imperialism is the extension of a nation\'s power over other territories, driven by various factors like economics, politics, and culture. It involves both direct and indirect control of a region, typically driven by European states seeking to dominate global resources and markets. 2. **Colonialism** Colonialism refers to the practice of acquiring full or partial control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically. It often involves the physical settlement of people from the colonizing country and the establishment of administrative control. **Spread and development:** Colonialism developed in phases, initially driven by exploration and conquest (e.g., Spanish imperialism in search of gold and silver). It evolved into large-scale empire-building, particularly in the 19th century with the rise of the European nation-state and the industrial revolution. Colonial missions grew out of state-sponsored efforts and private companies. By the late 19th century, colonialism was a national project, closely linked to industrialization.The first stage was conclusion of a treaty between an African ruler and a European imperial power under which the former was usually accorded protection.The second one consisted of signing of bilateral treaties between the imperial powers usually based on the earlier treaties of protection .And the third one and where Europeans conquest and occupate their spheres- the most bloody and brutal of all stages. European expansion was fueled by commercial and territorial ambitions, supported by military power and technological advances. Treaties, deception, direct conquest, and alliances with local rulers were commonly used to establish control. 3. **The Berlin Conference (1884- 1885)-** attended by every Western country except USA and Switzerland, no African countries present. Four main rules were agreed upon at the conference: to inforl all the other powers before claiming property over an area, effective annexatio and occupation of claimed territories, the legitimacy of treaties signed with african rulers and coastal possesions could be extended inland. The congress did not start the Scrambe but accelerated it, caried on in three stages. 4. **Impact of imperialism on the European self-preception and the preception of 'Others'** Imperialism reinforced a sense of racial superiority among Europeans, constructing the idea of a \"European race\" that was believed to be more advanced and civilized. This justified colonial domination and promoted the belief that it was Europe\'s duty to civilize non-European peoples. Eurocentrism and racial hierarchy became integral to European identity \- The colonized peoples\' perceptions varied. Some saw Europeans as superior due to their technological and military power. However, movements like Ethiopianism emerged, which were driven by feelings of humiliation among the educated elite and a desire to assert African cultural and political identity. There was also resistance to European control, particularly among Muslim groups. 5B Orientalism ============== 1. **Definition of Orientalism** 2. **Impact of Orientalism** - The Orientalism in Europe provided justification for colonialism and imperialism and gave European sense of superiority - Outside of Europe, Orientalism created a framework for understanding "the Other". It led to injustice through colonial practices like slavery, kustified by Europe's sense of superiority. The depiction of "Others" made non-European societies appear backward, incapable of self-rule. Hipocracy was evident, for example,in Britain's claim of fighting slavery while exploting colonized people. 3. **Depiction of 'the Other'** The "Other" was often portrayed as less evolved, with societies unable to govern themselves like Europe. In Algeria, colonnized people were labeled as robbers and criminals. In egypt, when. Natives rejected political institutionns, they were blamed for their 'lack of understanding'. The terms 'we'(Europeans) and 'them'(colonized nations) were used to alienate the brutal experiences of the colonized. Said noted that Egyptians were placed in separate category and treated inferior by the West. 4. **Relationship between East and West** Europe saw itself as being in a position of strengh in terms of politics, culture and religion. The West view the East as inferior, and this inbalance was justified through Orientalism. Colonized people were believed to need the power of the empire, and Europe saw itself as necessary for their survival. Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in the 18th century, marked a key moment, spreading European iterest in Orientalism further east to China and beyond. 6A Pathways of modernity ======================== **Fin-de-sciele crisis of modernity**- Two decades preceding and the following First World War mark a shift in European modernity away from the legacy of the French Revolution- fin-de-siècle, watershed in which the political ideologies of the 19th century, born after the French Revolution, crystallised into potent political programmes with incompatible emancipatory agendas. at the end of the century Enlightenment ideas were seen as failures and were rejected in favour of a climate of crisis in European civilisation: Arnold Toynbee attributes it to a failure in creativity among elites, akin to that of the Roman Empire.The crisis of civilisation was not linked to culture, which was actually deemed capable of redeeming and overcoming civilisation. crisis of European civilisation was also a critique of mass society, it culminated in the WWI fuelled by the transformation of the social and economic order → modernity had changed so much in the conception of individual and society (cfr Freud and Marx) that it could no longer be conceived in the terms derived from the old social struggles of bourgeois emancipation = new attempts of social and individual organisation had to be found, giving birth to new projects of modernity: **Liberal democracy**- Often associated with the European political heritage and the defining feature of its modernity. Democratic nation-states aspires to equate the demoswith a singular notion of people, driving force behind liberal democracies is nationalism. Liberal democracy provided Europe with a means of solving the major challenges produced by modern society from the 19th century onwards.Liberal democracy was the principal model for the realization and organization of modernity in Europe: after the restrictive modernity of the 19th century it brought about the organised modernity (Peter Wagner) endowing European societies with a degree of stability after a period of uncertainty: organised modernity was based on nation-state and social classes. Democracy is not product of free-market but required state-led programmes and entailed social rights in addition to political and civic ones, underpinned by integration of capitalism within a democratic framework, transition to organised capitalism **Communism**- Project of modernity alternative to Western modernity, it did not seek legitimation in the French Revolution but in the Russian Revolution. Communism was competig with liberal democracy in the aftermath of the First World War but did not appeal to the idea of Europe, it defined itself as anti-western and revolved around a distinct civilisational dimention. Ater the First World War state socialism was exported to Central and Eastern Europe where despite its authoritarive traits it managed to immplement social rights and provide an alternative view of society. The events of 1989/1991 can be considered a revolution even though there was not a fundamentally new change in foundations of political commuity but it proved the significannce of ideas such as Perestroika and Glasnost and opened the possibility to create democratic socialism. **Fascism**- based essentialy on the notion of ethnic nationalism and belief in organic unity of the natio, but it was more than mere nationalism, embraced violece to regenerate society mirroring past splenndours. Project that can be seen as launched against modernity but also a one of modernnity. Creation of a new human being, innovative social and economic engeneering. Project of modernity but without the assertion of freedom and human autonomy, monolithic state whose control offered both elites and masses a sense of stability but also a growing dictance between action and responsibility, one of the main causes to the Holocaust. Fascism managed to take over also thanks to a scarecly rooted democratic traditon. **European integration**- was a less radical project in that it did not seek the overcoming of liberal democracy but rather the creation of a new kind of polity: a cosmopolitan imaginary that embedded the pursuit of national interest in a normative order beyond the nation-state. It was a memoryless project, not burdened by the legacy of the past, as the main objective of post-war movement was the amnesia of what happened in the past. European integration was not one but several kinds of integration, deepened from 1993 (Maastricht Treaty) onwards: already in 1973 the Copenhagen Declaration of European Identity pronounced a strong notion of European political identity founded on common values and principles that provide a basis for the pursuit of a united Europe- common European civilisation based on common heritage and converging ways of life. 6B Never Again ============== 1. **Lieu de memoire -** *Lieu de mémoire*, or a place of remembrance, represents history and contributes to collective memory, serving contemporary needs. This memory carries two sides: the harm done to us by the Germans and the actions we took after the war. The "Resistance" myth---celebrating widespread resistance to the Nazis---began to lose significance after 1951 when the Allies declared the war over.The concept of *lieu de mémoire* is fluid and subject to change, reflecting a collective amnesia(act of oblivion)where certain aspects of the past are forgotten. An *act of oblivion* refers to a deliberate process of forgetting or erasing certain events or aspects of the past, often to promote social or political stability. This act can occur on a collective level, where a society chooses not to remember certain events.In the context of historical memory, an act of oblivion might involve pardoning individuals who committed crimes, not prosecuting war criminals, or re-integrating them into society without accountability. It often goes hand in hand with a lack of self-reflection and can create a biased or incomplete understanding of the pastWar criminals were often reintegrated into public life without prosecution, and this selective memory process lacks self-reflection, focusing blame on one side and ignoring uncomfortable truths. 2. **Measures to prevent past mistakes** After World War II, several measures were implemented to prevent the mistakes of the past and rebuild a stable post-war Europe. While no official treaty marked the end of the war, significant efforts were made to reshape Germany and the broader European region.One of the key initiatives was the *Nuremberg Trials*, which held top German Nazi leaders accountable for war crimes. However, these trials were limited in scope, addressing only Nazi leadership and excluding other actors. This selective approach to de-Nazification was also evident in the broader process of removing Nazi influence from German society, which was inconsistent. By the 1950s, many former Nazis had regained their full civil rights, and de-Nazification had largely become a forgotten issue.The *democratization* of Germany played a critical role in ensuring political stability The country's political system was remodeled to establish a democratic order that would prevent the rise of future authoritarian regimes. *Decentralization* of the administration further supported this goal by fostering local self-government and avoiding the concentration of power in a central authority. To promote long-term peace and economic recovery, the *reconstruction and modernization of Europe's economy* was undertaken through transnational cooperation, such as the creation of the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Community (EEC). These institutions fostered unity across borders, ensuring economic stability and preventing future conflicts by promoting collaboration between nations. 3. **Fascism and Soviet communism** Hitler and Stalin cannot be said to be the same → different ideologies and vision of the future: race war at the expenses of other peoples vs world socialist revolution against internal opposers\ commonalty=territory they want to expand on → both parties wanted to control Eastern Europe. Stalin wanted to create socialism in one country and thus foster industrialisation, urbanisation and demographic rise in those territories whereas Hitler tries to destroy and harness all those achievements (with the same objective: control over the region)\ 1939 = become military ally because united by the will to occupy Poland → beginning of massive violence for the Nazis, whilst the Soviets had already been killing million of people before 1941 = Nazis try to invade USSR → conditions worsen on both sides: it is the years when most people in the Gulag died → they were there because of Stalin but died because of Hitler's invasion depriving resources 7A EU-rope ========== 1. **European societal model** Balancing democracy and capitalism requires market regulations that prioritize social justice and solidarity. State intervention ensures that universal welfare services and collective well-being are maintained, while allowing capitalism to function within a democratic framework.Key aspects include robust *social welfare systems* providing healthcare, education, and economic security, alongside *universal healthcare*, funded through taxation or social insurance. *Strong labor rights* ensure protections such as minimum wages and paid leave, while *progressive taxation* helps reduce inequality.Efforts to promote *social inclusion and equality* address disparities and gender-based inequalities. *Public investment* in infrastructure supports these goals, and *decentralized governance* allows national, regional, and local governments to respond effectively to community needs. 2. **American capitalist and European societal model** The European societal model contrasts sharply with the American capitalist model. In the U.S., capitalism is prioritized with minimal market regulation and limited government intervention. Rooted in neoliberalism and the idea of individual freedom, the U.S. system emphasizes free markets, often resulting in higher inequality due to the privatization of healthcare, welfare, pensions, and education.In Europe, by contrast, the focus is on social justice and solidarity, with stronger market regulations and state-provided welfare services like healthcare and education. This model aims to balance capitalism with collective well-being, reducing inequality through government intervention.In terms of social integration, Europe focuses on inclusion, fostering relationships and identity, such as integrating migrants into society.  System integration, on the other hand, involves the alignment of policies and governance, such as the coordination of the EU\'s Single Market rules. While Europe promotes inclusion and cohesion, it faces challenges like cultural fragmentation and bureaucratic inefficiency. In the U.S., the lack of focus on social welfare often leads to greater social exclusion and disparity. 3. **European reintegration** USSR wanted to avoid confrontation with USA and to do so it built the Iron Curtain and imposed communism everywhere on its side → Communism was also a strong presence in Western countries' political landscape, and in order to prevent it from rising USA intervened: Economically, with the Marshall Plan and militarily, by opening up its policies to alliances with European states and founding NATO. The fall of communism in 1989 marked a significant turning point in Europe, symbolized by the collapse of the Iron Curtain. This period was initially met with great expectations for economic revival, particularly through initiatives like the Marshall Plan. However, the reality often fell short, leading to significant inflation and economic challenges.Amidst this transition, individual freedom and the promise of a free market emerged as central themes. The Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia exemplified this shift, with the concept of humanity taking center stage. Citizens demanded protection of human dignity, democratization, and compassion, yet women\'s rights were largely overlooked in the process.With the end of the Cold War, the East-West divide became easier to bridge, leading to a transformation in European identity, particularly following the Treaty of Maastricht. The post-Cold War era in Eastern Europe was characterized by pluralization, the establishment of democratic systems, and increased globalization, emphasizing a vision of Europe without a distinct \"Other.