Ch6 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types PDF

Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241124 Ch6 Airstream Mechanisms and Ph...

Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241124 Ch6 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types 氣流機制與聲帶狀態 1. Airstream Mechanisms Three airstream mechanisms 三種氣流機制 Pulmonic (肺) Glottalic (聲門) Velaric (軟腭) Pulmonic airstream mechanism 肺部控制的氣流 1.1 Two ways of controlling the air coming in or out of the lung: the rib cage and the diaphragm. 1.2 Pulmonic airstream is the most common speech mechanism. Most speech sounds of the world’s languages are produced by the air from the lung. 1.3 However, in the case of stops and fricatives, other airstream mechanisms may be involved. 1.4 Stops produced by pulmonic egressive (i.e. going out) airstream are called plosives. Obstruents (stops, fricatives, affricates) made with other airstream mechanisms are given other names. Q: How about pulmonic ingressive (i.e. coming in) airstream? Can you make sounds with such airstream? How about speech sounds? Glottalic airstream mechanism 聲門控制的氣流 1.5 How the airstream can be controlled by the glottis: when the air is blocked by a closed, or nearly closed, glottis and at another point of articulation (lips, alveolar ridge, etc.), the body of air trapped between these two points can be pushed upwards by upward movement of the larynx (egressive airstream); or it can be pulled downwards by downward movement of the larynx (ingressive airstream). Egressive glottalic airstream mechanism 呼出 1.6 Stops made with a glottalic egressive airstream mechanism are called ejectives. 1.7 Example: Hausa velar ejectives [k’] (Note how ejectives are transcribed.):  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241124 1.8 Listen to the examples in CD 6.1. 1.9 Fricatives can also be made with this glottalic egressive mechanism. (eg. Hausa: [s’ara] ‘arrange’) 1.10 Ejectives of different kinds occur in many languages. See Table 6.1 (p. 138; CD 6.2) for the Lakhota example of ejectives contrasting with other types of sounds. 1.11 The differences between a plain (pulmonic, unaspirated) stop and an ejective are (a) The VOT of an ejective is generally longer than that of a stop, and (b) There is an extra release burst (of the glottal stop) in producing an ejective. This second stop release is the acoustic cue (key auditory property for the listener to recognize a certain sound) of a glottalic egressive airstream mechanism. (Figure 6.2, p. 139) 1.12 Even though a glottal stop release exists during the production of an ejective, we don’t need to transcribe this glottal stop (eg. [k’a]); it is implied by the ejective symbol unless it is exceptionally long. Ingressive glottalic airstream mechanism 吸入 1.13 Stops made with an ingressive glottalic airstream mechanism are called implosives. 1.14 In making implosives, the glottis in the downward moving larynx is not usually closed, so the air can still be pushed through. Therefore, an implosive is usually voiced. 1.15 Because the air can pass through the glottis to the mouth while the larynx is moving downward, the air pressure in the oral tract is NOT affected very much. 1.16 The symbols for implosives have a small hook on the top of the regular symbol. [, ,  ] 1.17 Example: Sindhi bilabial implosive [] (Figure 6.3, p. 141; CD 6.3)  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241124 1.18 The acoustic cue for an implosive: the voice bar grows louder over time, while that of a pulmonic stop decreases over time. (Figure 6.4, p. 142) Velaric airstream mechanism – ingressive 軟腭控制的氣流，只有「吸入」 1.19 Stops made with an ingressive velaric airstream are called clicks. 1.20 In producing a click, the air is blocked at two points, one at the velum, the other at any fronter point of articulation (lips, alveolar ridge, etc.). First, the body of the tongue lowers (while both closures maintained), decreasing the air pressure between the two closures. Then the fronter closure is released. 1.21 Example: Zulu [] (Figure 6.5; CD 6.5)  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241124 1.22 Symbol for a bilabial click: []; dental click: []; alveolar click: [!]; palatal click: []; lateral click: []. 1.23 Clicks are usually produced together with another pulmonic stop or nasal. Because velar closure is involved in making clicks, it is possible to simultaneously produce a pulmonic or velaric velar sound, like [ ] or [] (The diacritic [  ] can be omitted.) 1.24 Go to https://youtu.be/MXroTDm55C8 and https://youtu.be/KZlp-croVYw to learn some clicks. 1.25 Listen to CD 6.4 for Xhosa clicks; CD 6.6 for Nama clicks; CD 6.7 for !Xóõ clicks. 1.26 Real life click sounds: https://youtu.be/W6WO5XabD-s https://youtu.be/9SVsxKCLmC4 ※ If you think the pronunciations introduced above are weird enough, go to https://youtu.be/ZxhdW2yB-iQ and https://youtu.be/PDxChQjpEKM for a taste of how the reconstructed Ancient Chinese is like. 1.27 Table 6.4 on p. 147 offers a good summary of the characteristics of the three airstream mechanisms introduced above. Please study it. 2. The State of the Glottis (Phonation Types) 2.1 The position of vocal folds can be adjusted by the movements of the arytenoid cartilages. The picture below shows these cartilages clearly. 2.2 Four different voice qualities made by four different states of the glottis: voiced, voiceless, murmur, and creaky voice. (Figure 6.6, p.148) When the vocal folds are closed together 當聲帶接觸時 (Figure 6.6, 1st photo) 2.3 When the vocal folds are closed together and vibrating, it is a voiced sound. 2.4 When the vocal folds are closed together and not vibrating, it is a glottal stop []. When the vocal folds are apart 當聲帶分開時 (Figure 6.6, 2nd photo) 2.5 When the vocal folds are apart and when there is little or no airflow through the glottis, it is a voiceless sound. 2.6 When the vocal folds are apart and when there is considerable airflow, it is called breathy voice, or murmur.  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241124 When the vocal folds are partially closed together 當聲帶不全部碰在一起時 2.7 When the vocal folds are partially closed together and the opening is near the arytenoid cartilages, it is called breathy voice, or murmur. (Figure 6.6, 3rd photo; https://youtu.be/9cKnUFZjs8k) ※ Note that breathy voice can be made in two ways: as described in 2.6 and 2.7. 2.8 When the vocal folds are partially closed together and the opening is away from the arytenoid cartilages, it is called creaky voice. (Figure 6.6, 4th photo; https://youtu.be/BYSZS1LaABQ) More on murmurs 2.9 Murmur sounds occur in English when [h] is placed between two vowels as in ahead and behind. It is called a voiced h or a murmured h, IPA []. 2.10 Say aha and heart and feel the differences between the two h’s. 2.11 A murmured sound is transcribed with two dots below the sound symbol. [  ] 2.12 Listen to CD 6.8 (Table 6.5, p.150) for a three-way contrast between a murmured vowel, a murmured release of a stop, and a word that has only modal voice. More on creaky voice 2.13 Creaky-voiced sounds are also called laryngealized sounds, transcribed with a wave below the symbol: [ ˷ ]. 2.14 Try to make an [a] sound and lower the pitch as low as you can, you will probably produce an [a]. 2.15 Listen to CD 6.1 for Hausa contrast between [ja] ‘he’ and [ja] ‘daughter’. 3. Voice onset time (VOT) 3.1 The interval between the release of a closure and the start of the voicing is called the voice onset time. 3.2 The VOT has a positive value if the voicing begins after the release, as in a voiceless aspirated/unaspirated stop. 3.3 The VOT has a negative value if the voicing begins before the release, as in a voiced stop. 3.4 See Figure 6.7 for the Sindhi examples of the VOT of [d] (-130ms), [t] (less than 20ms), and [th] (50ms). 3.5 The VOT value varies with languages. For example, [th] in Sindhi has a VOT of about 50ms while that in Navajo has a VOT of about 150ms. (Figure 6.7)  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241124 3.6 In general, the degree of aspiration (the amount of lag in the VOT) will depend on the degree of glottal aperture during the closure. That is, the greater the opening of the vocal folds during a stop, the longer the amount of the following aspiration. 3.7 See Figure 6.8 for the VOT of stops in English, French, Gaelic, Thai, and Navajo.  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241124 VOT contrast in languages, 以 bilabial 為例 3.8 Two-way contrast:  French [p, b]  English [p, b] (actually more like [ph, p])  Mandarin [p, ph] (爸[pa] 怕[pha] ) (*[ba])  Hakka [p, ph] (包[pa] 炮[pha] ) (*[ba]) 3.9 Three-way contrast:  Thai [p, ph, b]  Taiwanese (Southern Min) [p, ph, b] (盤[pwa] 破[phwa] 磨[bwa] ; 爸[pa] 打[pha] 肉[ba]) 3.10 Four-way contrast:  Hindi [p, ph, b, b] (Table 6.7)  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241202 Ch7 Consonantal Gestures 子音發音動作 This chapter introduces and discusses how and where consonants can be produced in different languages. Two aspects are useful and appropriate for describing consonantal gestures in the languages of the world:  the target of the gestural movements  the places of articulation  how the gestures are made  the manners of articulation ※ We should remember that speech sounds involve gestural movement, not static positions of the vocal organs. 1. Articulatory Targets (places) Considering the names of the places 發音部位名稱的真正意義 1.1 Although the names of the places of articulation are all static parts of our vocal organs, they should be thought of as gestures, as the arrows in the figure below. Bilabial gesture 雙唇發音動作 arrow NO. 1 1.2 Bilabial gesture is common in the world’s languages: English [p, b, m]; Mandarin [p, ph, m] 1.3 However, the bilabial fricatives [, ] are not so common.  Stop reading now and think about how to produce bilabial fricatives, both voiced and voiceless ones, and try to produce them.  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241202  Try, if you speak Southern Min, to say 肉包 [ba paʊ] and 夾子 [jabba]. 1 Say these two words several times and feel if there is any difference between the [b] sounds in them. Some say the consonantal sound between the vowels in 夾子 should be a fricative, i.e. [jaa]. Contrastive or not 是否造成意思差別 1.4 In some languages, bilabial fricatives are allophonic, i.e. not contrastive. For example, Sardinian has a rule which turns an inter-vocalic (between vowels) stop into its homorganic fricative, so that the voiced bilabial fricative [] serves as an allophone of the voiced bilabial stop [b]: (1) Sardinian spirantization: /b/ → [β]: baca [ˈbaka] "cow" → sa baca [sa ˈβaka] "the cow" /d/ → [ð]: domu [ˈdɔmu] "house" → sa domu [sa ˈðɔmu] "the house" /ɡ/ → [ɣ]: gupu [ˈɡupu] "ladle" → su gupu [su ˈɣupu] "the ladle" For your curiosity: Spirantization is a phonological process in which stops or affricates become fricatives. Therefore it is also called frication. 1.5 In some languages, however, bilabial fricatives do make meaning contrast, as in the West African language Ewe. (CD7.1) linguo-labials 舌唇音 1.6 Linguo-labial sounds are made with the tongue touching the upper lip, transcribed with a seagull-like diacritic under the coronal symbol [  ]. 1.7 V’enen Taut has nasals, stops, and fricatives made in this way. [tatei] ‘beautiful’; [naat] ‘stone’ (CD7.2) Labiodental 唇齒音 arrow NO. 2 1.8 Labiodental fricatives are common, for example, [f, v]. 1 Controversy exists as to how the sound(s) between these two vowels here should be transcribed; however, this transcription suits our purpose here.  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241202 1.9 However, probably no language has labiodental stops or nasal except as allophones of the corresponding bilabial stops, for instance, in English, [], a labiodental nasal, may occur when /m/ is followed by /f/: emphasis, symphony, … 1.10 Some languages have affricates in which the bilabial stop is released into a labiodental fricative: German  pfanne [pfan] ‘bowl’ (http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/pfanne); pflug [pfluk] ‘plough’ (http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/pflug). Dental 齒音 arrow NO. 3 1.11 English has two dental fricatives [, ] but no dental stops, nasals, or laterals, except allophonically before [, ]. (eight [et], tenth [tn], wealth [wl]) 1.12 In some languages, however, the dental stops, nasals, and laterals contract meanings. For example, Malayalam contrast dental and alveolar consonants (CD 7.3): Alveolar 齒槽音 arrow NO. 4 1.13 Alveolar stops, nasals, and fricatives are common cross-linguistically. Post-alveolar 齒槽後音 Place name (broad) post-alveolar Part of the tongue apical laminal involved (tongue tip) (tongue blade) Descriptions of the tip raised, font tip lowered, tip raised slightly, front tongue lowered (Figure 7.2) front raised raised more highly Place name retroflex palato-alveolar alveolo-palatal (specified) Examples [, , , , , …] [, , t, d] [t, , d, ]  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241202 Retroflex 捲舌音 arrow NO. 5 1.14 Retroflex refers to a place of articulation, not a manner of articulation. 1.15 A retroflex is made by curling the tip of the tongue up and back, so that the underside touches or approaches the back part of the alveolar ridge. 1.16 Blow is the list of IPA retroflex symbols for consonants: 1.17 Here’s how to make a retroflex fricative []: Start with [s] and curl the tongue tip backward (but not too hard) while maintaining the fricative noise, you will be producing a [] sound. A localization test: (1) Practice making [] again and feel and remember your tongue position. (2) Relax and breathe. (3) Say Mandarin Chinese 石, and feel your tongue position. (4) Compare the tongue positions of your 石 and []. Are they different? (5) If your tongue for 石 is flatter than that for [], then you are speaking Taiwanese Mandarin. 1.18 Mandarin Chinese has a set of retroflex consonants: two retroflex affricates ㄓ[], ㄔ[h]; one retroflex fricative ㄕ[]. 1.19 See Figure 7.2 above again for the function of meaning contrast of [] in Malaylam. (CD 7.3) Palato-alveolar and alveolo-palatal 顎前音與齦顎音 arrow NO. 6 1.20 palato-alveolars: English [, , t, d] 1.21 alveolo-palatals: Mandarin Chinese [t, th, ]; Polish [, ]. (CD 7.5) Palatals 顎音 arrow NO. 7 1.22 Palatal sounds, as you already know, is made with the front of the tongue approaching or touching the hard palate. 1.23 Palatal approximant: [j] 1.24 Palatal fricatives: voiceless []  German ich [] ‘I’; voiced [] (make the first sound of hue voiced and you will get this [] sound. (Tongue tip is down behind the lower front teeth.)  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241202 1.25 Palatal stops: Say [] and raise the front of the tongue higher to block the airstream, and you will have a voiceless palatal stop [c]. Voicing this sound brings you a voiced palatal stop []. (CD 6.3: Sindhi) 1.26 Palatal nasal: [], occurring in many languages, including Spanish, French, Italian (CD: language index). Velars 軟顎音 arrow NO. 8 1.27 Although velar stops and nasals are common in English, velar fricatives [x, ], which existed in Old and Middle English, were lost. 1.28 In Spanish, most spellings of j are pronounced as the voiceless velar fricative [x]: jamas [xamas] ‘never’, ojo [oxo] ‘eye’. Go to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qfTOLEkHXTw to see how Peanut makes fun of the pronunciation of the word Jeff from Jose Jalapeno On A Stick. 1.29 Listen to CD 6.2 for the voiced velar fricative [] in Lakhota. 1.30 Mandarin Chinese has a voiceless velar fricative [x], as in 好 [xa]. Uvular 小舌音 arrow NO. 9 1.31 Uvular sounds are made by raising the back of the tongue toward the uvula. 1.32 A voiceless uvular stops, transcribed as [q], is found in Quechua, a Native American language (Table 7.3, CD 7.7). Seediq, one of the Taiwanese aboriginal language has it , too ([seedq] ‘person/human being’; http://klokah.tw/extension/con_data/sound/16/word/16c2w4.mp3) 1.33 Few example of the voiced uvular stop [] can be found. 1.34 The uvular nasal: [] 1.35 The uvular fricatives, [, ], can both be found in French. The voiced [] is the common form of r in words such as rouge [u] and rose [oz] (CD 7.6). The voiceless [] is an allophone of [] after a voiceless stop, as in lettre [lt] (CD 7.6). Pharyngeals and epiglottals 咽音與會厭音 arrow NO. 10 & 11 1.36 Pharyngeal fricatives: [, ] can be found in Hebraw (CD: language index) 1.37 Epiglottal fricatives: [, ] 1.38 Listen to CD 7.8 for contrast between voiceless pharyngeal [] and epiglottal [] fricatives in Agul. Simultaneous use of two gestures 同步發音動作 1.39 Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two gestures. For example, the English approximant [w] has both an approximation of the lips and of the back of the tongue and the soft palate. These kind of sounds is called labial velars, or labiovelars. 1.40 Yoruba and many other languages spoken in West Africa have labial velar stops. Listen to Yuroba [ib i] ‘storm’ (CD: language index).  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241202 2. Types of Articulatory Gestures (manner) Stops 塞音 2.1 Table 7.5 on page 173: You need to make sure you understand how these consonants are made, their differences, and the symbols to transcribe them. 2.2 The first seven (NO. 1-7) have been discussed in Chapter 6. 2.3 Nasal release (nasal plosion; NO. 8): English hidden, sudden. It can occur at the beginning of a word. For example, the word bottom in Russian is [dno]. 2.4 Prenasalized (NO. 9): the oral closure is formed first, while the soft palate is lowered. Then there is a short nasal consonant, after which the soft palate is raised so that there is a stop. The words for buttocks and horse in Mazatec are [nd] and [nd], respectively (CD: Language index). Also see the Swahili examples on page 173. 2.4.1 Go to https://youtu.be/8LeMyNZlux8 (9:50-10:06) to listen to (and watch) the speaker pronounce the Igbo word [khali]. 2.4.2 Go to https://youtu.be/zsu1ZR_WW6E (1:30) to see the name of a baby elephant.  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241202 2.5 Lateral release (lateral plosion; NO. 10, 11): English little, ladle. In other languages, it can occur word initially. Sometimes laterally released stops can occur with an ejective airstream mechanism (NO.11). Listen to the Navajo examples of these two kinds of lateral release on CD: Language index. 2.6 Affricate (NO. 12): English [t, d]. Some dialects, however, have a slightly affricated stop [ts], as in tea [tsi] in London Cockney. German has a bilabial affricate [pf] as in pfanne [pfan] ‘bowl’; pflug [pfluk] ‘plough’. Navajo (CD: Language index) has an ejective affricate [ts’] (NO. 13). Nasals 鼻音 2.7 Nasals are so common that they do not need further introduction here. The only point to be noted is that voiceless nasals are rare and they are symbolized by adding the voiceless diacritic [  ] under the nasal symbol. Fricatives 擦音 2.8 A good way to divide fricatives is to separate them into groups on a purely auditory basis: Sibilants: [s, z, , ] have more acoustic energy (greater loudness); Non-sibilants: [f, v, , ] are produced with less energy. Trills, taps, and flaps Airstream Triggering devices Tongue muscle movement (tongue relaxed) Manner name (broad) trill tap flap Tongue tip up (contact Tongue tip curled Tongue relaxed, Descriptions of the with the dental or back (as a retroflex) tongue tip trilled by tongue alveolar region) and and then strikes the the airstream then back down roof to return. alveolar tap retroflex flap IPA symbols [r] [] [] Spanish ‘dog’ Spanish ‘but’ English ‘dirty’ Examples [pero] [peo] [d] Trill 2.9 Trilled [r] is the most common pronunciation of the sound written with the letter “r”. 2.10 Some languages contrast a long and short [r]: Icelandic (CD: Language index) 2.11 Figure 7.4 (p. 175) shows the number of tongue contacts on the roof of the mouth, both short and long trills.  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241202 2.12 Bilabial trill: []; Kele ‘your face’ [mulim] (CD: language index) 2.13 Uvular trill: [] Tap 2.14 In a tap, the tip of the tongue simply moves up to contact the roof of the mouth in the dental or alveolar region, and then moves back to the floor of the mouth along the same path. (up and down movement) 2.15 Taps in English: latter, ladder, tanner Flap 2.16 In a flap, the tongue tip is first curled up and back in a retroflex gesture, and then strikes the roof of the mouth in the post-alveolar region as it returns to its position behind the lower font teeth. (from back to front movement) 2.17 Flaps in English: dirty, sorting.  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241202 Laterals 邊音 2.18 Lateral approximants in English: [l, l] 2.19 Voiceless lateral fricative: []; Try to subtract and add voice while say an English [l] as in led. The voiceless lateral you are making is []. 2.20 Voiced lateral fricative: []; Start from an ordinary [l] and then move the sides of your tongue slightly closer to your teeth, you’ll get this sound. 2.21 Listen to CD 7.10 for a three-way contrast in laterals in Zulu. 2.22 Velar lateral approximant: []; Mid-Waghi (CD 7.11) 2.23 Palatal lateral approximant: []; Italian (CD 7.12)  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241222 Ch9 Vowels and Vowel-like Articulations 母音及類母音發音行為 1. Cardinal Vowels 定位母音 The definition 定義 1.1 Cardinal vowels are a set of reference vowels so that the vowels of any language can be described by stating their relationships to the cardinal vowels. (p.306) 1.2 As we have seen from Chapter 4, vowels are not easy to describe. Cardinal vowels are helpful with this job. What this is all about 為何要有一套定位母音 1.3 A vowel chart like the one below (Figure 9.1) shows the auditory qualities of vowels. 1.4 Something about formants (共振峰):  The first formant (F1) is inversely proportional to vowel height. (F1 愈高，母音愈低)  The difference between the frequencies of the second (F2) and first (F1) formants is proportional to frontness. (F1 與 F2 差得愈多，母音愈前)  The degree of lip-rounding usually lowers both the second and third formants. (愈圓唇，F2 與 F3 愈低) 1.5 Apart from showing the qualities of vowels, a vowel chart also shows the limits of possible vowel quality.  A point in the extreme upper left corner of the chart represents a vowel with the highest and most front quality possible. If the tongue were moved higher or more forward, a palatal consonant would be produced.  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241222  A vowel in the extreme lower right corner represents the lowest and most back quality possible. Farther movement of the tongue would produce a pharyngeal consonant.  The two points above give us two fixed reference points: [i] and [] 1.6 A vowel chart, as we have seen above, is quite useful with describing the vowels that are near the corners of the possible area. However, it does not provide enough fixed points for the description of other vowels. 1.7 Therefore, Daniel Jones proposed a series of eight cardinal vowels, evenly spaced around the outside of the possible vowel area. The eight cardinal vowels Cardinal vowels (1) and (5) 1.8 Cardinal vowel (1) and (5) are defined in articulatory terms. 1.9 Cardinal vowel (1) is produced with the lips spread and the tongue as high and far forward as possible without causing audible friction. It is like a vowel [i] with a more extreme quality. The symbol for it is also [i]. 1.10 Try to make this cardinal vowel:  Your lips are fully spread.  Your tongue is so close to the roof of the mouth that you would produce a voiced palatal fricative [  ] if you raised it any higher. 1.11 Cardinal vowel (5) is made with the lips in a neutral position (neither spread nor rounded) and with the tongue as low and as far back as possible. It is something like the American English vowel [] as in father. The symbol for it is []. 1.12 Try to make this cardinal vowel:  Your tongue is pulled so far down and back in the mouth that you are almost producing a voiced pharyngeal fricative [  ]. Cardinal vowels (2), (3), (4); and (6), (7), (8) 1.13 Cardinal vowels (2), (3), and (4) are defined as front vowels that form a series of auditorily equidistant steps between numbers (1) and (5)  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241222 1.14 The symbols for Cardinal vowels (2), (3), and (4) are [e, , a], respectively. 1.15 Cardinal vowels (6), (7), and (8) are defined as vowels that continue from number (5), with the same-size steps as in the first part of the series, but are as back as possible. 1.16 The symbols for Cardinal vowels (6), (7), and (8) are [, o, u], respectively. The difficulties of Cardinal vowels as to describing vowels of languages. 定位母音的某些問題 a. not easy to learn 1.17 As Daniel Jones said, “The values of the cardinal vowels cannot be learned from written descriptions; they should be learned by oral instruction from a teacher who knows them.” 1.18 Listen to CD 9.1 and try to produce them yourself. b. equidistant? 1.19 If you look carefully at Figure 9.2, you will find that the cardinal vowels are actually NOT placed equidistantly.  Cardinal vowels (5), (6), (7), and (8) are much closer together than (1), (2), (3), (4), and (5). c. tongue height or acoustic properties? 1.20 As discussed in Chapter 4, vowels are best described by their auditory, acoustic properties, not by the tongue positions. However, a chart, which seems to be the only way to put on paper, is misleading on this point. 1.21 Figure 9.3 (p. 221) shows the relative positions of the highest point of the tongue in a set of cardinal vowels, which in turn tells us the Cardinal vowels chart is not a reflection of tongue position.  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241222 Secondary Cardinal Vowels 次要定位母音 1.22 The cardinal vowels have increasing degrees of lip-rounding. If we consider vowels to be specifiable in terms of three dimensions. The distribution of cardinal vowels is as shown in Figure 9.4. 1.23 Secondary cardinal vowels differ from the primary ones in lip-rounding. 1.24 Therefore, cardinal vowel (9) is defined as a vowel with the same tongue position as cardinal vowel (1), but with closely rounded lips. (cf. Mandarin [ y ] ‘fish’) 1.25 Cardinal vowels (10) through (16) have the same tongue positions as cardinal vowels (2) through (8), but continually decreasing lip-rounding. Cardinal vowel (16) is thus an unrounded version of cardinal vowel (8). 1.26 See Figure 9.5 (p. 223) below for the numbers and IPA symbols for secondary cardinal vowels and some central vowels (The symbol for NO. 15 is incorrect; please correct it).  ※ The symbols [] and [] (17, 18) are used for unrounded and rounded vowels midway between cardinal vowels (1) and (8).  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241222 1.27 Listen to CD 9.1 and practice making these secondary cardinal vowels. 2. Vowels in Other Languages Spanish 2.1 Spanish has a very simple and common, five vowel system: [i, e, a, o, u]. (CD 9.2) Japanese 2.2 Like Spanish, Japanese also has a five vowel system, but they are slightly different in qualities, especially between the high back vowels. 2.3 In a broad transcription, the vowels in Japanese can be transcribed as [i, e, a, o, u], as in Spanish. 2.3 However, in a narrow transcription, the high back vowel can be transcribed as [] to indicate that this vowel has no lip-rounding (but see below). (CD 9.3) ※ In a more detailed phonetic analysis, there are two types of lip movements:  The corners of the lips are brought forward, so that they are somewhat protruded (1st type).  The corners of the lips are narrowed vertically so that they may be said to be compressed (2nd type). Japanese [] is produced with this 2nd type of lip movement. Front rounded vowels and back unrounded vowels are indicated by asterisk.  Asterisks indicate that the lip rounding is more like that of the secondary cardinal vowels than that of the primary ones. Danish 2.4 Danish has a rather complex vowel system: [i, y, e, , , , a, , , o, u] (CD 9.4):  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241222 Front rounded vowels and back unrounded vowels are indicated by asterisk.  Asterisks indicate that the lip rounding is more like that of the secondary cardinal vowels than that of the primary ones. 2.5 Danish vowels contrast in length. (CD 9.4) Lip-rounding and vowel space 圓唇與母音空間 2.5 As you may have noticed, a front rounded vowel is placed nearer the center than its unrounded counterpart. 2.6 This is because the degree of lip-rounding usually lowers both the second and third formants. 2.7 Therefore, adding lip-rounding to front vowels lowers the second formant, dragging the vowel nearer the center of the chart. 2.8 On the other hand, removing lip-rounding to back vowels raises the second formant, also dragging the vowel nearer the center of the chart. 2.9 Therefore, if the vowels of a language are to be maximally distinct from one another, then the front vowels will have to be unrounded, the back vowels rounded. 3. Advanced Tongue Root 3.1 In some languages, there are differences in vowel quality that cannot be described in terms like height, backness, and lip-rounding. 3.2 Akan vowels, for example, differ primarily in the size of the pharynx. 3.3 The size of the pharynx can be increased by drawing forward the tongue root and lowering the larynx. 3.4 If a vowel is produced in this way, it is called an advanced tongue root (ATR) vowel. 3.5 Therefore, we can say that Akan contrast +ATR vowels and –ATR ones. (CD 9.5; Figure 9.10)  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241222 3.6 The diacritic to indicate a +ATR vowel is [  ] and [  ] is for –ATR vowels (retracted tongue root). 4. Nasalization 4.1 When the velum is lowered during the production of a vowel, the vowel is said to be nasalized, transcribed by the diacritic [  ]. 4.2 If you speaks Southern Min, you are able to produce the following nasal vowels: i ‘play’ 玩 ĩ ‘yard’ 院 pi ‘compare’ 比 pĩ ‘flat’ 扁 e ‘swing’ 搖 ẽ ‘infant’ 嬰兒 pe ‘father’ 爸 pẽ ‘sickness’ 病 ta ‘dry’ 焦 tã ‘to put sth. on the shoulder’ 擔 sa ‘to grab’ 拿 sã ‘three’ 三  ‘black’ 烏  ‘baby’s sleep’ 嬰兒睡覺的聲音 4.3 Listen to the nasal and oral vowel contrasts of French in CD 9.7 5. Semivowels 5.1 If we divide sounds into those that have no obstruction in the center of the mouth and those that have an obstruction. The former is called vocoids, including vowels and semivowels; the latter is called nonvocoids. 5.2 Both being vocoids, vowels and semivowels differ in the position in a syllable where they can occur: vowels occur in syllable peak (and therefore are syllabic) while semivowels occur in non-peak positions (and thus are non-syllabic). 5.3 Semivowels in English: [j, w] 5.4 Semivowels in other languages:  French: [j, w,  (a labial-palatal approximant)] (corresponding vowels: [i, u, y]; examples in Table 9.3)  Mandarin Chinese: [j, w, ] (corresponding vowels: [i, u, y]; 夜 [je], 餵 [wej], 月 [e])  Japanese: [] (a velar approximant; corresponding vowels: []; わ [a])  Phonetics B223700 Ch6 Study Companion Ver. 20241222 6. Secondary Articulatory Gestures 6.1 A secondary articulation is a gesture with a lesser degree of closure occurring at approximately the same time as another (primary) gesture. Palatalization 6.2 Palatalization is the addition of a high front tongue gesture, like that in [i], to another gesture, symbolized by [ j ] after a symbol. 6.3 Some languages have a series of palatalized consonants that contrast with their nonpalatalized counterparts. (Russian; CD 9.9) Velarization 6.4 Velarization can be understood as adding an [u]-like gesture without the lip-rounding, to another gesture, symbolized by [  ] or [  ]. 6.5 The velarized sound we have met: [l]. Pharyngealization 6.6 Pharyngealization is the superimposition of a narrowing of the pharynx, symbolized by [  ] or [  ]. Labialiation 6.7 Labialization is the addition of lip-rounding. It can co-occur with more sounds than the other three secondary articulations, because it involves no tongue gesture. 6.8 Labialization is symbolized by [  ].