Lectures of Cell Biology (Master Stage) 2023-2024 PDF

Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 1. CYTO-SKELETON AND CELL MOTILITY The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that forms the "infrastructure" of eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells, and archaeans. Cytoskeleton was previously thought to be a feature only of eukaryotic cells, but homologues to all the major proteins of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton have recently been found in prokaryotes. Although the evolutionary relationships are so distant that they are not obvious from protein sequence comparisons alone, the similarity of their three- dimensional structures and similar functions in maintaining cell shape and polarity provides strong evidence that the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cytoskeletons are truly homologous unlike some structural differences in bacteria. In eukaryotic cells, these fibers consist of a complex mesh of protein filaments and motor proteins that aid in cell movement and stabilize the cell. Cell motility is the extra cellular (cell itself) and intracellular movements of the cell which include moving along surfaces, through a tissue and the movement of inner cell components. Typical examples of cellular movement may include extracellular (cell movement) such as; movement of cells from one point to another inthe embryo during embryonic development, movement of cells in to wound during wound healing, contraction of muscle cells, separation of cells during cell division (formation daughter cells) and intracellular movements ( cell components) such as membrane-bound vesicles in to the cell during cell eating( phagocytosis or endocytosis) and chromosomal movement during cell division ( mitosis). The cytoskeleton is responsible for cell shape, motility (movement) of the cell as a whole, and motility of organelles within a cell. There are three types of filaments in the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells (vertebrate cells): microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. All of these filament systems share a critical feature: They are composed of proteins that have the unique property of being able to self-assemble into a filamentous network. Imagine a pile of bricks that could assemble by themselves into a wall; the proteins that make up the fibers of the cytoskeleton are able to do just this. The proteins that make each of the three different filament systems assemble into only the structure characteristic of that filament. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Unlike the human skeleton, the cytoskeleton is extremely dynamic, meaning the filament systems are able to lengthen or shorten very rapidly. This dynamic nature of the cytoskeleton is necessary for cells to be able to change shape, complete cell division, or migrates, and representsone of the cytoskeleton's most important features. Each of the self-assembling proteins has a characteristic concentration, called the "critical concentration," below which the monomer state is favored and above which the polymer state is favored. Increasingly, the subunit concentration favors filament building, and decreasing it favors filament deconstruction. This property allows the cell to rapidly control cytoskeleton structure. 1.1. Microfilaments The microfilament (actin) system is a network of filaments 6 nanometers (nm) in diameter that are important for anchoring plasma membrane proteins, for producing cell movement, and for cell division. The base filament is composed of a protein called actin that is 42 kilodaltons (kd)in weight. Actin is also the protein that forms the thin filaments found in muscle. When purified actin is incubated in a test tube, 6 nm filamentous structures are formed. These threads consist ofside- by-side actin monomers that twist around each other in a helix. Inside cells, actin exists in two states, the monomeric protein, called G-actin (for globular actin) and the 6 nm filament, called F- actin (for filamentous actin). The factor that determines the relative proportions of F- actin and G- actin is the concentration of actin protein. Each microfilament has a fast-growing, or "plus," end, and a slow-growing, or "minus," end. In most cells the plus ends of the filaments are oriented toward the edge of the cell. In this way rapid polymerization of actin monomers onto theplus ends of microfilaments can produce protrusions on the cell surface called pseudopods. These extensions are critical for the ability of cells to migrate in a directional fashion. Microfilaments exist in their highest concentration in association with the cell periphery, where they are believed to play an important role in anchoring membrane proteins. Microfilaments can also be organized into bundles, called stress fibers, which serve as contractile elements, somewhat like little muscles, within cells. These structures are important for maintaining connections between the cell and the surface on which it grows. In addition, these structures may be important for producing contractility to generate directional force during cell motility. A third microfilament- based structure, the contractile ring, is critical for the separation of a cell into its two progeny during cytokinesis. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas In most cells the concentration of actin exceeds the critical concentration for microfilament assembly, yet the actin is not entirely assembled into filaments. This occurs because cells make a variety of "actin-associated" or "actin-binding" proteins. One example of an actin binding protein is the G-actin-binding protein profilin. When bound to profilin, actin monomers cannot assemble into filaments. Binding of actin by profilin can effectively reduce the concentration of free actin monomer to below the critical concentration. The actin-binding activity of profilin is regulated in cells. Certain stimuli will cause profilin molecules to release their bound actin monomers, effectively increasing the concentration of actin and thereby stimulating actin assembly. Thus cells can control the relative proportions of G-actin and F-actin. In general, the functions of actin-associated proteins are to modify the properties of the microfilament network in cells. Some filament-associated proteins, for example the protein tropomyosin, bind along the length of the filament to stiffen it. There are also proteins such as villin or filamin that bind microfilaments together side by side to produce bundles of actin filaments. Other actin-binding proteins cross-link actin filaments to form meshlike structuressuch as those found in association with the cell membrane. Cells can also control the length of filaments through the action of proteins that can cut filaments to produce two shorter filaments. To keep the filaments a certain length, cells produce "capping" proteins that bind to the ends and prevent the addition of new actin subunits. By modulating the state of the microfilament network the cell can control the physical properties of the cytoplasm such as rigidity and viscosity. One ofthe most interesting types of actin-associated proteins is a family of enzymes, called myosins, which have the ability to convert chemical energy into movement. The characteristic property of these so- called myosin molecular motors is their ability to bind actin in an adenosine triphosphate–sensitive fashion and to produce movement of actin filaments. Over fifteen different types of myosin motors have been identified. Some of them, such as those involved in cytokinesis and cell motility, are two headed, meaning they have two actin-binding motordomains, while others have only one head. Some of these myosins are involved in the movement of membrane-bound vesicles along actin tracks. The best characterized of these molecular motors, myosin II, slides actin filaments past each other either to power contraction of the contractile ring or to produce cell migration. A different version of this myosin motor forms the thick filaments that are responsible for the contraction of muscle. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Figure 33:Actin molecule 4.2 Microtubules Microtubules are the largest of the cytoskeletal filaments with a diameter of 25 nm. There are many parallels between the microfilament cytoskeletal system and the microtubule system. Like microfilaments, microtubules are produced by the self-assembly of a subunit, which in the case of microtubules is a heterodimer composed of one alpha tubulin and one beta tubulin bound together. Alpha and beta subunits alternate to form a protofilament. Thirteen protofilaments line up side by side, forming the hollow tube of the microtubule. Figure 34: Microtubule molecule Microtubule molecule: Illustration of the ring of 13 distinct subunits in a microtubule, each of which corresponds to a tubulin molecule. Bottom: A side view of a section of a microtubule, with the tubulin molecules in long, parallel rows called protofilaments. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Microtubules also have a fast-growing, or plus, end and a slow-growing, or minus, end. In most cells microtubules are organized in a radial array extending from a single site termed the microtubule organizing center (MTOC), generally positioned near the nucleus. This organization produces a network of microtubule tracks where the plus ends of the microtubules are near the cell surface and the minus ends are associated with the MTOC. This structure is wellsuited for the primary function of microtubules, which is to serve as tracks along which membrane-bound vesicles are moved. Vesicles transported include organelles such as mitochondria, as well as secretory vesicles destined for exocytosis. Another parallel with microfilaments is the highly dynamic nature of microtubules. Microtubules exhibit aphenomenon called "dynamic instability." Individual microtubules constantly grow and shorten, often shortening dramatically in a process called "catastrophe." This rapid turnover of microtubules allows cells to change shape quickly and facilitates reorganization of the tracks important for delivery of vesicles to sites throughout the cell. Like the microfilament cytoskeleton, the dynamics of microtubules can be modified by microtubule associated proteins, called MAPs. Some MAPs stabilize microtubules, while others cross-link microtubules, both with other microtubules as well as with microfilaments and the third cytoskeleton system,intermediate filaments (see below). The dynamics of microtubules are also important for mitosis. Each time the cell goes through division the microtubule network is completely disassembled and the tubulin subunits are reassembled into a new structure called the spindle. The spindle is responsible for the segregation of chromosomes into each daughter cell and also plays an important role in specifying the position of the cleavage plane that will separate the two daughter cells (during cytokinesis). The functions of microtubules in vesicle transport and chromosome segregation are dependent on molecular motors that bind to and move along microtubule tracks. These motors are divided into two families, kinesin and cytoplasmic dynein. Kinesin was the first microtubule motor to be identified. It is responsible for moving vesicles (the cargo of the motor) toward the plus ends of microtubules, that is, from the center of the cell toward the plasma membrane. Since discovery of the first kinesin, the family has been shown to consist of many members, some of which are important for spindle function during mitosis. Some of these kinesins move toward the minus ends of microtubules. In contrast, the other type of microtubule motor, cytoplasmic dynein, appears to Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas move cargo exclusively toward the minus ends of microtubules, that is, from the cell periphery back towards the center. The ability of these motors to move organelles around inside of cells is critical for processes such as hormone secretion, transmission of nerve impulses and recycling of membrane. 4.3 Intermediate Filaments The third cytoskeletal system is called the intermediate filament system because the filaments, which are 10 nm in diameter, are intermediate in size between microfilaments and microtubules. There are many other features that set the intermediate filaments system apart from the other cytoskeletal systems. Unlike the other systems, which are composed of one or two different proteins, intermediate filaments can be formed by a relatively large number of different proteins. For example, the primary intermediate filaments found in epithelial cells (such as skin) are formed from pairs of keratins, one basic and one acidic. There are a large number of different keratin pairs, found in different tissues that produce 10-nm filaments. Wool, hair, and nails are examples of structures formed from intermediate filaments. The different filament-forming keratins are developmentally regulated, and the keratins expressed early in embryos differ from those expressed later in development. In contrast, a different cell type, fibroblasts, have intermediate filaments that are formed from a single protein, vimentin. In heart tissue, the intermediate filaments can be formed from a different single protein, desmin. In nervous tissue the intermediate filaments are formed from yet another family of intermediate filament proteins called neurofilament proteins. There are even structures in the nucleus formed from intermediate filament protein family members called nuclear lamins. Although intermediate filaments can also self-assemble from their constituent subunits, the filaments differ from microtubules and microfilaments in that they do not have an obvious polarity. Structurally, intermediate filaments are formed from a bundle of subunit proteins which themselves are extended in structure, as compared to the more globular-shaped protein subunits that form microfilaments and microtubules. Intermediate filaments are generally more stable structures than the other cytoskeletal systems, although recently it has been shown that subunits are capable of exchanging in and out of the filament all across their length. Like other filament Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas systems, intermediate filaments have associated proteins, but interestingly no molecular motors that use intermediate filaments as their track have been identified. Intermediate filaments are organized within cells so that they link the cell surface and the nucleus. Intermediate filaments are believed to play an important role in cells by stabilizing structural integrity. Of all the cytoskeletal systems, intermediate filaments are best suited to play this structural role since they have the highest tensile strength (resistance to stretch). At the cell surface, intermediate filaments attach to specific junctions called desmosomes and hemidesmosomes. These junctions attach cells to neighboring cells or the extracellular matrix. Mutations in intermediate filament subunit proteins have been shown to cause human diseases. For example, mutations in keratins cause blistering diseases that result from a loss of cellular integrity, causing cells to literally split in half. Similarly, mutations in the neurofilament proteins produce neurological diseases called neuropathies. 4.4 Cytoskeleton-Based Cellular Structures Several cellular structures are built around a core of cytoskeletal proteins. Perhaps the best known examples are cilia and flagella. Flagella provide the motive force for sperm motility through their waving motion. Cilia line the surfaces of cells in the respiratory tract where their motion constantly moves mucus along the airway surface. The core of both flagella and cilia is composed of a highly organized bundle of specialized microtubules. Around a "central pair" of microtubules, there are nine pairs of modified microtubules called "doublet microtubules." The central pair and the outer doublet microtubules are connected by a number of different specialized proteins. The characteristic waving motion of cilia and flagella is generated by the action of a microtubule-based motor called axonemal dynein that moves the microtubules in the flagellum relative to each other. Axonemal dynein is related to the minus end directed motor cytoplasmic dynein that moves vesicles along microtubules. Dynein mutation causes cilia dysfunction, leading to respiratory illness and sperm immotility. Curiously, about half of the people with these mutations also have "situs inversus," in which the internal organs are reversed left for right. Another microtubule-based cellular structure is the centriole. The centriole is a somewhat mysterious cylindrical structure containing vanes formed from microtubules that run the length Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas of the cylinder. Centrioles together with the associated pericentriolar material form a somewhat larger structure called a centrosome. Centrosomes function as microtubule organizing centers during interphase of the cell cycle, and become the center of the spindle poles during mitosis. 4.4.1 Motor Proteins A number of motor proteins are found in the cytoskeleton. As their name implies, these proteins actively move cytoskeleton fibers. As a result, molecules and organelles are transported around the cell. Motor proteins are powered by ATP, which is generated through cellular respiration. There are three types of motor proteins involved in cell movement. Kinesins move along microtubules carrying cellular components along the way. They are typically used to pull organelles toward the cell membrane. Dyneins are similar to kinesins and are used to pull cellular components inward toward the nucleus. Dyneins also work to slide microtubules relative to one another as observed in the movement of cilia and flagella. Myosins interact with actin in order to perform muscle contractions. They are also involved in cytokinesis, endocytosis (endo-cyt-osis), and exocytosis (exo-cyt-osis). Questions for evaluation 1. What is cell cytoskeleton? 2. What is the role of cell cytoskeleton? 3. Mention components of cell cytoskeleton. 4. What do you understand by cell motility Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas References Alberts, Bruce et al. The Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th ed. New York: Garland Publishing, 2000. Bray, Dennis. Cell Movements. New York: Garland Press, 1992. Lodish, Harvey, et al. Molecular Cell Biology, 3rd ed. New York: Scientific American Books, Hardin, Jeff; Bertoni, Gregory; Kleinsmith, Lewis J. (2015). Becker's World of the Cell (8th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 422–446. ISBN 978013399939-6. McKinley, Michael; Dean O'Loughlin, Valerie; Pennefather-O'Brien, Elizabeth; Harris, Ronald (2015). Human Anatomy (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Education. p. 29. ISBN 0-07- 352573-1. Wickstead, Bill; Gull, Keith (22 August 2011). "The evolution of the cytoskeleton". The Journal of Cell Biology. pp. 513–525. doi:10.1083/jcb.201102065. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 7. CELLULAR ABNORMALITIES Cellular abnormality is defined as deviation or malformation during the occurrence of a certain phenomenon. Body cells can have abnormalities during cell multiplication or division and proliferations. One factor that can be a cause of this problem is gene mutations in cells. 7.1 Cellular abnormalities in cell division This abnormality can happen at chromosomal level or gene level and this lead to serious genetic mutations which later cause different diseases and simply lead to death. Defects in chromosomes happen and seem to be surprising events. It was notified that 20% of mankind already experienced this problem of chromosome defects and abnormalities. Previous researches show that 1 out of 118 neonates get chromosomal abnormalities in United States of America. This issue is influenced by cell division through meiosis by which gamete formation gets place. Statistical estimation showed that among 5 sperm cells created by a men who are in a good health, 1 sperm can have defection. We always observe spontaneous miscarriages in women and researchers have showed that half of them are due to gross chromosome errors and defects. Most of times this problem happens during early months of pregnancy may result from gross chromosomal errors. Chromosomal abnormalities are categorized in two: Irregular number of chromosomes and Modification in chromosome structure Both these types of chromosomal abnormalities happen due to nondisjunction errors which are defined as errors that mechanic during cell division through meiosis. These kinds of errors take place in paired chromosomes that are homologous where they move in the same pole instead of moving toward poles that is in opposite sides. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 7.1.1 Irregular Number of Chromosomes These types of error are mostly found in karyotypes of human embryonic and fetal cells and is an error that leads to variation in number of chromosomes. Parents offer their contribution in offspring chromosomes. It is known that both parents participate in determination of offspring chromosomes which is 23 and come up on pair of 23 in their descendents. The complete multiple of sets can be among these errors. Example can be like 23 + 23 + 23), which is known as polyploidy. On the other hand, an addition or loss of chromosomes can be happen. Find some examples here 23 + 22 for loss of chromosomes and 23+24 when chromosomes added to normal number of chromosomes and this is known as aneuploidy. Monosomy is referred to the situation when there is one to few chromosomes. Trisomy is also used to mean homologous pairs with three chromosomes. 7.1.2 Structural Modification of a Chromosome This kind of error occurs when we find that there is a breakage and loss of a part of chromatid, or added chromatid to to the same different or the same chromosome. The cause of chromosome breaking is still unknown however, medical geneticists and other related scientists are still analyzing and searching this causes. Remember that this breaking leads to genetic mutation which is influenced by radiation, chemicals and others, that is why they considered to be causes of chromosomes breaking. 7.1.2.1 Mosaicism Chromosomal abnormalities are not always mentioned in all cells. They occur in some cells and tissues which mean that some cells are normal while others carry abnormalities. It is in this manner that symptoms can be less severe someone than when all cells have abnormalities. It is discussed and discovered that mosaicism comes as results from mutations occurring during mitosis in early period of development of an embryo. When mutation happens in The later the embryonic stage, some few cells can be abnormal. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas The majority of chromosome abnormalities in humans take place in the autosomes. Monosomies and trisomies are mostly happen in the autosomes. During pregnancy, the presences of fetuses with autosomal monosomies will lead to spontaneous abortion in early in pregnancy. On the other hand, fetuses with autosomal trisomies have no chance of surviving as they die before parturition. When these babies get chances of surviving, they present number of physical defects mental retardation and other different problems that lead to early death of the newborn. Down syndrome is an abnormality which is commonly and mostly known. This abnormality is mild to severe form of mental retardation escorted by different physical features and traits. People who suffered from Down syndrome show an irregularity with autosome pair having 21 chromosomes. People who suffered from Down syndrome have appearances of physical features like short and stocky bodies without forgetting thick hands and feet. It is also observed that people with this abnormality have simian crease, in their hands and this is a crease in the palm found in all sides of the hand and runs from one side to the other. Other feature like having broad, short heads with small low-set ears, small concave saddle-shaped or flattened noses, relatively large ridged tongues that roll over a protruding lower lip, loose joints, and low muscle tone that leads to poor motor skills. Frequently, their eyes have an East Asian-like its shape and appearance due to an epicanthic fold. People that suffered from Down syndrome can have otherdifferent problems of medical importance, and those problems we can say epilepsy, hypothyroidism , having eyes that are crossed, having problems in seeing that contributes to near-sightedness or far-sightedness, features like hearing impairment, defects of the heart, malformation of intestines, and low resistance to respiratory infections are seen on people suffering from Down syndrome. Leukemia in Childhood is seen 20 times in people with Down syndrome than those without it. Down syndrome can have its acceralation due to age, it was seen that at the age 35, the rate of 25% of people with non-mosaic Down syndrome begin developing Alzheimer syndrome. Actually, people with Down syndrome die in childhood, and in united states, they used dying at the age of 9 in 1929 but with development of medicine, they can reach the old age. But this is not applied to developing countries. Almost Down syndrome fetuses are not ready to survive and up to 85% get spontaneousl abortion. It was also noticed by researchers that 1/4 of all miscarriages are caused by trisomy which is a part of Down syndrome. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 7.1.3 Abnormalities in Sex Chromosome As abnormalities are found in somatic cells, it is also done in sex chromosomes. The frequency of chromosome abnormalities is less in sex chromosomes than somatic cells. Abnormalities in Sex chromosome are gender based. We better know that male who is Normal inherit X and Y chromosomes, and on the other hand females have XX which means two Xs in their chromosomes. Only single Y chromosome is enough to give maleness while X is responsible for femaleness. Abnormalities in female can occur due to any variation on chromosome number which chromosome X and for male abnormalities it can happen either to X or Y or can happen toboth Y and X 7.1.3.1 Abnormalities in Female Sex Chromosome Let’s start on Turner syndrome, which takes place when a woman or females possesses X0, and directly inherit one X. chance of surviving to girls with this type of abnormalities is very low and if they get chance of surviving after birth, they seriously meet abnormal growth. These people are very short in stature, and averages of how short they vary from 4 foot to 7 inches on adult person. These people have webbed neck, small jaws and arched palates. These people can miss secondary sexual characters. Abnormalities in chest, breast, and other parts of the body can occur. Abnormal ovary development also is present which means that no ovulation for these people. They can produce children by implanted fertilized eggs. Women that have Turnersyndrome are in high risk of getting thyroid disease, vision and hearing impairments, heart defects, diabetes, and some other autoimmune disorders. It can cause mental retardation in a small number of individuals and the good thing is that is rare within population. Early detection and diagnosis of this abnormality in early childhood can be very fruitful. It can be done through regular injections of human hormone that are responsible for growth and can increase inches on the stature. During puberty, estrogen replacement can facilitate in the development of breast and also menstruation can occur regularly. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Another chromosomal abnormality for women is Triple-X syndrome occurring in women inheriting three X chromosomes and their genotype is structured like XXX. This brings as to "super-females" or "metafemales”, in adults. They can be very tall with long legs, and have slender torsos. This condition is not common some women can stay in normal state with this abnormality. It does not matter on sexual characteristics and fertility; however, ovary abnormalities can take place and contribute to prematurity of ovary. This abnormality leads to problems like having difficulties in learning, speaking, and have problems in language skills. You find them tall in childhood; the size of these individuals seems to be immature. Despite these problems that they face, their emotion give orient them to maturity like other girls of their generation, and these health traits cannot lead them to problems of being unaccepted as women like others. People with XX/XXX do not show number of symptoms. Triple- X syndrome is less common comparing to Turner syndrome. 7.1.3.2 Abnormalities in Male Sex Chromosome One of male sex chromosomes abnormalities we can say is Klinefelter syndrome and is a condition where males inherit extra X chromosomes and you find their genotype in this form XXY or in other cases but rare you can find their genotype in this form XXXY. Males of this type of genotype may have very high pitched voices, very asexually women and can have big breasts. In many ways, they can be sterile or not, they are with very small testes as well as prostate glands, and this leads to low production of testosterone. During puberty, productions of testosterone can imbalance feminine effects. As discussed early in women, in triple X females, men who suffered from Klinefelter syndrome can have abnormal height. These people also can suffer from abnormal weight, they can be overweighed. They have no capacity in learning during childhood and also have problems in speaking. This leads them to having low grading at schools and in different exams. Our consideration can confirm that these people with Klinefelter syndrome are not normal physically, but men suffered from this health condition are normal apparently and have all to live within society. Reproductive system of these people with Klinefelter syndrome, has ability of proper sexual functioning, they can have erections, ejaculations, in some most cases they can have Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas inability of producing sperms to conceive. In some cases, Klinefelter syndrome males, can have more than X chromosomes and in this case, they put out number of extreme features and symptoms and possess mental retardation. Men with mosaic genotype (XY/XXY) may have chance of having few problems. Another second known abnormality in male sex chromosomes is XYY syndrome, it is a condition where males inherit extra Y chromosomes. The genotype formation of this condition is XYY. When gets to adult, super-males are apparently very tall and have more than 6 feet. Thisis not a condition that stops them to be normal, they have normal activities. due to genotype condition, they over produce testosterone, and this condition cause some secondary sexualcharacters that are different to other adolescents of the same age. Things like severe facial acne can be a problem and is hard to control due to this condition. Men with this condition have ability to reproduce and live in adult age like others. This condition (XYY syndrome) is also known on the name of Jacobs syndrome. 7.2 Some diseases that affect cells Cells are made human body. These cells have number of genes, proteins and others that made cellular membrane. Cells act like independent livings; they respond to chemical signals, and also respond to environmental factors. Diseases come in cells as results of dysfunction of cells, this condition can lead to development of many cells, more than what are normal, some essential cells can be lost, and others. Some of diseases are listed below: 7.2.1 Cancer Cancer is the most known diseases in United States and other developing countries. In 2009, researches in the cancer journal for clinicians, gave us estimation showing that cancer mortality rate was 562,340deaths and 1,479,350 new cases in United States. Cancer is term used to explain number of diseases occurring due to normal cells that develop mutations leading to abnormalities in cell proliferation and this facilitate formation of tumors. Cancer cells have ability to migrate in all parts of the body and lead formation of tumors in other body tissues and the tissue gets damaged and dies. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 7.2.2 Sickle-cell Disease Another known and common cell disease is sickle-cell disease, this is disorder of blood and characterized by defects in red blood cells. In Red blood cells, we know an important component called hemoglobin, which is responsible in transporting oxygen in all parts of the body by means bloodstreams. In the case of sickle cell diseases, this important part of red blood cell (hemoglobin) gets mutations and even changes its shape due to this mutation. This condition stops Hemoglobin to transport oxygen and cause problems in the blood. Clinical characteristicsof patient suffering from sickle cell diseases are anemia, lack of oxygen, difficulties in breathing, cold hands and feet without forgetting pain. 7.2.3 Alzheimer's disease Another known disease in cells is Alzheimer's, and affect nerve cells in the brain part known as neurons. Neurons are essential in communicating with other nerve cells in the brain, and facilitate transmission of information or signals to the whole body. Patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease, have occurrence of developed harmful protein called protein plaques, and this protein participate in disrupting function of neurons that are neighbors. With this condition, we find neurons collapsing, and creation of neurofibrillary tangles takes place and this, seriously lead to death of neurons. Continuity in neurons loss is leading cause of dementia and memory loss, but also, defective motor function can develop. This condition is incurable, however some drugs can be used to facilitate patients having life. Questions for evaluation 1. What do you understand by the term cellular abnormalities? 2. When do we say that there is abnormality within a cell? 3. Explain the process of chromosome abnormality in somatic cells 4. Explain and detail chromosome abnormality for both male and female chromosomes 5. Mention clinical features found on some with down syndrome 6. What is the cause of down syndrome? 7. Distinguish: a) monosomy and trisomy, b) super-male and super-female Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas References 1. Abdelhadi I, Colls P, Sandalinas M et al. 2003 Preimplantation genetic diagnosis of numerical abnormalities for 13 chromosomes. Reproductive BioMedicine Online 6, 226– 231. 2. Alikani M 2005 Epithelial cadherin distribution in abnormal human pre-implantation embryos. Human Reproduction August 25; [Epub ahead of print] 3. Alikani M 2001 Cytoplasmic fragmentation in human embryos in vitro: implications and the relevance of fragment removal. In: Gardner D, Weissman A, Howles C, Shoham Z (eds) Textbook of Assisted Reproductive Techniques, Laboratory and Clinical Perspectives. Martin Dunitz, United Kingdom, pp. 169–182. 4. Alikani M, Schimmel T, Willadsen SM 2005 Cytoplasmic fragmentation in activated eggs occurs in the cytokinetic phase of the cell cycle, in lieu of normal cytokinesis, and in response to cytoskeletal disorder. Molecular Human Reproduction 11, 335–344. 5. Alikani M, Calderon G, Tomkin G et al. 2000 Cleavage anomalies in human embryos and survival after prolonged culture in vitro. Human Reproduction 15, 2634–2643. 6. Alikani M, Cohen J, Tomkin G et al. 1999 Human embryo fragmentation in vitro and its implications for pregnancy and implantation. Fertility and Sterility 71, 836–842. 7. Almeida PA, Bolton VN 1996 The relationship between chromosomal abnormality in the human preimplantation embryo and development in vitro. Reproduction, Fertility and Development 8, 235–241. Almeida PA, Bolton VN 1995 The effect of temperature fl uctuations on the cytoskeletal organization and chromosomal constitution of the human oocyte. Zygote 3, 357–365. 8. Angell RR, Sumner AT, West JD et al. 1987 Post-fertilization polyploidy in human preimplantation embryos fertilized in vitro. Human Reproduction 2, 721–727. 9. Antczak M, Van Blerkom 1999 Temporal and spatial aspects of fragmentation in early human embryos: possible effects on developmental competence and association with the differential elimination of regulatory proteins from polarized domains. Human Reproduction 14, 429–447. 10. Artley JK, Braude PR, Johnson MH 1992 Gene activity and cleavage arrest in human pre- embryos. Human Reproduction 7, 1014–1021. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 11. Balaban B, Urman B, Alatas C et al. 2001 Blastocyst-stage transfer of poor- quality cleavage-stage embryos results in higher implantation rates. Fertility and Sterility 75, 514–518. 12. Balakier H, Cadesky K 1997 The frequency and developmental capability of human embryos containing multinucleated blastomeres. Human Reproduction 12, 800–804. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 2. TYPES OF CELL DIVISION All livings are made of great number of cells that we cannot estimate. Livings start as single cells and most of time people wonder on development of a living from a single cell to an organism with trillions of cells. The real response to fill their curious is cell division. Cells take their time to reach on maximum size and enter their division to give new cells. Released new cells are small but they grow rapidly and divide to release other new cells and this process continue by repeating in this way. Cell division is made simple in prokaryotes but takes process in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells simple in their nature, they contain a circular chromosomes, and organelles like nucleus and some others are absent in prokaryotic cells. In contrast side Eukaryotic cells, have much number of chromosomes and located in important organelle called nucleus. All these organelles have to duplicate and separation occurs during cell division. Chromosomes are located and always reside in nucleus in eukaryotic cells. Cells are divided in two ways, one is mitosis and another one is meiosis. Mitosis is done on somatic cells while meiosis is done on reproductive cells that will enter gametes formation. 3.1 Mitosis As discussed early in introductory part of this chapter, cell division is a sequence of process of steps by which living organisms are enabled to grow and have ability of reproduction. During cell division through mitosis, genetic material enters replication in a mature cell and is shared in equal way in two daughter new cells. Before a cell begin its division, it enters interphase state which is a period taken by the cell to grow. There important activities that take place during interphase, the replication of genetic material and organelles organization to be ready for cell division are all take place in interphase. Cell division through mitosis mature cell genome is carried into new formed daughter cells, and new cells are similar for themselves and to their mother cell. By the beginning of mitosis, the cell chromosomes enter condensation. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas In most eukaryotic cells, the nuclear membrane separates genetic material (DNA) from the cytoplasm into membrane vesicles. The ribosome dissolves; the chromosomes arranged and align themselves. Microtubules are responsible in pulling apart of the sister chromatids of every chromosome. The homologous chromosomes (daughter chromosomes) are moved towards opposite sides. The formation of nuclear membrane takes place on separated daughter chromosomes. In animal cells, the pinching of cell membrane is done inwards, to create to form two daughter cells. In plant cells, the cell wall that is divided is built in between the daughter cells. The parent cell will split in half and produce to two daughter new cells. Figure 17: Mitosis summary 3.1.1 Phases of mitosis Mitosis is a type of cell division that passes in four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Because of long lasting time, prophase may have two phases prophase and prometaphase. Both Prophase and metaphase prepare the cell for division process. The real division is done on anaphase and telophase. Before it enters prophase, a cell creates a copy of its DNA. At this stage, the cell nucleus is contains chromatids, and two copies of the chromosomes in connection. On this phase, animal cells have already completed creating copies of their centrosome by this stage. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 3.1.1.1 Prophase In first stages of prophase, the cell organelles prepare for cell division and chromosomes begin condensation for facilitating its migration to poles when cell dividing. Formation of mitotic spindles takes place by this step of mitosis. Between two centromeres mitotic spindles are formed out microtubules. These spindles are responsible in organizing chromosomes when a cell dividing through mitosis. Figure 18: Prophase structure During prophase, cells do not only create structures, but it enters in breaking down some structures. Ribosomes are created by nucleolus which always resides in cell nucleus. The nucleolus will disappear quickly as a cell ready for division. In later prophase, or prometaphase, the breaking of nuclear membrane take place at this stage and found as a second stage of prophase. As nuclear membrane breaks, chromosomes get of nucleus to cytoplasm. Between centrosomes, there are mitotic spindles and these spindles take their expansion and begin capturing chromosomes. After condensation of chromosomes, chromosomes get compacted. In mitotic spindles, microtubules are found and capture chromosomes and bind them kinetochore. The kinetochore is a structure located on the centromere of the sister chromatids, the region where the chromatids are the most tightly form their bonding and connection. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 3.1.1.2 Metaphase The beginning of metaphase, already started with bonding of mitotic spindles and chromosomes. And here they are found on line in the middle of the cell. At this stage, chromosomes have ability to divide. Each chromosome has two kinetochores and facilitate anchoring of chromosomes and microtubules. These are necessary for a cell to divide in proper manner. Figure 19: Metaphase structure After chromosomes organization, the mature cell enters the process known as spindle checkpoint. Where spindles verify if chromatids are organized in proper way for cell division. Misalignments of chromatids can late cell division and in case cell division takes place with this problem of improperly attachment of chromatids, future problems in individual health. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 3.1.1.3 Anaphase Chromatids have already aligned in central part of the cell, in anaphase, the centrosomes begin pulling on chromatids. During this phase, sister chromatids are pulled by means spindles and leave central part to poles. They create daughter chromosomes separately. The microtubules, at this stage begin elongating and facilitate a cell to divide in two daughter cells. Figure 20: Anaphase structure 3.1.1.4 Telophase Telophase is the last and final step of a cell to divide. When a cell finished dividing in two daughter cells, the formed cells enters the process of living independently and begins establishing new cell structure. Breaking down of mitotic spindles occurs at this stage and these spindles return back in the initial state in its constituents. Chromosomes get unwound and get their form like strings or chains. Nuclei are formed in both new cells already produced and formation of nuclear membrane renew on formed nucleoli. The complete cell division cannottake place until cytokinesis takes place and finishes Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Figure 21: Telophase structure 3.1.1.5 Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is the process that assures the division of mature cell into two new daughter cells with the same genome. It occurs in last phases of cell division. During cell division in animals, the cytoplasm is pinched and create cleavage furrow, and this continue up to the end of cytoplasm division. There is a difference on plant cells, they don’t use the same process of division like that of animal cells, and one factor that makes difference is that their cell wall makes plant cells to be rigid. They easily make their new cell wall in central part of the cell. Thefour phases of mitosis are all integral to cell division and replication. Without mitosis, the cells in your body could not replicate, and life as we know it wouldn’t exist. 3.2 Meiosis Meiosis is type of cell division exist in cell responsible in gamete formation. Cells with haploid chromosomes enter nuclear division to produce four Haploid cells. It is also known as meiocytes to mean formation of sperms and eggs. Diploid cells enter in meiosis division for the purpose of creating gametes or meiocytes with half of ploidy of their parent cells, and are applied for organisms that reproduce sexually. It is known that the zygote gets half of ploidy of each parent and give a zygote ability to have ploidy information from both parents. Meiosis has no difference with mitosis in phases engaging cell division. The uniqueness that comes in meiosis is genetic recombination through crossing over of homologous chromosomes. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 3.2.1 Meiosis I All phases of meiosis seem to be the same as of that of mitosis. Replications of chromosomes are done in the same way in type one of meiosis. The amount of DNA in the cell has doubled, and the ploidy of the cell remains the same as before, at 2n. In meiosis I, the phases are analogous to mitosis: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I (below figure). Meiosis I proceeds directly to meiosis II without going through interphase. Figure 22: Meiosis 1 summary Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 3.2.1.1 Prophase I This stage comes up with manifestation of chromosomes that are seen as solely bodies. Centrioles also get arranged in opposite sides of the nucleus. By this stage homologous chromosomes coiled and get zipped to form pairs known as bivalents in the process named synapsis. As chromosomes coiled around each other, chromatids remain connected in joining place known as Chiasmata. By the time of synapsis, chromosomes that are homologous enter an exchange of their genetic material between one another, and This exchange is known as crossingover. Figure 23: Prophase 1 structure 3.2.1.2 Metaphase 1 During this phase, Nuclear membrane gets disappeared to make freedom to chromosomes by entering cytoplasm. The formation of spindles already done in early stages. Chromosomes that are paired moves to equator and attachment on spindles facilitated by its centromere. During this time homologous chromosomes get orientation in opposite sides of poles. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Figure 24: Metaphase 1 3.2.1.3 Anaphase 1 Chromosomes that are Homologous get separation and enter migration in opposite poles. The influence of this migration is facilitated by shortening of spindle fibres and chromosomes get pulled. However, sister chromatids still coiled at this stage. Figure 25: Anaphase 1 3.2.1.4 Telophase 1 When the journey of chromosomes from centre to poles finishes, they densely packed together. Spindles break down and formation of nuclear membrane takes place on each chromosomes and Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas the cell halved divides. However most of organisms do not enter telophase, and scientific evidences shows that they directly enter meiosis 2. Figure 26: Telophase 1 3.2.1.5 Summary of meiosis 1 Figure 27: Meiosis 1 summary Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 3.2.2 Meiosis 2 Phases 3.2.2.1 Prophase 2 The thickenings of chromosomes take place at this point and new spindles formation place. You better know that dispersion of chromosomes already taken place in telophase I, thus, they will enter condensation in prophase II. At this early stage of meiosis II, sister chromatids continue coiling together. Figure 28: Prophase 2 3.2.2.2 Metaphase II As usual, at this stage chromosomes get arranged in metaphase plate. And attached on new formed spindles. Each new formed cell, enters completion of spindles formation. Alignment of single chromosomes takes place in metaphase plate and seems different with metaphase I where paired chromosomes get alignment in metaphase plate. the kinetochores of each chromosome, of the sister chromatids face the opposite poles to be ready for migration, and each gets its attachment to a kinetochore microtubule that comes from that pole. Figure 29: Metaphase 2 Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 3.2.2.3 Anaphase II At this stage separation of cetromeres take place as well as that of sister chromatids. Chromosomes take their trip toward opposite poles. This chromatids that are separated are known as chromosomes in their own right. Figure 30: Anaphase 2 3.2.2.4 Telophase II In second telophase, the formation of nuclear envelope take place on each part of chromosomes and time of cytokinesis arrives. Production of four daughter cells take place and diploid already changed to haploid. Crossing happened in meiosis I, allow chromosome to have some characters from parent chromosomes. Figure 31: Telophase 2 Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 3.2.2.5 Summary Figure 32: Summary of meiosis 2 Questions for evaluation 1. What the role of somatic cell division in living things? 2. Explain the process of mitotic division and explain clearly each step of this type of cell division. 3. Explain the process of crossing over and explain why this process play important role in living organisms 4. In which type and stage of cell division does crossing over take place? 5. What the difference between mitosis and meiosis? 6. Is meiosis different with gametogenesis? Explain your answer. 7. Meiosis is done in two principal parts, explain and mention all stages passes through in two parts. Lectures of cell iology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas References 1. Anon, (2016). How does sexual reproduction generate genetic variation? - B4FA -B4FA. 2. Kundu, M. (2012). Manash (Subhaditya Edusoft): Cell Division : Mitosis and Meiosis :Birth of new cells from old cells 3. Shmoop. (2016). Mitosis Vs. Meiosis - Shmoop Biology. [online] Available at: http://www.shmoop.com/cell-cycle/mitosis-versus-meiosis.html [Accessed 19 Jan. 2016]. Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 2. Ultra-Structure Structure And Organisation Of Cell Organelles All living Organisms are made of cells, and cells have their appropriate structures which facilitate them to play their function within living cells. Cells structured in organelles, most of orga organelles of cells are seen by means of electron microscope leads to the term ultra structure. Numbers of organelles are found in cell structure and each one play its role independently and this refers to as division of labor. Figure 4: Structure of animal aand plant cell 2.1 Descriptions of organelles and their function within cells. 2.1.1 The Nucleus This is the largest organelle in a cell. Within cell nucleus, you find a dense structure known as Nucleolus covered and protected by nuclear membrane of envelop envelope. e. This envelope has two membranes and their separation is done by means of a fluid in which nuclear pores that facilitate molecules to pass through are found. Nucleus stores genetic materials. Nucleolus is responsible for Ribonucleic acid production as we well ll as involving in Ribosome protection which later takes journey through nuclear pore to cytoplasm and participate in protein synthesis process. Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Figure 5: Nucleus structure 2.1.2. The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) This is an organelle located near and around nucleus and contained cisternae which are sacks that are flat in shape, and are with nuclear envelope. Endoplasmic Reticulum is categorized in two types and those are Rough Endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum m has many around its outer surfaces but smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no ribosomes. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is responsible in transporting proteins synthesized in ribosomes and smooth endoplasmic reticulum serves in lipids synthesis. Figure 6: Str Structure of Endoplasmic reticulum 2.1.2. Golgi apparatus The Golgi apparatus (GA) are also known as Golgi body. It resides in both plant and animal cells, it is composed by series of five to eight that are cup in shape, cisternae which seems as a stack balloons. oons. In some of flagella protozoan 60 cisternae put together and make Golgi apparatus. The amount of Golgi apparatus varies depending on their functions. Each cell of animals notified to contain 10 and 20. Golgi apparatus are responsible in modifying prot proteins eins brought by ER. Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Figure 7: Structure of Golgi body 2.1.2.Lysosomes Lysosomes are tiny sacs containing fluid in which enzymes are found. These enzymes are responsible in nutrients processing of the cell. Lysosomes are important sites of digestion; they break down heavy molecules in simple molecules that cannot harm the cell. A defining characteristic of lysosomes is that each one is bounded by only a single membrane. Alysosome size is a diameter of approx. 50nm to 1 μm§ , lysosomes possess a single outer membrane containing of a phospholipid bilayer and contain acid hydrolases which are enzymes capable of breaking breaking-down macromolecules. Figure 8:Structure of lysosome Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Action of Lysosomes Figure 9:Structure of action of lysosomes Lysosomes are considered to be a digestion machines, they only work when the cell enters or absorbs or consumes a certain food. When a material located in the cell, lysosomes directly attach and produce their digestive enzymes. These enzymes are responsible in breaking down complex and heavy molecules that can give complex sugars and proteins. But what happens to lysosomes during the absence of food or starvation? The lysosomes continue their activity despite the absence of food in the cell. Here lysosomes can digest cell organelles to produce cell nutrients. 2.1.2.Mitochondria Mitochondria are rod in shape and are known to be the power generator of the cell as it assist in converting oxygen and nutrient into ATP which is a chemical energy responsible in cell metabolic activities. thee number mitochondria needed by a cell is based on metabolic activities required, and may be one or many depending on this condition. Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles, and their size is varied in the interval of 1 and 10 micrometer in length and number umber of them depends on metabolic activities that cells wish to accomplish. Different researches done on this organelle shows that it rapidly change the shape and has a constant movement in the cell. Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Figure 10: Mitochondrion structure 2.1.2. Chloroplasts Chloroplasts are useful organelles among plastids as they highly participate in the process of photosynthesis which is a process by which plants synthesize their own food. They are located in outer surface of the cell to receive enough right. Chloroplasts are green colored due to pigment called chlorophyll found in its internal parts. Some of important characteristics of plant is its ability to do photosynthesis as the way they use in making their own food and pass through converting light energy in chemicalal energy. This pearl process take place in all plant kinds in the organelle called chloroplast. All green plants are responsible to have chloroplasts within their structure and in most of plants, chloroplasts are found in the leaves. Figure 11: Chloroplast structure Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 2.1.2. Vacuoles Vacuoles are storage bubbles that reside in cells. They are located in both plant animal cells despite their difference in size. Vacuoles in plant cell are larger than that of animal cells. Vacuoles play important roles in storing ring food and other nutrients essentially for a cell to be healthy. It also sometimes store wastes before sending them out to protect the cell. Vacuole has a very simple structure, only a mass of fluids surrounded by membrane are parts of vacuoles. This fl fluid might contain nutrient or wastes, plant can also profit occasions of storing water by means vacuoles found in plant cells. As discussed early, plant cells have larger vacuoles comparing to that of animal cells. In their growth, plant cell may have one vacuole which is very large in plant cells, and probably occupy the half of the cell volume. Vacuoles are holders of much water in the cell, but also can store plant waste products, and break those wastes in small particles that cannot harm the cell. Vacuo Vacuoles assure for structure of plants as plant uses cell wall in terms providing support and surround. Cell volume may change according to the presence or absence of water within vacuole. Shrinking of plant cells is not a result of cytoplasm amount but depend dependss on amount of materials found in the vacuole Gaining or losing water for the vacuole depends on water amount within plant. Figure 12: Animal and plant vacuole 2.1.2. Ribosomes Cells always need proteins production. Enzymes that facilitate in speeding bi biological process with cells are made of proteins. Other proteins that play important roles in cell function are found in membranes. When a cell enters its way of making proteins it directly search for ribosomes as these organelles known to be proteins synt synthesizers hesizers or builders for the cell. The specialty of Ribosomes is their presence in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Some organelles like nucleus are found only in eukaryotic cells. In eukaryotic cells Ribosomes are found in different places and are sseen een floating in cytosol. The important role of these proteins floating within the cell is the production of proteins to be used inside the cell. There are other ribosomes located on endoplasmic reticulum, and are responsible in activities inside the cell and nd proteins made for export out of the cell. We need to notify when these ribosomes participate in proteins synthesis. When living cells enter protein making, messenger RNA have to be synthesized in the nucleus. Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas This messenger RNA gets out from nucleus to cytoplasm to meet ribosomes, where two subunits of ribosomes combine with messenger RNA and begin the process of synthesizing proteins. Simply protein synthesis needs amino acids. Transfer RNA is also located in the cell and simple gets bonding with amino acids floating around the cell. Due to instruction from messenger RNA, ribosomes connect to transfer RNA and break down the bonding structure between transfer RNA and amino acids, so they pull off amino acids. Transfer RNA also liberated to go back and connects with amino acids. Ribosomes construct a chain of amino acid or polypeptide that will be broken in simple proteins. Protein synthesis process is found below Figure 14: Amino acid chain in protein synthesis 2.1.2. Cell Wall Cell wall is found only on plant cells. This is a non living part of the cell, and is known to be extra cytoplasmic product. Cell wall is more sized than plasma membranes. Its responsibility is to give a shape of the plant and manage plant cell growth. It protects the cell against the entry of unnecessary molecules and invading germs. Cell walls have different layers. It has three basic layers, intracellular layer or middle lamella, primary and secondary layer. The middle lamella plays a role of cementing ttogether the primary Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas walls of two contiguous cells and the secondary wall is laid over the primary. The middle lamella is mainly made of a pectic compound appearing to be calcium pectate. The primary wall is largely made of cellulose and the secondary wall may be of cellulose or cellulose whose inside found other substances. Figure 15: Cell wall structure 2.1.9.1 Primary cell wall Cellulose is known to be the main chemical components of the primary cell wall, and made of organized microfibrils. Microfibril Microfibrilss is made of carbohydrate which is a cellulose component linked together. Cellulose has the bulk of material that cell walls are made in. 2.1.9.2 Secondary cell wall The secondary cell wall is deposited inside the primary cell, and show cell maturity. Thi This secondary part of cell wall can sometimes have the same components like that of primary cell wall. The specialty is that this part contains lignin. Lignin is aromatic alcohol group that build secondary cell wall. This important part helps in xylem format formation, ion, and gives strength and rigidity of the cell. In mature tissues this party is found. 2.1.9.3 Middle lamella This is important part of a cell wall which is rich in pectins. It assures that two neighboring cell cemented together. The position of middle llamella amella facilitates neighbor cells to share their contents by means of special conduits. plasmodesmata, are small passages that penetrate and enter middle lamella and both primary and secondary cell wall, and support the exchange of transporting cytoplasmic contents from one cell to another. 2.1.10 Plasma Membrane Plasma membrane is found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It is cover that binds cell contents and known to semi-porous porous barrier to the external environment. It plays a role of boundary and holds the cell components together, without neglecting keeping other molecules from entering. Here it accepts for a substance to enter or not. Most of substance allowed by plasma membrane to enter include: oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water but also adding essential nutrients of the cell. However, waste materials are permitted to get out of the cell. Based on accepted principle known as Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas fluid mosaic model, plasma membrane is made of two layers (bilayer) of lipids, oils and all found in all cells. 2.1.11 Centrioles The centrioles are cell organelles that are cylinders in shape. They can be found in most of cells having the real nucleus. Centrioles are composed of grouped microtubules and are responsible in organizing and fixing microtubules during cell divisi division on in animal cells. During replication, centrioles replicate in interphase of mitosis and meiosis. Figure 16: Structure of centrioles and spindle fibers Centrioles in Plant and animal Cell You better know that Plant cells do not possess centrioles. Its po polele structure is different from that of animal cells. This difference in cell pole structure is due to absence of cellular organelles assisting in being focal point. Due to this issue, some spindles have no localization. In animal cells we found centrosomes containing two that are barrel in shape and are are called centrioles. The centrioles assist in organizing the mitotic spindle and in the completion stage of cytokinesis. The centrioles are essential in the formation of the mitotic spindle. These centriol centrioles es are useful part of the centrosomes, they contribute in coordination of organizing the microtubules in the cytoplasm. They are other organelles of the cell that are not found here but these are main ones that everyone has to describe, and in further rea readings, you can read more about them. Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Questions for evaluation 1. What is the difference between animal and plant cells? 2. Describe the process of protein synthesis by ribosomes 3. What is the difference between cell membrane and cell wall? 4. Centrioles facilitate cell division by fixing spindles fibers, and are not found in plant cell, explain how plant cells divide without centrioles. 5. Life is based on cells. What do you think on this statement? References 1. Bailey, R. (2015). What Is the Structure and Function of the Nucleus?. [online] 2. Baker, R. (2015). Eukaryotic Animal Cell Structure: A Visual Guide. [online] HubPages. Available at: http://hubpages.com/hub/What-Are-Cells-Made-Of [Accessed 14 Jan. 2015]. 3. Buzzle.com. (2015). [online] Available at: http://www.buzzle.com/images/diagrams/heart- wall.jpg [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. 4. Ispolatov, I., Ackermann, M. and Doebeli, M. (2011). Division of labour and the evolution of multicellularity. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 279(1734), pp.1768- 1776. LECTURES OF CELL DYNAMIC Master Stage Department of Biology First Semester 2023-2024 Course Period 16 Weeks By: Assist Prfo Dr. HAIDAR M. ABBAS Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 0. INTRODUCTION 0.1 Cell biology history The discovery of the microscope influenced the discovery of cells. The microscopist and physicist from England Robert Hook (1635-1702) took the first description of cells in 1665. His scientific experiment conducted by making thin slices of cork and matched the boxy partitions he totally observed to the cells in a monastery. Hook observed open empty spaces but he and other scientists made their suggestions by saying that these spaces can be used to transport fluid in a living plant. They did not confirm that it is a basic unit of living organisms that they were observing. Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694), and Hooke's colleague, Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712), continued making strong researches on plant cells, and put out the cellular structure in a plant body. Grew matched cellular empty spaces to the gas bubbles in rising bread and made his suggestions saying that they have the same process in their formation. Animals’ cells were discovered later because it was essential for thin sections to facilitate viewing under the microscope but were difficulty to prepare. Nowadays, scientists interested in biology were totally convinced that living things are made of fundamental units. It created curious to know what those units are. Microscope took its improvement to make their observation clearly and assisted to know more on cells and microscope chosen to be an important instrument to study life on the planet. The Dutch microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) published his researches and observations in 1676 about single-cell organisms, or "little animalcules" the name given by him to these single celled animals. He has been respected first scientist observed red blood cells and even sperm cells in a microscope. Leeuwenhoek discovered and said many on his microorganisms, however, hundred years passed without guessing connection between cellular livings and cells that build plants and animals. Researches continued developing and reach in 1824 where Frenchman Henri Milne-Edwards put out his suggestions on animal tissues, according him animal tissues are structured like an array of globules (the basic structure of all animal tissues was an array of "globules). Henri Dutrochet (1776–1847) identified the relationship between plant and animal cells explicit, and mentioned his proposition saying that a cell was both just a structural and physiological unit, and clearly defined that everything comes from cells. Dutrochet in his proposal, he proposed that new cells come from old cells, and François Raspail (1794–1878) echoed this idea proposed by Dutrochet and said to be his contemporary, Raspail known as the first person who supported in mentioning one of the two main tenets of cell theory: Omnis cellula e cellula, which means "Every cell is derived from another cell." However, despite this ringing and famous phrase, the proposed mechanism on generation of cells has not been true. He contributed on chemical composition of cells and become the father and founder of cell biochemistry. In 1832 Barthelemy Dumortier (1797–1878) French scientist entered his description on described on binary fission in plants and was the idea to cell division in common sense. He took his careful Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas observation to the formation of a mid-line partition structure of both original and new cell, and Dumortier noted and took in considerations, it was as if he was going to provide clear understanding on the development of cells, “seems to us to provide a perfectly clear explanation of the origin and development of cells, which was still in obscurity explanations. His observation directed to rejection of the idea said that new cell comes from within old ones. Hugo von Mohl (1805–1872), is the one who discovered cell division despite Dumortier who preceded him. Von Mohl mentioned the word protoplasm as a material contained in the cell. Cell nucleus is also an important part of the cell and was discussed firstly by a Czech, Franz Bauer, in 1802 and was named in 1831 by Robert Brown (1773–1858) from Scotland, and also entered other parts of nucleus description. Schleiden and Schwann, took researches on cell theory and outlined their marks and contribution in 1838 and 1839. In 1838 Matthais Schleiden (1804–1881) clarified his proposition saying that each plant types or elements is made of cells. In 1839 a fellow German, Theodor Schwann (1810–1882), came up with propositions on animals’ structure. His proposition was that all structural elements in animals are cell set products, which means that, are made by cells. Contribution of Schwann seems as imitating what cell theory on plant has suggested. He declared that the laws governing cells were the same or identical in both animals and plants. The Czech Jan Purkyňe (1787–1869), or Purkinje, has also contributed on cell theory and was single cytologist in his day and known as one of the most important formulators of cell theory. He used Schwann theory to explain his contribution. His proposition was that animals were made of cells and cell products and this is applied to plants. Other scientists also contributed to cell theory but these are main ones. 0.2 Cell definition and overview The cell is the smallest basic unit of all living organisms. They independently do their activities, they replicate to and divide. They are also known to be building blocks of life. The science dealing with cell study is known as cell biology or cytology. A human being is known to have more than 10 trillion of cells mathematically it is 1013cells and seen by means a microscope, means that you cannot see them by a naked eye. All living organisms are composed of cells. Cells have various forms and shapes, utilities and visibility. Cells have abilities of metabolic process and this give them ability of living independently and play a huge role in living things. Scientists and various researchers strove to understand how cell itself plays interesting functions in all livings things and how its absence leads to inexistence of living organisms. We better know that there are animal cells and plant cells, and these cells has high percentage of similarities, however, some few differences has already mentioned within their structures. Cells are made of identical types of molecular building block and share some common characteristics. Even if cells have various common features, we take in consideration different and various cell types and this classification and categorization of cells is known as cellular diversity. This diversity of cells differs in kinds of organisms and within metazoan or multicellular livings themselves. Commonly known characteristics shared by cells are like using the same carbon in macromolecules which is the main component within cells. It includes carbohydrates, proteins, Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas lipids and two nucleic acids found within nucleus of living cells. All cells have DNA in which genetic characters are located and known as a genetic material of living organisms. All living organisms use their genetic material (DNA) to make proteins where it decodes before making proteins and these proteins help in energy of a cell helping also in metabolic activities of cells. Cells have ability to grow and divide despite some of cells found in multicellular organisms that lost their ability to divide and example can be given like on neurons that cannot divide. Both animal and human cells possess different parts or organelles, and each connects with cell components by means of intracellular membrane. DNA separates from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane shaping an important large organelle called nucleus. Organelle like mitochondria which is important organelles that play a huge role in cell activities like generating Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which a useful component in providing essential energy that facilitate various biochemical reactions that lead to formation molecules from smaller units and an example that can be taken is formation of protein through amino acids. In multicellular organisms, cells are pointed to do and perform specific different functions. Those functions are like secretion and movements. Various molecules contribute in these functions talked above. Muscular cells of animals and humans themselves assured for synthesis of proteins that facilitate their contraction, but in non contractile cells these proteins are not synthesized. An example here is skin cells. Cells are different biochemically in multicellular livings, and also notification of shape difference is important as cells have different forms. Our look can be addressed to red blood cells that are small and disc in shape while neuron or nerve cells are long in shape, and all these forms and shapes are known as cell morphology. In organisms with many cells ( multicellular) cells tend to be classified in different groups or tissues basing on their responsibilities and functions. You better know that cells and tissues organize to make organs and organs to organ systems that participate in performing different functions. Example is digestive and cardiovascular system. Living cells always work their activity; they always need energy and this allows them to make nutrients that will continue to facilitate cell activities in synthesis of new molecules. Remember that they make molecules and transport them in different parts of the cell and all need energy with this they also expulse waste. if the process is done in appropriate manner, cells get growing and enter division. Cell activities can allow a cell to take new shapes in terms of responding to environment and also in interacting with other cells in the process called cellular communication or cell signaling. This big process needs essentials movement of molecules to maintain and organize and coordinate in cell 1. CELL DIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION 1.1 Cell Diversity Cells are found in different organisms, and each organisms has its special cells depending on its specie. However, cells are very diverse in size, shape and their internal structure and this applied to cells found in the same organisms. This diversity of cells is influenced by their roles and function within organism’s body. Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. sst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 1.1.2 Cell Shape Cells have different shapes due to appropriate function. Comparison can be found below where you find cells with long extensions like nerve cells that facilitate in sending and receiving impulses. You can find other cells which are flat or platlike, most of these cells are body cells and their function is protecting and covering body surface. Thus cells develop in size according recommended function within the body of a living. Cells have different shapes. Nerve cell cellss have long extensions. Skin cells have a shape which is flat and platelike. Egg cells have shape which is like sphere, and some bacteria are rod in shape. Some plant cells are rectangular. Figure 1: Shape of cells 1.1.3 Cell Size In all livings Cells aree different both in shape and size. Some cell can be seen without using magnification instruments as they enough to be seen in size. One example that we say is a neuron cell of giraffe which is 2 meters in length. 1.2 Different types of animal cells There are number of different kinds of animal cells and like skin, muscle, and blood. 1.2.1 Skin cells The skin cells of animals are categorized in two and those are keratinocytes and melanocytes – and the suffix ‘cyte’ means a cell. Keratinocytes have a big num number ber in all skin cells and have rate of 90% of all skin cells and is responsible in production of a protein known as ‘keratin’. Keratin is responsible in making effective layers of the skin in term of body protection. It can also participate in hair and nails formation. Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. sst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas Figure 2: Skin cells Another important skin cell is Melanocyte which is responsible in melanin production and melanin is responsible in skin color determination. Melanocytes are located under keratinocytes in the part of lower layer of skin cells and after producing melanin, melanin gets transported up to the surface layers of the cells. The number of melanpocytes in the skin, determine how darker you are. Darker skinned means that you have thousands of melanocytes. 1.2.2 Muscle cells Myocytes, tes, muscle fibers or muscle cells are long tubular cells and have the responsibility of facilitating movement of an organism. Muscle cells are like cardiac muscles, smooth muscle cells, and skeletal muscle cells. In these cells, skeletal muscle cells are known to be the most common type of muscle cells with responsibilities of facilitating movements that are conscious in the body. Coming to cardiac muscle cells, they manage movement of contractions of the heart, and lastly, smooth muscle cells assist in ma managing naging subconscious movements of tissues including uterus, stomach, and the blood vessels 1.2.3 Blood cells Figure 3: Blood cells In the blood we find types of cells are classified in two categories: those are white bl blood cells and red blood cells. The estimations show that red blood cells occupy 99.9% of all blood cell found in the blood. Red blood cells help in facilitating distribution of oxygen in all parts of the body. It is also known that red blood cells have no nucleus and this make them different with other animal cells. White blood cells are known to be immunity of livings. They can kill invaders of our body and others that are harmful to the body. Lectures of cell Biology ( master stage ) : First semester 2023 – 2024 Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayder M. Abbas 1.2.4 Nerve cells Nerve cells are also known as neurons, they are known as basic and main cells in the nervous system. Only human brain stores 100 billion nerve cells. They carry impulses of animal cells and responsible in delivering and receiving signals by means of their dendrites and axons. 1.2.5 Fat cells Fat cells, also called adipocytes or lipocytes, and are responsible in storing fats and lipids which will facilitate energy store in animal’s body. Fat cells are categorized in white fat cells and brown fat cells. The different is made from their ways of storing lipids. White fat cells store one large lipid drop while brown fat cells store smaller and multiple droplets of lipids spreading in the whole body of the cell. Questions for evaluation 0. What do you understand by the term cell diversity? 1. Explain the difference between keratinocytes and melanocytes. 2. Explain the effects of low melanin production on human skin color 3. What are main shapes of cells 4. Fat cells are categorized in two classes. What are they? Mention their differences 5. Describe blood cells and give their proper functions. What makes difference on red blood cells to other types of cells of humans? References 1. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. 2. Campbell Biology—Concepts and Connections. Pearson Education. 2009. 3. Cooper GM. The cell: a molecular approach (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C: ASM Press. ISBN 0- 87893-102-3. 4. Dennis, Michael Aaron (1989). "Graphic Understanding: Instruments and interpretation in Robert Hooke's Micrographia". Science in Context 3 (2): 309–364. 5. Jim B, Cooper M, Hunter M, Jardine L, (2003). London's Leonardo: The Life and Work of Robert Hooke. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-852579-6.

Lectures of Cell Biology (Master Stage) 2023-2024 PDF

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