Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation PDF

1 THEME Bricks, Beads and Bones ONE The Harappan Civilisation The Harappan seal (Fig.1.1) is possibly the most distinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus valley civil...

1 THEME Bricks, Beads and Bones ONE The Harappan Civilisation The Harappan seal (Fig.1.1) is possibly the most distinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus valley civilisation. Made of a stone called steatite, seals like this one often contain animal motifs and signs from a script that remains undeciphered. Yet we know a great deal about the lives of the people who lived in the region from what they left behind – their houses, pots, ornaments, tools and seals – in other words, from archaeological evidence. Let us see what we know about the Harappan civilisation, and how we know about it. We will explore how archaeological material is interpreted and how interpretations sometimes change. Of course, there Fig. 1.1 are some aspects of the civilisation that are as yet A Harappan seal unknown and may even remain so. Terms, places, times The Indus valley civilisation is also called the Harappan culture. Archaeologists use the term “culture” for a group of objects, distinctive in style, that are usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time. In the case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stone blades (Fig. 2.2) and even baked bricks. These objects were found from areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan) and Gujarat (Map 1). Named after Harappa, the first site where this unique culture was discovered (p. 6), the civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE. There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same area. The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures. Fig. 1.2 Beads, weights, blades 2 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY Manda lum Jhe ab en Ch i av R Harappa j Rakhigarhi tle Su Banawali Gan Mitathal Kalibangan Yam ga s du Ganweriwala In una You will find certain abbreviations, related to Mohenjodaro Kot Diji dates, in this book. l ba BP stands for Before h am Sutkagendor Amri Chanhudaro C Present Balakot BCE stands for Before Common Era rmati CE stands for the Common Arabian Sea Dholavira Saba i Era. The present year is ah M 2007 according to this dating system. Map 1 Lothal c. stands for the Latin Some important Nageshwar Rangpur da Mature Harappan sites ma word circa and means Nar “approximate.” Sketch map not to scale 1. Beginnings There were several archaeological cultures in the region prior to the Mature Harappan. These cultures Early and Mature were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of Harappan cultures agriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts. Look at these figures for the Settlements were generally small, and there were number of settlements in Sind virtually no large buildings. It appears that there and Cholistan (the desert area was a break between the Early Harappan and the of Pakistan bordering the Thar Harappan civilisation, evident from large-scale Desert). burning at some sites, as well as the abandonment SIND CHOLISTAN Total number 106 239 of certain settlements. of sites 2. Subsistence Strategies Early Harappan 52 37 sites If you look at Maps 1 and 2 you will notice that the Mature Harappan culture developed in some of the Mature 65 136 areas occupied by the Early Harappan cultures. Harappan sites These cultures also shared certain common elements Mature Harappan 43 132 including subsistence strategies. The Harappans ate settlements on a wide range of plant and animal products, including new sites fish. Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct Early Harappan 29 33 dietary practices from finds of charred grains and sites abandoned seeds. These are studied by archaeo-botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains. Grains BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 3 found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. Millets are found from sites in Gujarat. Finds of rice are relatively rare. Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. Studies s Indu done by archaeo-zoologists or zoo- DAMB SISWAL archaeologists indicate that these SADAAT animals were domesticated. KOT Bones of wild species such as DIJI boar, deer and gharial are also found. We do not know AMRI-NAL whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting Arabian Sea communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found. Map 2 Areas of Early Harappan 2.1 Agricultural technologies occupation While the prevalence of Sketch map not to scale agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices. Were seeds broadcast (scattered) on ploughed lands? Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen Fig. 1.3 were used for ploughing. Moreover, terracotta A terracotta bull models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana). Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels (see p. 20). The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together. Archaeologists have also tried to identify the tools used for harvesting. Did the Harappans use stone blades set in wooden handles or did they use metal tools? Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid Discuss... lands, where irrigation was probably required for Are there any similarities or agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at differences in the distribution the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but of settlements shown on Maps not in Punjab or Sind. It is possible that ancient 1 and 2? 4 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY canals silted up long ago. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture. Source 1 How artefacts are identified Processing of food required grinding equipment as well as vessels for mixing, blending and cooking. These were Fig. 1.4 made of stone, metal and terracotta. This is an excerpt Copper tools from one of the earliest reports on excavations at Mohenjodaro, the best-known Harappan site: Do you think these tools could have been used Saddle querns … are found in considerable numbers for harvesting? … and they seem to have been the only means in use for grinding cereals. As a rule, they were roughly made of hard, gritty, igneous rock or sandstone and mostly show signs of hard usage. As their bases are usually convex, they must have been set in the earth or in Fig. 1.5 mud to prevent their rocking. Two main types have Reservoir at Dholavira been found: those on which another smaller stone was Note the masonry work. pushed or rolled to and fro, and others with which a second stone was used as a pounder, eventually making a large cavity in the nether stone. Querns of the former type were probably used solely for grain; the second type possibly only for pounding herbs and spices for making curries. In fact, stones of this latter type are dubbed “curry stones” by our workmen and our cook asked for the loan of one from the museum for use in the kitchen. F R O M E R N E S T M A C K AY , Further Excavations at Mohenjodaro, 1937. Fig. 1.6 Saddle quern Archaeologists use present-day analogies to try Discuss... and understand what ancient artefacts were used What is the evidence used by for. Mackay was comparing present-day querns archaeologists to reconstruct with what he found. Is this a useful strategy? dietary practices? BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 5 3. Mohenjodaro A Planned Urban Centre Perhaps the most unique feature of the Harappan civilisation was the development of urban centres. Let us look at one such centre, Mohenjodaro, more closely. Although Mohenjodaro is the most Fig. 1.7 well-known site, the first site to be discovered Layout of Mohenjodaro was Harappa. How is the Lower Town The settlement is divided into two sections, one different from the Citadel? smaller but higher and the other much larger but metres 6 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel and the Lower Town respectively. The Citadel owes The plight of Harappa its height to the fact that buildings were constructed Although Harappa was the on mud brick platforms. It was walled, which first site to be discovered, it meant that it was physically separated from the was badly destroyed by brick Lower Town. robbers. As early as 1875, The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildings Alexander Cunningham, the were built on platforms, which served as foundations. first Director-General of the It has been calculated that if one labourer moved Archaeological Survey of roughly a cubic metre of earth daily, just to put the India (ASI), often called the foundations in place it would have required four father of Indian archaeology, million person-days, in other words, mobilising noted that the amount labour on a very large scale. of brick taken from the Consider something else. Once the platforms were ancient site was enough in place, all building activity within the city was to lay bricks for “about restricted to a fixed area on the platforms. So it 100 miles” of the railway seems that the settlement was first planned and line between L ahore and then implemented accordingly. Other signs of Multan. Thus, many of the planning include bricks, which, whether sun-dried ancient structures at the site were damaged. In contrast, or baked, were of a standardised ratio, where the Mohenjodaro was far better length and breadth were four times and twice the preserved. height respectively. Such bricks were used at all Harappan settlements. 3.1 Laying out drains One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. If you look at the plan of the Lower Town you will notice Fig. 1.8 that roads and streets were laid out along an A drain in Mohenjodaro approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right Notice the huge opening of the angles. It seems that streets with drains were laid drain. out first and then houses built along them. If domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains, every house needed to have at least one wall along a street. Citadels While most Harappan settlements have a small high western part and a larger lower eastern section, there are variations. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls. The Citadel within Lothal was not walled off, but was built at a height. BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 7 3.2 Domestic architecture Source 2 The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples The most ancient of residential buildings. Many were centred on a system yet discovered courtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking About the drains, Mackay and weaving, particularly during hot and dry noted: “It is certainly the most weather. What is also interesting is an apparent complete ancient system as yet concern for privacy: there are no windows in the discovered.” Every house was walls along the ground level. Besides, the main connected to the street drains. entrance does not give a direct view of the interior The main channels were made or the courtyard. of bricks set in mortar and were Every house had its own bathroom paved with covered with loose bricks that bricks, with drains connected through the wall to could be removed for cleaning. the street drains. Some houses have remains of In some cases, limestone was staircases to reach a second storey or the roof. Many used for the covers. House houses had wells, often in a room that could be drains first emptied into a sump reached from the outside and perhaps used by or cesspit into which solid passers-by. Scholars have estimated that the total matter settled while waste water number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700. flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning. It is a wonder of archaeology that “little heaps of material, mostly sand, have frequently been found lying alongside drainage channels, which shows … that the debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared”. FROM ERNEST MACKAY, Early Indus Civilisation, 1948. Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well. At Lothal for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks. Fig. 1.9 Where is the courtyard? Where are the two This is an isometric drawing of a staircases? What is the entrance to the house like? large house in Mohenjodaro. There was a well in room no 6. 8 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY 3.3 The Citadel It is on the Citadel that we find evidence of structures that were probably used for special public purposes. These include the warehouse – a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain, while the upper portions, probably of wood, decayed long ago – and the Great Bath. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank, which was made watertight by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of gypsum. There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well. Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain. Across a lane to the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four on each side of a corridor, with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the corridor. The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the Citadel, with several distinctive Fig. 1.10 buildings), has led scholars Plan of the Citadel to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath. Discuss... Which of the architectural Are there other structures on the Citadel apart from features of Mohenjodaro the warehouse and the Great Bath? indicate planning? BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 9 4. Tracking Social Differences 4.1 Burials Archaeologists generally use certain strategies to find out whether there were social or economic differences amongst people living within a particular culture. These include studying burials. You are probably familiar with the massive pyramids of Egypt, some of which were contemporaneous with the Harappan civilisation. Many of these pyramids were royal burials, where enormous quantities of wealth was buried. At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made – in some instances, the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks. Could these variations be an indication of social differences? We are not sure. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women. In fact, in the excavations at the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s, an ornament consisting of three shell rings, a jasper Fig. 1.11 (a kind of semi-precious stone) bead and hundreds A copper mirror of micro beads was found near the skull of a male. In some instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors. But on the whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead. 4.2 Looking for “luxuries” Another strategy to identify social differences is to study artefacts, which archaeologists broadly Fig. 1.12 classify as utilitarian and luxuries. The first category A faience pot includes objects of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary materials such as stone or clay. These include querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (body scrubbers), etc., and are usually found distributed throughout settlements. Archaeologists assume objects were luxuries if they are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. Thus, little pots of faience (a material made of ground sand or silica mixed with colour and a gum and then fired) were probably considered precious because they were difficult to make. The situation becomes more complicated when we find what seem to be articles of daily 10 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY Hoards are objects kept use, such as spindle whorls made of rare materials carefully by people, often inside such as faience. Do we classify these as utilitarian containers such as pots. Such or luxuries? hoards can be of jewellery or If we study the distribution of such artefacts, we metal objects saved for reuse find that rare objects made of valuable materials by metalworkers. If for some are generally concentrated in large settlements like reason the original owners do Mohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found in not retrieve them, they remain the smaller settlements. For example, miniature pots where they are left till some of faience, perhaps used as perfume bottles, are found archaeologist finds them. mostly in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and there are none from small settlements like Kalibangan. Gold too was rare, and as at present, probably precious – all the gold jewellery found at Harappan sites was recovered from hoards. Discuss... What are the modes of 5. Finding Out About Craft disposal of the dead prevalent at present? To what extent do Production these represent social Locate Chanhudaro on Map 1. This is a tiny differences? settlement (less than 7 hectares) as compared to Mohenjodaro (125 hectares), almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making. The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some of stone with gold caps. The shapes were numerous – disc- shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, Fig. 1.13 segmented. Some were decorated by incising or A tool and beads painting, and some had designs etched onto them. BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 11 Techniques for making beads differed according to the material. Steatite, a very soft stone, was easily worked. Some beads were moulded out of a paste made with steatite powder. This permitted making a variety of shapes, unlike the geometrical forms made out of harder stones. How the steatite micro bead was made remains a puzzle for archaeologists studying ancient technology. Archaeologists’ experiments have revealed that the red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material and beads at various stages of production. Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final form. Grinding, polishing and drilling completed the process. Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira. If you locate Nageshwar and Balakot on Map 1, you will notice that both settlements are near the coast. These were specialised centres for making shell objects – including bangles, ladles and Fig. 1.14 Pottery inlay – which were taken to other settlements. Some of these can be seen in the Similarly, it is likely that finished products (such National Museum, Delhi or in the as beads) from Chanhudaro and Lothal were taken site museum at Lothal. to the large urban centres such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa. 5.1 Identifying centres of production In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following: raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste material. In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. For instance, if shell or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces Discuss... of these materials will be Should the stone artefacts discarded as waste at the illustrated in the chapter be place of production. considered as utilitarian objects or as luxuries? Are Fig. 1.15 there any that may fall into A terracotta figurine both categories? 12 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up to make smaller objects, but minuscule bits were usually left in the work area. These traces suggest that apart from small, specialised centres, craft production was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa. 6. Strategies for Procuring Materials As is obvious, a variety of materials was used for craft production. While some such as clay were locally available, many such as stone, timber and metal had to be procured from outside the alluvial plain. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of transporting goods and people across land routes. Riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes were also probably used. 6.1 Materials from the subcontinent and beyond The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways. For instance, they established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell was available. Other Fig.1.16 such sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, Copper and bronze vessels near the best source of lapis lazuli, a blue stone that was apparently very highly valued, and Lothal which was near sources of carnelian (from Bharuch in Gujarat), steatite (from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan). Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold). These expeditions established communication with local communities. Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro beads in these areas are indications of such contact. There is evidence in the Khetri area for what archaeologists call the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture, with its distinctive non-Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects. It is possible that the inhabitants of this region supplied copper to the Harappans. BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 13 Caspian Mediterranean Sea Altyn Depe Sea MESOPOTAMIA TURAN Uruk Ur Shahr-i-Sokhta Harappa Tepe Yahya MELUHHA DILMUN Sutkagendor Red MAGAN Lothal Sea Rasal’ Janayz Arabian Sea Map 3 The Harappan Civilisation and West Asia Sketch map not to scale 6.2 Contact with distant lands Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper was Fig. 1.17 also probably brought from Oman, on the south- A Harappan jar found in Oman eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin. There are other traces of contact as well. A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at Omani sites. Such thick coatings prevent the percolation of liquids. We do not know what was carried in these vessels, but it is possible that the Harappans exchanged the contents of these vessels for Omani copper. Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium B C E refer to copper coming from a region called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman, and interestingly enough copper found at 14 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY Mesopotamian sites also contains traces of nickel. Other archaeological finds suggestive of long- distance contacts include Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads. In this context, it is worth noting that Mesopotamian texts Fig. 1.18 mention contact with regions named Dilmun This is a cylinder seal, typical of (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Mesopotamia, but the humped bull Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. They motif on it appears to be derived mention the products from Meluhha: carnelian, from the Indus region. lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood. A Mesopotamian myth says of Meluhha: “May your bird be the haja-bird, may its call be heard in the royal palace.” Some archaeologists think the haja-bird was the peacock. Did it get this name from its call? It is likely that Fig. 1.19 The round “Persian Gulf” seal found communication with Oman, in Bahrain sometimes carries Bahrain or Mesopotamia was Harappan motifs. Interestingly, by sea. Mesopotamian texts local “Dilmun” weights followed refer to Meluhha as a the Harappan standard. land of seafarers. Besides, we find depictions of ships and boats on seals. Fig. 1.20 Seal depicting a boat Discuss... What were the possible routes from the Harappan region to Oman, Dilmun and Mesopotamia? BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 15 Fig. 1.21 7. Seals, Script, Weights Letters on an ancient signboard 7.1 Seals and sealings Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long- distance communication. Imagine a bag of goods being sent from one place to another. Its mouth was tied with rope and on the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were pressed, leaving an impression. If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender. 7.2 An enigmatic script Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and title of the owner. Fig. 1.22 Scholars have also suggested that the motif A sealing from Ropar (generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to those who could not read. How many seals are Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing impressed on this piece of clay? about 26 signs. Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical (where each sign stands for a vowel or a consonant) as it has just too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400. It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as some seals show a wider spacing on the right and cramping on the left, as if the engraver began working from the right and then ran out of space. Consider the variety of objects on which writing has been found: seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods, even an ancient signboard! Remember, there may have been writing on perishable materials too. Could Discuss... this mean that literacy was widespread? What are some of the present- 7.3 Weights day methods used for long- Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of distance exchange of goods? weights, usually made of a stone called chert and What are their advantages generally cubical (Fig. 1.2), with no markings. The and problems? 16 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system. The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads. Metal scale-pans have also been found. 8. Ancient Authority There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society. Take for instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery (Fig. 1.14), seals, weights and bricks. Notably, bricks, though obviously not produced in any single centre, were of a uniform ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat. We have also seen that settlements were strategically set up in specific locations for various reasons. Besides, labour was mobilised for making bricks and for the construction of massive walls and platforms. Who organised these activities? 8.1 Palaces and kings If we look for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power, archaeological records provide no immediate answers. A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists but no spectacular finds were associated with it. A stone statue was labelled and Fig. 1.23 A “priest-king” continues to be known as the “priest-king”. This is because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and have found parallels in the Indus region. But as we will see (p.23), the ritual practices of the Harappan civilisation are not well understood yet nor are there any means of knowing whether those who performed them also held political power. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth. Yet others argue that there was a single state, given the Discuss... similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned Could everybody in Harappan settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and society have been equal? the establishment of settlements near sources of raw BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 17 material. As of now, the last theory seems the most plausible, as it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions. 9. The End of the Civilisation There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and Map 4 western Uttar Pradesh. Areas of Late Harappan occupation In the few Harappan sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 BCE there appears to have been a transformation of material culture, marked by the disappearance of the SWAT distinctive artefacts of the civilisation – weights, seals, special beads. Indus Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialisation also disappeared. CEMETERY H LATE In general, far fewer materials were SISWAL used to make far fewer things. House construction techniques deteriorated JHUKAR and large public structures were no longer produced. Overall, artefacts and settlements indicate a rural way of life in what are called “Late Harappan” or “successor cultures”. Arabian Sea RANGPUR II B-C What brought about these changes? Several explanations have Sketch map not to scale been put forward. These range from climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers, to overuse of the landscape. Some of these “causes” may hold for certain settlements, but they do not explain the collapse of the entire civilisation. It appears that a strong unifying element, perhaps the Harappan state, came to an end. This is evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from a standardised weight system to the use of local weights; and the decline and abandonment of cities. The subcontinent would have to wait for over a millennium for new cities to develop in a completely different region. 18 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY Source 3 Evidence of an “invasion” Deadman Lane is a narrow alley, varying from 3 to 6 feet in width … At the point where the lane turns westward, part of a skull and the bones of the thorax and upper arm of an adult were discovered, all in very friable condition, at a depth of 4 ft 2 in. The body lay on its back diagonally across the lane. Fifteen inches to the west were a few fragments of a tiny skull. It is to these remains that the lane owes its name. FROM JOHN M ARSHALL, Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilisation, 1931. Sixteen skeletons of people with the ornaments that they were wearing when they died were found from the same part of Mohenjodaro in 1925. Much later, in 1947, R.E.M. Wheeler, then Director-General of the ASI, tried to correlate this archaeological evidence with that of the Rigveda, the earliest known text in the subcontinent. He wrote: The Rigveda mentions pur, meaning rampart, fort or stronghold. Indra, the Aryan war-god is called puramdara, the fort-destroyer. Where are – or were – these citadels? It has in the past been supposed that they were mythical … The recent excavation of Harappa may be thought to have changed the picture. Here we have a highly evolved civilisation of essentially non- Aryan type, now known to have employed massive fortifications … What destroyed this firmly settled civilisation? Climatic, economic or political deterioration may have weakened it, but its ultimate extinction is more likely to have been completed by deliberate and large-scale destruction. It may be no mere chance that at a late period of Mohenjodaro men, women, and children, appear to have been massacred there. On circumstantial evidence, Indra stands accused. FROM R.E.M. WHEELER, “Harappa 1946”, Ancient India, 1947. In the 1960s, the evidence of a massacre in Mohenjodaro was questioned by an archaeologist named George Dales. He demonstrated that the skeletons found at the site did not belong to the same period: Whereas a couple of them definitely seem to indicate a slaughter, … the bulk of the bones were found in contexts suggesting burials of the sloppiest and most irreverent nature. There is no destruction level covering the latest period of the city, no sign of extensive burning, no bodies of warriors clad in armour and surrounded by the weapons of war. The citadel, the only fortified part of the city, yielded no evidence of a final defence. FROM G.F. DALES, “The Mythical Massacre at Mohenjodaro”, Expediton,1964. As you can see, a careful re-examination of the data can sometimes lead to a reversal of earlier interpretations. Discuss... What are the similarities and differences between Maps 1, 2 and 4? BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 19 10. Discovering the Harappan Civilisation So far, we have examined facets of the Harappan civilisation in the context of how archaeologists have used evidence from material remains to piece together parts of a fascinating history. However, there is another story as well – about how archaeologists “discovered” the civilisation. When Harappan cities fell into ruin, people gradually forgot all about them. When men and women began living in the area millennia later, they did not know what to make of the strange artefacts that occasionally surfaced, washed by floods or exposed by soil erosion, or turned up while ploughing a field, or digging for treasure. 10.1 Cunningham’s confusion When Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI, began archaeological excavations in the mid- nineteenth century, archaeologists preferred to use the written word (texts and inscriptions) as a guide to investigations. In fact, Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic (c. sixth century BCE -fourth century CE ) and later periods. He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements. Cunningham also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found during his surveys. When he excavated sites he tended to recover artefacts that he thought had cultural value. A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city, did not fit very neatly within Fig. 1.24 his framework of investigation. So, although Cunningham’s sketch of the first- Harappan artefacts were found fairly often during known seal from Harappa the nineteenth century and some of these reached Cunningham, he did not realise how old these were. A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time-frame with which he was familiar. This was because he, like many others, thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley (see Chapter 2). Given his specific focus, it is not surprising that he missed the significance of Harappa. 20 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY 10.2 A new old civilisation Sites, mounds, layers Subsequently, seals were discovered at Harappa by Archaeological sites are formed archaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni in the early through the production, use decades of the twentieth century, in layers that were and discarding of materials definitely much older than Early Historic levels. It and structures. When people was then that their significance began to be realised. continue to live in the same Another archaeologist, Rakhal Das Banerji found place, their constant use and similar seals at Mohenjodaro, leading to the reuse of the landscape results conjecture that these sites were part of a single in the build up of occupational archaeological culture. Based on these finds, in 1924, debris, called a mound. Brief John Marshall, Director -General of the ASI, or permanent abandonment announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the results in alteration of the Indus valley to the world. As S.N. Roy noted in landscape by wind or water The Story of Indian Archaeology, “Marshall left India activity and erosion. Occupations three thousand years older than he had found her.” are detected by traces of This was because similar, till-then-unidentified ancient materials found in seals were found at excavations at Mesopotamian layers, which differ from one sites. It was then that the world knew not only of a another in colour, texture and new civilisation, but also of one contemporaneous the artefacts that are found with Mesopotamia. in them. Abandonment or In fact, John Marshall’s stint as Director-General desertions, what are called of the ASI marked a major change in Indian “sterile layers”, can be archaeology. He was the first professional identified by the absence of archaeologist to work in India, and brought his such traces. experience of working in Greece and Crete to the Generally, the lowest layers field. More importantly, though like Cunningham he are the oldest and the highest too was interested in spectacular finds, he was are the most recent. The study equally keen to look for patterns of everyday life. of these layers is called Marshall tended to excavate along regular stratigraphy. Artefacts found in horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the layers can be assigned to mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This specific cultural periods and meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same can thus provide the cultural unit were grouped together, even if they were found sequence for a site. at different stratigraphic layers. As a result, valuable Fig. 1.25 The stratigraphy of a small mound Notice that the layers are not exactly horizontal. BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 21 information about the context of these finds was irretrievably lost. Wheeler at Harappa 10.3 New techniques and questions It was R.E.M. Wheeler, after he took over as Director- Early archaeologists were often driven by a sense of adventure. General of the ASI in 1944, who rectified this This is what Wheeler wrote problem. Wheeler recognised that it was necessary about his experience at to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather Harappa: than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal It was, I recall, on a warm lines. Moreover, as an ex-army brigadier, he brought May night in 1944 that a four with him a military precision to the practice miles’ tonga-ride brought me of archaeology. as the newly appointed The frontiers of the Harappan civilisation have Director General of the little or no connection with present-day national Archaeological Survey with boundaries. However, with the partition of the my local Muslim officer from subcontinent and the creation of Pakistan, the major a little railway-station labelled sites are now in Pakistani territory. This has spurred “Harappa” along a deep Indian archaeologists to try and locate sites in India. sand track to a small rest- An extensive survey in Kutch has revealed a number house beside the moonlit of Harappan settlements and explorations in Punjab mounds of the ancient site. and Haryana have added to the list of Harappan Warned by my anxious sites. While Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi and colleague that we must start most recently Dholavira have been discovered, our inspection at 5.30 next explored and excavated as part of these efforts, fresh morning and finish by 7.30 explorations continue. “after which it would be too Over the decades, new issues have assumed hot”, we turned in with the dark figure of the punka-walla importance. Where some archaeologists are often crouched patiently in the keen to obtain a cultural sequence, others try to entrance and the night understand the logic underlying the location of air rent by innumerable specific sites. They also grapple with the wealth of jackals in the neighbouring artefacts, trying to figure out the functions these wilderness. may have served. Next morning, punctually Since the 1980s, there has also been growing at 5.30, our little procession international interest in Harappan archaeology. started out towards the sandy Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad have heaps. Within ten minutes I been jointly working at both Harappa and stopped and rubbed my eyes Mohenjodaro. They are using modern scientific as I gazed upon the tallest techniques including surface exploration to recover mound, scarcely trusting my traces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animal vision. Six hours later my remains as well as to minutely analyse every scrap embarrassed staff and I were of available evidence. These explorations promise to still toiling with picks and yield interesting results in the future. knives under the blazing sun, the mad sahib (I am afraid) setting a relentless pace. Discuss... FROM R.E.M. WHEELER, Which of the themes in this chapter would have My Archaeological Mission interested Cunningham? Which are the issues to India and Pakistan, 1976. that have been of interest since 1947? 22 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY 11. Problems of Piecing Together the Past As we have seen, it is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the ancient civilisation. Rather, it is material evidence that allows archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life. This material could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc. Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decompose, especially in tropical regions. What survive are stone, burnt clay (or terracotta), metal, etc. It is also important to remember that only broken or useless objects would have been thrown away. Other things would probably have been recycled. Consequently, valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved. In other words, such finds are accidental rather than typical. 11.1 Classifying finds Recovering artefacts is just the beginning of the archaeological enterprise. Archaeologists then classify their finds. One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc. The second, and more complicated, is in terms of function: archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use. An understanding of the function of an artefact is often shaped by its resemblance with present-day things – beads, querns, stone blades and pots are obvious examples. Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by investigating the context in which it was found: was it found in a house, in a drain, in a grave, in a kiln? Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance, though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture. Archaeologists have to develop frames of reference. We have seen that the first Harappan seal that was found could not be understood till archaeologists had a context in which to place it – both in terms of the cultural sequence in which it was found, and in terms of a comparison with finds in Mesopotamia. BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES 23 11.2 Problems of interpretation The problems of archaeological interpretation are perhaps most evident in attempts to reconstruct religious practices. Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious significance. These included terracotta figurines of women, heavily jewelled, some with elaborate head-dresses. These were regarded as mother goddesses. Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardised posture, seated with one hand on the knee – such as the “priest-king” – was also similarly classified. In other instances, structures have been assigned ritual significance. These include the Great Bath and fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal. Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship. Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” – depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures. In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism. Besides, conical stone objects have been Fig. 1.26 classified as lingas. Was this a mother goddess? Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later traditions provide parallels with earlier ones. This is because archaeologists often move from the known to the unknown, that is, from the present to the past. While this is plausible in the case of stone querns and pots, it becomes more speculative when we extend it to “religious” symbols. Let us look, for instance, at the “proto-Shiva” seals. The earliest religious text, the Rigveda (compiled c. 1500-1000 BCE) mentions a god named Rudra, which is a name used for Shiva in later Puranic traditions (in the first millennium CE ; see also Chapter 4). Fig. 1.27 However, unlike Shiva, Rudra in the Rigveda is A “proto-Shiva” seal neither depicted as Pashupati (lord of animals in general and cattle in particular), nor as a yogi. In other words, this depiction does not match the A linga is a polished stone description of Rudra in the Rigveda. Is this, then, that is worshipped as a possibly a shaman as some scholars have suggested? symbol of Shiva. 24 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY Shamans are men and What has been achieved after so many decades of women who claim magical archaeological work? We have a fairly good idea of and healing powers, as well the Harappan economy. We have been able to tease as an ability to communicate out social differences and we have some idea of how with the other world. the civilisation functioned. It is really not clear how much more we would know if the script were to be deciphered. If a bilingual inscription is found, questions about the languages spoken by the Harappans could perhaps be put to rest. Several reconstructions remain speculative at present. Was the Great Bath a ritual structure? How widespread was literacy? Why do Harappan cemeteries show little social differentiation? Also unanswered are questions on gender – did women make pottery or did they only paint pots (as at present)? What about other craftspersons? What were the terracotta female figurines used for? Very few scholars have investigated issues of gender in the context of the Harappan civilisation and this is a whole new area for future work. Fig. 1.28 Gamesmen or lingas? This is what Mackay, one of the earliest excavators, had to say about these stones: Various small cones made of lapis lazuli, jasper, chalcedony, and other stones, most beautifully cut and finished, and less than two inches in height, are also thought to be lingas … on the other hand, it is just as possible that they were used in the board-games … F ROM E RNEST M ACKAY , Early Indus Civilisation, 1948. Discuss... What are the aspects of Harappan economy that have been reconstructed from Fig. 1.29 archaeological evidence? A terracotta cart