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T.O.P. Prelim Lectures Chapter 1: Introduction to Personality Samantha Kim A. de Vera, RPm, RGC 1 Contents I. What is Personality? II. What is a Theory? III. Why Different Theories? IV. Perspectives in Theories of Personality V. Theorists’ Perso...

T.O.P. Prelim Lectures Chapter 1: Introduction to Personality Samantha Kim A. de Vera, RPm, RGC 1 Contents I. What is Personality? II. What is a Theory? III. Why Different Theories? IV. Perspectives in Theories of Personality V. Theorists’ Personality and their Theories of Personality VI. What Makes a Theory Useful? VII. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity VIII. Research in Personality Theory 2 I. What is Personality? Originated from the Latin word persona which referred to a theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas. A pattern of relatively permanent traits or characteristics that render some consistency to a person’s behavior. Traits contribute to individual differences in behavior, consistency of behavior over time, and stability of behavior across situations. Characteristics are unique qualities of an individual that include such attributes as temperament, physique, and intelligence. 3 II. What is a Theory? A scientific theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses. THEORY AND ITS RELATIVES Philosophy (love of wisdom) Speculation (closely tied to empirically gathered data and to science) Hypothesis (an educated guess or prediction) Taxonomy (a classification of things according to their natural relationships) 4 III. Why Different Theories? Alternate theories exist because the very nature of a theory allows the theorist to make speculations from a particular point of view. All theories are a reflection of their authors’ personal backgrounds, childhood experiences, philosophy of life, interpersonal relationships, and unique manner of looking at the world. 5 IV. Perspectives in Theories of Personality Psychodynamic Theories Humanistic-Existential Theories (Positive Psychology) Dispositional Theories Biological-Evolutionary Theories Learning-(Social) Cognitive Theories 6 IV. Perspectives in Theories of Personality Psychodynamic Theories Focused on the importance of early childhood experiences and on relationship with parents as guiding forces that shape personality development. Humanistic-Existential Theories (Positive Psychology) Primary assumption is that people strive toward meaning, growth, well-being, happiness and psychological health. Dispositional Theories Argue that the unique and long-term tendencies to behave in particular ways are the essence of our personality. Biological-Evolutionary Theories Behavior, thought, feelings, and personality are influenced by differences in basic genetic, epigenetic, and neurological system between individuals. Learning-(Social) Cognitive Theories All behaviors are learned through association and/or its consequences (whether it is reinforced or punished). 7 8 9 10 V. Theorists Personality and their Theories of Personality Psychology of Science investigates the impact of an individual scientist’s psychological processes and personal characteristics on the development of her or his scientific theories and research. 11 VI. What Makes A Theory Useful? Generates research Is falsifiable Organizes data Guides action Is internally consistent Is parsimonious 12 VI. What Makes A Theory Useful? Generates research The most important criterion of a useful theory is its ability to stimulate and guide further research. A useful theory will generate two different kinds of research: Descriptive research (concerned with the measurement, labeling, and categorization of the units employed in theory building.) Hypothesis testing (leads to an indirect verification of the usefulness of the theory.) 13 VI. What Makes A Theory Useful? Is falsifiable To be falsifiable, a theory must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major tenets. Falsifiability is not the same as false; it simply means that negative research results will refute the theory and force the theorist to either discard it or modify it. 14 VI. What Makes A Theory Useful? Organizes Data Without some organization or classification, research findings would remain isolated and meaningless; unless data are organized into some intelligible framework, scientists are left with no clear direction to follow in the pursuit of further knowledge. A useful theory of personality must be capable of integrating what is currently known about human behavior and personality development. 15 VI. What Makes A Theory Useful? Guides action A useful theory’s ability to guide the practitioner over the rough course of day-to-day problems. Also included in this criterion is the extent to which the theory stimulates thought and action in other disciplines. 16 VI. What Makes A Theory Useful? Is internally consistent A useful theory need not be consistent with other theories, but it must be consistent with itself. An internally consistent theory uses language in a consistent manner (i.e., it does not use the same term to mean two different things, nor does it use two separate terms to refer to the same concept. Operational Definition is one that defines units in terms of observable events or behaviors that can be measured. 17 VI. What Makes A Theory Useful? Is parsimonious When two theories are equal in their ability to generate research, be falsified, give meaning to data, guide the practitioner, and be self- consistent, the simpler one is preferred -- this is the law of parsimony. 18 VII. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity Determinism versus Free Choice Pessimism versus Optimism Causality versus Teleology Conscious versus Unconscious Determinants of Behavior Biological versus Social Influences on Personality Uniqueness versus Similarities 19 VIII. Research in Personality Theory In researching human behavior, personality theorists often use various measuring procedures, and these procedures must be both reliable and valid. Reliability refers to a measuring instrument's consistency whereas validity refers to its accuracy or truthfulness. 20 THANK YOU FOR LISTENING! :) ANY QUESTIONS? 21  T.O.P. Prelim Lectures Chapter 2: Freud | Psychoanalysis Samantha Kim A. de Vera, RPm, RGC 1 Contents I. Overview of Psychoanalytic Theory II. Biography of Sigmund Freud III. Levels of Mental Life IV. Provinces of the Mind V. Dynamics of Personality VI. Defense Mechanisms VII. Stages of Development VIII. Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory IX. Related Research X. Critique of Freud XI. Concept of Humanity 2 I. Overview of Psychoanalytic Theory The twin cornerstones of psychoanalysis, sex and aggression, are two subjects of continuing popularity. The theory was spread beyond its Viennese origins by an ardent and dedicated group of followers. Freud’s brilliant command of language enabled him to present his theories in a stimulating and exciting manner. Freud’s understanding of human personality was based on his experiences with patients, his analysis of his own dreams, and his vast readings in the various sciences and humanities. 3 II. Biography of Sigmund Freud Sigismund Freud was born on either March 6 or May 6, 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia. When Sigmund was three, the two Freud families left Freiberg. Emanuel's family and Philipp moved to England, and the Jacob Freud family moved first to Leipzig and then to Vienna. When Freud was about a year and a half old, his mother gave birth to a second son, Julius, an event that was to have a significant impact on Freud's psychic development. 4 II. Biography of Sigmund Freud In 1885, he received a traveling grant from the University of Vienna and decided to study in Paris with the famous French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot. He spent 4 months with Charcot, from whom he learned the hypnotic technique for treating hysteria, a disorder typically characterized by paralysis or the improper functioning of certain parts of the body. Through hypnosis, Freud became convinced of a psychogenic and sexual origin of hysterical symptoms. 5 II. Biography of Sigmund Freud While still a medical student, Freud developed a close professional association and a personal friendship with Josef Breuer, a well-known Viennese physician 14 years older than Freud and a man of considerable scientific reputation (Ferris,1997). Breuer taught Freud about catharsis, the process of removing hysterical symptoms through “talking them out.” While using catharsis, Freud gradually and laboriously discovered the free association technique, which soon replaced hypnosis as his principal therapeutic technique. 6 III. Levels of Mental Life To Freud, mental life is divided into two levels: unconscious; and conscious. The unconscious, in turn, has two different levels: unconscious proper; and preconscious. 7 III. Levels of Mental Life Unconscious The unconscious contains all the drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness but that nevertheless motivate most of our words, feelings, and actions. To him the unconscious is the explanation for the meaning behind dreams, slips of the tongue, and certain kinds of forgetting called repression. Dreams serves as a particularly rich source of unconscious material. Freud believed that a portion of our unconscious originates from the experiences of our early ancestors that have been passed on to us through hundreds of generations of repetition. He called these inherited unconscious images our phylogenetic endowment. 8 III. Levels of Mental Life Preconscious The preconscious level of the mind contains all those elements that are not conscious but can become conscious either quite readily or with some difficulty. The contents of the preconscious come from two sources: Conscious perception (what a person perceives is conscious for only a transitory period) Unconscious (Freud believed that ideas can slip past past the vigilant censor and enter into the preconscious in a disguised form) 9 III. Levels of Mental Life Conscious Defined as those mental elements in awareness at any given point in time. The only level of life directly available to us. 10 IV. Provinces of the Mind Id (das Es or the “it”) Ego (das Ich or the “I”) Superego (das Uber-Ich or the “over-I”) 11 IV. Provinces of the Mind Id (das Es or the “it”) The not-yet-owned component of personality. The most primitive part of the mind. Has no contact with reality yet it strives constantly to reduce tension by satisfying basic desires. Its sole function is to seek pleasure which is why it serves the pleasure principle. Operates through the primary process being the region that houses the basic drives or the primary motivates (child-like thinking). 12 IV. Provinces of the Mind Ego (das Ich or the “I”) The only region of the mind in contact with the reality. The decision-making or executive branch of personality. Governed by the reality principle which it tries to substitute pleasure principle of the id. The rational aspect of personality. Partly conscious, partly preconscious, partly unconscious, the ego can make decisions on each of these three levels. 13 IV. Provinces of the Mind Superego (das Uber-Ich or the “above I”) Represents the moral and ideal aspects of personality. Guided by the moralistic and idealistic principles. Has no contact with the outside world and therefore is unrealistic in its demands for perfection. Has two subsystems: the conscience and the ego-ideal. Conscience (tells us what we should NOT do) Ego-ideal (tells us what we should do) Guilt is the result when the ego acts in contrary to the moral standards of the superego. 14 IV. Provinces of the Mind 15 V. Dynamics of Personality Drives (instinct) Sex (narcissism, love, sadism, masochism) Aggression Anxiety Neurotic Anxiety Moral Anxiety Realistic Anxiety 16 V. Dynamics of Personality Drives (instinct) From the German word trieb which Freud refers to as drive or stimulus or instinct. Operate as a constant motivational force. According to Freud, the various drives can all be grouped under two major headings: Sex or Eros Aggression or Distraction or Thanatos This drives originate in the id but they come under the control of ego. Libido. Psychic energy for sex drive Aggressive drive remains nameless. 17 V. Dynamics of Personality Drives (instinct) Every basic drive is characterized by an impetus, a source, an aim, and an object. A drive’s impetus is the amount of force it exerts; its source is the region of the body in a state of excitation or tension; its aim is to seek pleasure by removing that excitation or reducing the tension; and its object is the person or thing that serves as the means through which the aim is satisfied (Freud, 1915/1957a). 18 V. Dynamics of Personality Drives: Sex Drive The aim of sexual drive is pleasure but this pleasure is not limited to genital satisfaction. Erogenous zones. The genitals, mouth, and anus which are capable of producing sexual pleasure. Four Forms of Sex: Narcissism (primary narcissism:infants ; secondary narcissism:adolescents) Love (develops when people invest their libido on an object or person) Sadism (the need for sexual pleasure by inflicting pain or humiliation on another person) Masochism (a common need which becomes a perversion when Eros becomes subservient to the destructive drive) 19 V. Dynamics of Personality Drives: Sex Drive The aim of sexual drive is pleasure but this pleasure is not limited to genital satisfaction. Erogenous zones. The genitals, mouth, and anus which are capable of producing sexual pleasure. Four Forms of Sex: Narcissism (primary narcissism:infants ; secondary narcissism:adolescents) Love (develops when people invest their libido on an object or person) Sadism (the need for sexual pleasure by inflicting pain or humiliation on another person) Masochism (a common need which becomes a perversion when Eros becomes subservient to the destructive drive) 20 V. Dynamics of Personality Anxiety A felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation that warns the person against impending danger. Produced only by the ego. Three kinds of anxiety: Neurotic Anxiety (ego’s dependence on id) Moral Anxiety (ego’s dependence on superego) Realistic Anxiety (ego’s dependence on the outer world) 21 VI. Defense Mechanisms Although defense mechanisms are normal and universally used, when carried to an extreme they lead to compulsive, repetitive, and neurotic behavior. The principal defense mechanisms identified by Freud include: repression, reaction formation, displacement, fixation, regression, projection, introjection, and sublimation. 22 VI. Defense Mechanisms Repression. The most basic defense mechanism; forces threatening feelings into the unconscious. Example: A young girl may permanently repress her hostility for a younger sister because her hateful feelings create too much anxiety. Reaction Formation. Adopting a disguise that is directly opposite of its original form. Example: A young woman who deeply resents and hates her mother. Because she knows that society demands affection toward parents, such conscious hatred for her mother would produce too much anxiety. Too much painful anxiety, the young woman concentrates on the opposite impulse -- love. Her “love” for her mother, however, is not genuine. It is showy, exaggerated, and overdone. 23 VI. Defense Mechanisms Displacement. (people can redirect their unacceptable urges onto a variety of people or objects so that the original impulse is disguised or concealed) Example: A woman who is angry at her roommate may displace her anger onto her employees,her pet cat, or a stuffed animal. She remains friendly to her roommate, but unlike the workings of reaction formation, she does not exaggerate or overdo her friendliness. Fixation. (remaining at the present, more comfortable psychological state; permanently attachment of the libido onto an earlier, more primitive stage of development) Example: People who continuously derive pleasure from eating, smoking, or talking have an oral fixation. Those who are obsessed with neatness and orderliness may possess an anal fixation. 24 VI. Defense Mechanisms Regression. (revert back to that earlier stage; usually temporary) Example: A completely weaned child may regress to demanding a bottle or nipple when a baby brother or sister is born. Projection. (seeing in others unacceptable feelings or tendencies that actually resides in one’s own unconscious) Example: A man may consistently interpret the actions of older women as attempted seductions. Consciously, the thought of sexual intercourse with older women may be intensely repugnant to him, but buried in his unconscious is a strong erotic attraction to these women. Paranoia. An extreme type of projection. 25 VI. Defense Mechanisms Introjection. (a defense mechanism whereby people incorporate positive qualities of another person into their own ego) Example: An adolescent may introject or adopt the mannerisms, values, or lifestyle of a movie star. Sublimation. (the repression of the genital aim of Eros by substituting a cultural or social aim) The sublimated aim is expressed most obviously in creative cultural accomplishments such as art, music, & literature. Example: Art of Michelangelo 26 VII. Stages of Development Infantile Stage Oral Phase Anal Phase Phallic Phase Latency Period Genital Period Maturity 27 VII. Stages of Development Infantile Stage First 4-5 years of life. Most crucial for personality formation. Childhood sexuality differs from adult sexuality in that it is not capable of reproduction and is exclusively autoerotic. Freud divided the infantile stage into three (3) phases: Oral Phase Anal Phase Phallic Phase 28 VII. Stages of Development Infantile Stage Freud divided the infantile stage into three (3) phases: Oral Phase Mouth is the primary erogeneous. Infants obtain life-sustaining nourishment through the oral cavity, but beyond that, they also gain pleasure through the act of sucking. Oral Receptive Phase - infants feel no ambivalence toward the pleasurable object and their needs are usually satisified with a minimum of frustration and anxiety. Oral Sadistic Period - infants’ defense against the environment is greatly aided by the emergence of teeth ; the painful eruption of teeth. 29 VII. Stages of Development Infantile Stage Freud divided the infantile stage into three (3) phases: Anal Phase This period is characterized by satisfaction gained through aggressive behavior and through the excretory function. Freud also called this sadistic-anal phase; anus emerges as sexually pleasurable zone. There are two subphases: Early Anal Period - children receive satisfaction by destroying or losing objects. Late Anal Period - children will present their feces to the parents as a valued prize. Anal Character: people who continue to receive erotic satisfaction by keping and possessing objects and by arranging them in an excessively neat and orderly fashion. Anal Triad: orderliness, stinginess, and obstinancy 30 VII. Stages of Development Infantile Stage Freud divided the infantile stage into three (3) phases: Phallic Phase Genital area becomes the leading erogenous zone. According to Freud, “anatomy is destiny” Phylogenetic endowment - capable of filling the gaps of our individual differences with the inherited experiences of our ancestors. 31 VII. Stages of Development 32 VII. Stages of Development Latency Period 4th or 5th year until puberty. Brought about partly by parents’ attempts to punish or discourage sexual activity in their young children. If parental suppression is successful, children will repress their sexual drive and direct their psychic energy toward school, friendships, hobbies, and other nonsexual activities. 33 VII. Stages of Development Genital Period First, adolescents give up autoeroticism and direct their sexual energy toward another person instead of toward themselves. Second, reproduction is now possible. The mouth, anus, and other pleasure-producing areas take an auxilliary position to the genitals, which now attain supremacy as an erogeneous zone. 34 VII. Stages of Development Maturity Begins at puberty and continues throughout the individual’s lifetime. A stage attained after a person has passed through the earlier developmental periods in an ideal manner. Consciousness would play a more important role in the behavior of mature people, who would have only a minimal need to repress sexual and aggressive urges. 35 VIII. Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory Freud used his theory on the dreams, free associations, slips of the tongue, and neurotic symptoms of his patients during therapy. But he also gathered information from history, literature, and works of art. Freud's Early Therapeutic Technique During the 1890s, Freud used an aggressive therapeutic technique in which he strongly suggested to patients that they had been sexually seduced as children. He later dropped this technique and abandoned his belief that most patients had been seduced during childhood. 36 VIII. Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory Freud's Later Therapeutic Technique Beginning in the late 1890s, Freud adopted a much more passive type of psychotherapy, one that relied heavily on free association, dream interpretation, and transference. The goal of Freud's later psychotherapy was to uncover repressed memories, and the therapist uses dream analysis and free association to do so. With free association, patients are required to say whatever comes to mind, no matter how irrelevant or distasteful. Successful therapy rests on the patient's transference of childhood sexual or aggressive feelings onto the therapist and away from symptom formation. Patients' resistance to change can be seen as progress because it indicates that therapy has advanced beyond superficial conversation. 37 VIII. Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory Free Association - patients are required to verbalize every thought that comes to their mind, no matter how irrevelant or repugnant it may appear. Dream Analysis - to transform the manifest content of dreams to the more important latent content. Manifest Content - of a dream is the surface meaning or the conscious description given by the dreamer Latent Content - unconscious material 38 VIII. Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory Freudian Slips In German, “Fehlleistung” or “faulty function” James Trachey invented the term parapraxes to refer to what many people now simply call “Freudian Slips” Freud believed that many everyday slips of the tongue or pen, misreading, incorrect hearing, misplacing objects, and temporarily forgetting names or intentions are not chance accidents but reveal a person’s unconscious intentions. 39 IX. Related Research Freudian theory has generated a large amount of related research, including studies on defense mechanisms and oral fixation. Defense Mechanisms. George Valliant has added to the list of Freudian defense mechanisms and has found evidence that some of them are neurotic: reaction formation, idealization, and undoing; Some are immature and maladaptive such as: projection, isolation, denial, displacement, and dissociation; and Some are mature and adaptive such as: sublimation, suppression, humor, and altruism. Valliant found that neurotic defense mechanisms are successful over the short term; immature defenses are unsuccessful and have the highest degree of distortion; Whereas mature and adaptive defenses are successful over the long term, maximize gratification, and have the least amount of distortion. 40 IX. Related Research Freudian theory has generated a large amount of related research, including studies on defense mechanisms and oral fixation. Oral Fixation Some recent research has found that aggression is higher in people who bite their finger nails than it is in non-nail biters, especially in women. Other research found that people who are orally fixated tend to see their parents more negatively than did people who were less orally fixated. 41 X. Critique of Freud Freud regarded himself as a scientist, but many critics consider his methods to be outdated, unscientific, and permeated with gender bias. On the six criteria of a useful theory, psychoanalysis is rated high on its ability to generate research, very low on its openness to falsification, and average on organizing data, guiding action, and being parsimonious. Because it lacks operational definitions, it rates low on internal consistency. 42 XI. Concept of Humanity Freud believed that most of our behavior is determined by past events rather than molded by present goals. According to Freud, we come into the world in a basic state of conflict, with life and death forces operating on us from opposing sides. Freud believed that present behavior is mostly shaped by past causes rather than by people’s goals for the future. Freud believed that everything from slips of the tongue to religious experiences is the result of a deep-rooted desire to satisfy sexual or aggressive drives. These motives make us slaves to our unconscious. 43 XI. Concept of Humanity As a physician, Freud’s medical training disposed him to see human personality from a biological viewpoint. Humanity’s evolutionary past gives rise to a great many similarities among people. Nevertheless, individual experiences, especially those of early childhood, shape people in a somewhat unique manner and account for many of the differences among personalities. 44 XI. Concept of Humanity Determinism versus Free Choice Pessimistic versus Optimism Causality versus Teleology Conscious versus Unconscious Social versus Biological Influences Uniqueness versus Similarities 45 THANK YOU FOR LISTENING! :) ANY QUESTIONS? 46  T.O.P. Prelim Lectures Chapter 3: Adler | Individual Psychology Samantha Kim A. de Vera, RPm, RGC 1 Contents I. Overview of Individual Psychology II. Biography of Alfred Adler III. Introduction to Adlerian Theory IV. Striving for Success or Superiority V. Subjective Perceptions VI. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality VII. Social Interest VIII. Style of Life IX. Creative Power X. Abnormal Development XI. Applications of Individual Psychology XII. Related Research XIII. Critique of Adler XIV. Concept of Humanity 2 I. Overview of Individual Psychology Presents an optimistic view of people while resting heavily on the notion of social interest --- a feeling of oneness with all humankind. Adler’s View: Adler saw people as being motivated by social influences and by their striving for superiority or success. Adler believed that people are largely responsible for who they are. Adler’s notion that present behavior is shaped by people’s view of the future. Adler believed that psychologically healthy people are usually aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it. Adler suggested that social interest and compassion could be the cornerstones of human motivation. To Adler, people are born with weak inferior bodies -- a condition that leads to feelings of inferiority. 3 I. Overview of Individual Psychology Freud’s View: Freud reduced all motivation to sex and aggression. Freud assumed that people have little or no choice in shaping their personality. Freud assumed that present behavior is caused by past experiences. Freud placed a heavy emphasis on unconscious components of behavior. 4 II. Biography of Alfred Adler Born on February 7, 1870 in Rudolfsheim, a village near Vienna. Adler’s poor health was in sharp contrast to the health of his older brother, Sigmund. The lives of Freud and Adler have several interesting parallels. Adler was more interested in social relationships, and his siblings and peers played a pivotal role in his childhood development. 5 II. Biography of Alfred Adler Adler attended elementary school with neither difficulty nor distinction. During the next few years, Adler became even more convinced that psychoanalysis should be much broader than Freud’s view of infantile sexuality. During the last several years of his life, Adler frequently visited the United States, where he taught individual psychology at Columbia University and the New School for Social Research. Adler married a fiercely independent Russian woman, Raissa Epstein, in December of 1897. 6 III. Introduction to Adlerian Theory Six (6) Main Tenets of Adlerian Theory The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality. Personality is unified and self-consistent. The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest. The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life. Style of life is molded by people’s creative power. 7 IV. Striving for Success or Superiority The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority. First tenet of Adlerian theory. Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority, whereas psychologically healthy individuals seek success for all humanity. Adler believed that aggression was the dynamic power behind all motivation, but soon became dissatisfied with the term. 8 IV. Striving for Success or Superiority Adler used the term masculine protest which implied will to power or a domination of others. Striving for superiority - those people who strive for personal superiority over others. Striving for success - actions of people who are motivated by highly developed social interest. 9 IV. Striving for Success or Superiority Final Goal is fictional and has no objective existence. According to Adler, people strive toward a final goal of either personal superiority or the goal success for all humankind. Final goal has great significance because it unifies personality and renders all behavior comprehensible. Goal is neither genetically nor environmentally determined. Rather, it is the product of the creative power. Creative Power is the people’s ability to freely shape their behavior and create their own personality. 10 IV. Striving for Success or Superiority By the time children reach 4-5 years of age, their creative power has developed to the point that they can set their final goal. If children feel neglected or pampered, their goal remains largely unconscious; if children experience love and security, they set a goal that is largely conscious and clearly understood. 11 IV. Striving for Success or Superiority The Striving Force as Compensation: Compensation - a motivation to overcome superiority; to strive for higher levels of development. Adler believed that all humans are “blessed” at birth with small, weak, and inferior bodies. Without innate movement toward perfection, children would never feel inferior; but without feelings of inferiority, they would never set a goal of superiority or success. 12 IV. Striving for Success or Superiority Striving for Personal Superiority: Inferiority Complex - a condition that develops when a person is unable to compensate feelings of inferiority. Murderers, thieves, and con artists are obvious examples of people who strive for personal gain. Some people create clever disguises for their personal striving and may consciously or unconsciously hide their self-centeredness behind the cloak of social concern. Superiority Complex - a condition that develops when a person overcompensate feelings of inferiority. 13 V. Subjective Perceptions People ’ s s u b j e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n s s h a p e t h e i r b e h a v i o r a n d personality. Adler’s second tenet in the Adlerian theory. People strive for superiority or success to compensate for feelings of inferiority, but the manner in which they strive is not shaped by reality but by their subjective perceptions of reality, that is, by their fictions, or expectations of the future. 14 V. Subjective Perceptions Fictionalism. The subjective, fictional final goal guides our style of life, gives unity to our personality. Adler’s ideas on fictionalism originated with Hans Vaihinger’s book The Philosophy of “As If”. Vaihinger believed that fictions are ideas that have no real existence, yet they influence people as if they really existed. Example: Men are superior to women. Adler adopted a teleological view, one in which people are motivated by present perceptions of the future. 15 V. Subjective Perceptions Physical Inferiorities. Because people begin life small, weak, and inferior, they develop a fiction or belief system about how to overcome these physical deficiencies and become big, strong, and superior. Adler (1929/1969) insisted that the whole human race is “blessed” with organ inferiorities. Adler (1929/1969) emphasized that physical deficiencies alone do not cause a particular style of life; they simply provide present motivation for reaching future goals. 16 VI. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality Personality is unified and self-consistent. Adler wished to stress his belief that each person is unique and indivisible. When people behave erratically or unpredictably, their behavior forces other people to be on the defensive, to be watchful so as not to be confused by capricious actions. 17 VI. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality Adler recognized several ways in which the entire person operates with unity and self-consistency. Organ Dialect (or Organ Jargon) The deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual’s goal, a condition known as organ dialect. Through organ dialect, the body’s organ “speak a language which is usually more expressive and discloses the individual’s opinion more clearly than words are able to do.” 18 VI. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality Adler recognized several ways in which the entire person operates with unity and self-consistency. Conscious and Unconscious Adler defined the unconscious as that part of the goal that is neither clearly formulated nor completely understood by the individual. Adler avoided a dichotomy between the unconscious and the conscious, which he saw as two cooperating parts of the same unified system. Unconscious - when people fails to understand the conscious life Conscious - when unconscious tendency is finally understood 19 VII. Social Interest The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest. The fourth tenet in the Adlerian theory. Gemeinschaftsgefűhl is the original German term which is more accurately translated as a “social feeling” or “community feeling.” A feeling of oneness with all humanity; it implies membership in the social community of all people. Social interest can be defined as an attitude of relatedness with humanity in general as well as an empathy for each member of the human community. Social interest is the natural condition of the human species and the adhesive that binds society together. 20 VI. Social Interest Origins: It originates from mother-child relationship during the early months of infancy. Adler believed that marriage and parenthood is a task for two. However, the two parents may influence a child’s social interest in somewhat different ways. The mother’s job is to develop a bond that encourages the child’s mature social interest and fosters a sense of cooperation. The father is a second important person in a child’s social environment. He must demonstrate a caring attitude toward his wife as well as to other people. According to Adler’s (1956) standards, a successful father avoids the dual errors of emotional detachment and paternal authoritarianism. 21 VII. Social Interest Importance: Social interest was Adler’s yardstick for measuring psychological health and is thus “the sole criterion of human values” Known as the “barometer of normality” which is set as a standard to be used in determining the usefulness of a life. Social interest is not synonymous with charity and unselfishness. All people possess feelings of inferiority, and all set a final goal at around age of 4 or 5. 22 VII. Social Interest 23 VIII. Style of Life The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life. Fifth tenet in Adlerian theory Style of life is the term used by Adler to refer to the flavor of a person’s life. It includes a person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude toward the world. It is the product of the interaction of heredity, environment, and a person’s creative power. A person’s style of life is fairly well established by age 4 or 5. 24 VIII. Style of Life Psychologically unhealthy individuals often lead rather inflexible lives that are marked by an inability to choose new ways of reacting to their environment. Psychologically healthy people behave in diverse and flexible ways with styles of life that are complex, enriched, and changing. They actively struggle to solve what Adler regarded as the three major p r o b l e m s o f l i f e — n e i g h b o r l y l o v e , s e x u a l l o v e , a n d occupation—and they do so through cooperation, personal courage, and a willingness to make a contribution to the welfare of another. 25 IX. Creative Power Style of life is molded by people’s creative power. The final tenet of Adlerian theory. Creative power is the dynamic concept implying movement, and this movement is the most salient characteristic of life. Adler (1956) acknowledged the importance of heredity and environment in forming personality. Each person uses heredity and environment as the bricks and mortar to build personality, but the architectural design reflects that person’s own style. 26 X. Abnormal Development According to Adler (1956), the one factor underlying all types of maladjustments is underdeveloped social interest. Neurotics tend to: set their goals too high; live in their own private world; and have a rigid and dogmatic style of life. 27 X. Abnormal Development External Factors of Maladjustment: Exaggerated physical deficiencies overly concerned with themselves lack of consideration for others fear defeat more than they desire success Pampered style of life lies at the heart of most neuroses weak social interest pampered children received too much; rather, they feel unloved and neglected Neglected style of life may have the characteristics of the pampered ones, but generally they are more suspicious and more likely to be dangerous to others. 28 X. Abnormal Development Safeguarding Tendencies: Patterns of behavior that protect one’s exaggerated sense of self-esteem against public disgrace. Freudian defense mechanisms operate unconsciously to protect the ego against anxiety; Adlerian safeguarding tendencies are largely conscious and shield a person’s fragile self-esteem from public disgrace. 29 X. Abnormal Development Safeguarding Tendencies: Excuses Aggression (depreciation, accusation, of self-accusation) Withdrawal Moving backward Standing still Hesitating Constructing obstacles 30 X. Abnormal Development Safeguarding Tendencies: Excuses The most common of the safeguarding tendencies which are typically expressed as “Yes, but” or “If only” format. “Yes, but”: people first state what they would like to do then they follow with an excuse. “If only”: the same excuse but only in a different way These excuses protect a weak—but artificially inflated—sense of self-worth and deceive people into believing that they are more superior than they really are (Adler, 1956). 31 X. Abnormal Development Safeguarding Tendencies: Aggression Adler (1956) held that some people use aggression to safeguard their exaggerated superiority complex, that is, to protect their fragile self- esteem. Safeguarding through aggression may take the form of depreciation, accusation, or self-accusation. Depreciation is the tendency to undervalue other people’s achievements and to overvalue one’s own. Criticism and gossip Accusation is the tendency to blame others for one’s failures and to seek revenge. Self-accusation is marked by self-torture and guilt. Some people use self-torture including masochism, depression, suicide as means of hurting people who are close to them. 32 X. Abnormal Development Safeguarding Tendencies: Withdrawal Personality development can be halted when people run away from difficulties. Adler referred to this tendency as withdrawal, or safeguarding through distance. Adler recognized four modes of safeguarding tendencies through withdrawal: Moving Backward Standing Still Hesitating Constructing Obstacles 33 X. Abnormal Development Safeguarding Tendencies: Withdrawal Moving backward is the tendency safeguard one’s fictional goal of superiority by psychologically reverting to a more secure period of life. Moving backward is similar to Freud’s concept of regression in that both involve attempts to return to e a r l i e r , m o r e comfortable phases of life. Standing still is a tendency similar to moving backward but, in general, it is not as severe. People who stand still simply do not move in any direction; thus, they avoid all responsibility by ensuring themselves against any threat of failure. 34 X. Abnormal Development Safeguarding Tendencies: Withdrawal Hesitating. Some people hesitate or vacillate when faced with difficult problems. Their procrastinations eventually give them the excuse “It’s too late now.” Constructing Obstacles. Some people build a straw house to show that they can knock it down. By overcoming the obstacle, they protect their self-esteem and their prestige. If they fail to hurdle the barrier, they can always resort to an excuse. 35 X. Abnormal Development 36 XI. Application of Individual Psychology Family Constellations Firstborn children are likely to have intensified feelings of power and superiority, high anxiety, and overprotective tendencies. Secondborn children begin life in a better situation for developing cooperation and social interest. Youngest children are often most pampered and run a high risk of being problem children. Only children are in a unique position of competing, not against siblings, but against parents. 37 XI. Application of Individual Psychology Early Recollections. Always consistent with people’s present style of life and their subjective account of these experiences yields clues to understanding both their final goal and present style of life. Dreams. Although dreams cannot foretell the future, they can provide clues for solving future problems. Psychotherapy. Adlerian psychotherapy’s purpose is to enhance courage, lessen feelings of inferiority and encourage social interest. Adler emphasized that what people do with what they have is more importnat than what they have. Three (3) problems of life: (1) sexual love, (2) friendship, and (3) occupation. 38 XII. Related Research Although family constellation and birth order have been widely researched, a topic more pertinent to Adlerian theory is early recollections. Research shows that early recollections are related to a number of personal traits, such as depression, alcoholism, criminal behavior, and success in counseling. Other research has shown that a change in style of life may be capable of producing a change in early recollections. Still other research suggests that made-up early recollections may be as meaningful as actual ones. 39 XIII. Critique of Adler Individual psychology rates High on its ability to generate research, organize data, and guide the practitioner. It receives a moderate rating on parsimony, but because it lacks operational definitions, it rates low on internal consistency. It also rates low on falsification because many of its related research findings can be explained by other theories. 40 XIV. Concept of Humanity: Adler’s Individual Psychology On the six dimensions of a concept of humanity listed in Chapter 1, we rate Adler very high on free choice and optimism; very low on causality; moderate on unconscious influences; and high on social factors and on the uniqueness of individuals. In summary, Adler held that people are self-determining social creatures, forward moving and motivated by present fictions to strive toward perfection for themselves and society. 41 THANK YOU FOR LISTENING! :) ANY QUESTIONS? 42  T.O.P. Prelim Lectures Chapter 4: Jung | Analytical Psychology Samantha Kim A. de Vera, RPm, RGC 1 Contents I. Overview of Analytical Psychology II. Biography of Carl Jung III. Levels of Psyche IV. Dynamics of Personality V. Psychological Types VI. Development of Personality VII. Jung’s Methods of Investigation VIII. Related Research IX. Critique of Jung X. Concept of Humanity 2 I. Overview of Analytical Psychology Occult phenomena can and do influence the lives of everyone. Jung believed that each of us is motivated not only by repressed experiences but also by certain emotionally toned experiences inherited from our ancestors. These inherited images make up what Jung called the collective unconscious which includes those elements that we have never experienced individually but which have come down to us from our ancestors. 3 I. Overview of Analytical Psychology The most inclusive archetype is the notion of self- realization, which can be achieved only by attaining a balance between various opposing forces of personality. Jung’s theory is a compendium of opposites -- people are both introverted and extraverted; rational and irrational; male and female; conscious and unconscious; and pushed by past events while being pulled by future expectations. 4 II. Biography of Carl Gustav Jung Born on July 26, 1875 in Kesswil, a town on Lake Constance, Switzerland. The elder Carl Jung is suggested to be the illegitimate son of great German poet Goethe. Son of Johann Paul Jung and Emilie Preiswerk Jung with two siblings Jung described his father as a sentimental idealist with strong doubts about his religious faith. 5 II. Biography of Carl Gustav Jung Jung saw his mother as having two separate dispositions. On one hand, she was realistic, practical, warm-hearted, but on the other she was unstable, mystical, clairvoyant, archaic, and ruthless (the No.2 or Night personality). No. 1 personality - extravert; objective world. No. 2 personality - introvert; subjective world. Jung’s first choice of a prof e s s i o n w a s archeology, but he was also interested in philology, history, philosoph y , a n d t h e natural sciences. In 1944, he became professor o f m e d i c a l psychology at the University of Basel, but poor health forced him to resign his position the following year. 6 III. Levels of the Psyche Assumption: The mind or psyche has both a conscious and unconscious level. Springs not from personal experiences but from the distant past of human existence -- a concept Jung called the collective unconscious. Conscious, Personal Unconscious, and Collective Unconscious. 7 III. Levels of the Psyche Conscious Those that are sensed by the ego. Jung saw the “ego” as the center of consciousness but NOT the core of personality. Ego is not the whole personality but must be completed by the more comprehensive SELF -- the center of personality that is largely unconscious. 8 III. Levels of the Psyche Personal Unconscious Embraces all repressed, forgotten, subliminary perceived experiences of one particular individual. Contains repressed infantile memories and impulses, forgotten events, and experiences originally perceived below the threshold of our consciousness. Some images here can be recalled easily, some remembered with difficulty, and still others are beyond the reach of consciousness. Complexes - contents of the personal unconscious an emotionally toned conglomeration of associated ideas. largely personal but may also be partly derived from humanity’s collective experiences. 9 III. Levels of the Psyche Collective Unconscious Has physical contents that are inherited and pass from one generation to the next as psychic potential. Jung’s most controversial and perhaps most distinctive concept. Jung said that people have as many of these inherited tendencies as they have typical situations in life. 10 III. Levels of the Psyche Collective Unconscious Archetypes. Ancient or archaic images that derive from the collective unconscious. Similar to complexes in that they are emotionally toned collections of associated images. Complexes: individualized components of personal unconscious. Archetypes: generalized and derive from the contents of collective unconscious. Instincts: an unconscious physical impulse toward action. Archetypes: Psychic counterpart to an instinct. Dreams are the main source of archetypal material; and certain dreams offer what Jung considered proof of the existence of the archetype. Collective Unconscious:Jung ; Phylogenetic Endowment:Freud 11 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Archetypes. The Eight (8) Archetypes Persona Shadow Anima Animus Great Mother Wise Old Man Hero Self 12 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Archetypes. The Eight (8) Archetypes Persona. The side of personality that people show to the world. The term is well-chosen because it refers to the mask worn by actors in the early theater. Jung believed that we should project a particular role, one that society dictates to each of use. Jung believed that we must strike a balance between the demands of the society and what we truly are. 13 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Archetypes. The Eight (8) Archetypes Shadow. The archetype of darkness and repression which represents those qualities we do not wish to acknowledge but attempt to hide from ourselves and others. Consist of morally objectionable tendencies as well as a number of constructive and creative qualities that we, nevertheless, are reluctant to face. Jung contended that to be whole, we must continually strive to know our shadow and that this quest is our first test of courage. 14 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Archetypes. The Eight (8) Archetypes Anima. the feminine side of a man’s personality. Jung believed that the anima originated from early men’s experiences with women --- mothers, sisters. and lovers --- that combined to form a generalized picture of a woman. Can be represented by a mood or feeling (irrational moods and feelings). The process of gaining acquaintance with one’s anima is the second test of courage. 15 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Archetypes. The Eight (8) Archetypes Animus. The masculine archetype of women. Symbolic of thinking and reasoning. Capable of influencing the thinking of a woman, yet it does not actually belongs to her. It belongs to the collective unconscious and originates from the encounters of prehistoric women with men. 16 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Archetypes. The Eight (8) Archetypes Great Mother. The preexisting concept of mother is always associated with both positive and negative feelings. Represents two opposing forces -- fertility and nourishment on one hand and power and destruction on the other. Fertility and Nourishment is symbolized by a tree, garden, plowed field, sea, heaven, country, church and hollow objects such as ovens and cooking utensils. Power and destruction is symbolized as a Godmother, mother of God, mother nature, mother Earth, stepmother or a witch. 17 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Archetypes. The Eight (8) Archetypes Wise Old Man. Archetype of wisdom and meaning, symbolizes humans’ preexisting knowledge of the mysteries of life. Example: Politicians who speak authoritatively but not authetically, often sound sensible and wise to others who are all too willing to be misled by their own wise old man archetypes. 18 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Archetypes. The Eight (8) Archetypes Hero. Represented by mythology and legends as a powerful person, sometimes part-God, who fight against odds to conquer or vanquish evil in the form of dragons, monsters, serpents, and demons. Example: Achilles, the courageous hero of the Trojan War, was killed by an arrow in his only vulnerable spot -- his heel. Hero archetype always has a tragic flaw. 19 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Archetypes. The Eight (8) Archetypes Self. An inherited tendency to move toward growth, perfection, and completion. The most comprehensive of all archetypes. The archetype of all archetypes because it pulls together the other archetypes and unites them in the process of self-realization. 20 III. Levels of the Psyche: Collective Unconscious Mandala. Ultimate symbol of self which represents the striving of the collective unconscious for unity, balance, and wholeness. Self-realization: totality, unity, and order Opposing Elements of Psyche: Male and female Good and evil Light and dark 21 IV. Dynamics of Personality Causality and Teleology. Jung insisted that human behavior is shaped both by causal and teleological forces and that causal explanations must be balanced with teleological ones. Progression and Regression. Progression - the forward flow of psychic energy due to adaptation to the outside world. Regression - the backward flow of psychic energy due to adaptation to the inner world. 22 V. Psychological Types Two basic attitudes: Attitudes. A predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction. Introversion. The turning inward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the subjective. Extraversion. The turning outward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the objective and away from the subjective. Four Separate Functions: Feeling Thinking Sensing Intuiting 23 V. Psychological Types Four Separate Functions: Thinking. Enables them to recognize its meaning. Logical activity that produces a chain of ideas. Extraverted Thinking. Teachers, parents, mathematicians, engineers, accountants. Introverted Thinking. Inventors and philosophers, scientists Feeling. Tells them its value or worth. Process of evaluating an idea or an event. Extraverted Feeling. Business people, politicians Introverted Feeling. Critics of various art forms. 24 V. Psychological Types Four Separate Functions: Sensing. Tells people that something exists; function that receives physical stimuli and transmits them to perceptual consciousness. Extraverted Sensing. Proofreader, house painter, wine taster. Introverted Sensing. Portrait artist. Intuiting. Involves perception beyond the workings of consciousness. Extraverted Intuitive. Inventors. Introverted Intuitive. Mystics, prophets, surrealistic artists, religious fanatics. 25 VI. Development of Personality In contrast to Freud, Jung emphasized the second half of life or the middle life (the period after age 35 or 40), when a person has the opportunity to bring together the various aspects of personality and to attain self-realization. Jung’s Stages of Development Childhood. (Anarchic, monarchic, and dualistic phase) Youth. (Conservative Principle) Middle Life. Old Age. 26 VI. Development of Personality Jung’s Stages of Development Childhood. Jung divided childhood into three (3) substages: Anarchic Phase: Characterized by chaotic and sporadic consciousness; island of consciousness may exist, but there is little or no connection among these islands. Monarchic Phase: Characterized by the development of the ego and by the beginning of logical and verbal thinking; children refer to themselves in third person. Dualistic Phase: Ego as perceiver; ego is divided into the objective and subjective; children now refer to themselves in first person; island of consciousness becomes continuous land. 27 VI. Development of Personality Jung’s Stages of Development Youth. The period from pubery to middle life. According to Jung, youth should be a period of increased activity, maturing sexuality, growing consciousness, and recognition that the problem-free era of childhood is gone forever. Conservative Principle. The desire to live in the past. Middle Life. Jung believed that middle life begins at approximately age 35 or 40 by which the sun has passed its zenith and begins its downward descent. A period of tremendous potential. Old Age. People experience a diminution of consciousness just as the light and warmth of the sun diminish at dusk. 28 VI. Development of Personality Self-Realization. Psychological rebirth or individuation. The process of becoming an individual or whole person. People who have gone through the process have achieved realization of the self, minimized their persona, recognized their anima or animus, and acquired a workable balance between introversion and extraversion. 29 VII. Jung’s Method of Investigation Jung used the word association test, dreams, and active imagination during the process of psychotherapy, and all these methods contributed to his theory of personality. Word Association Test Jung used the word association test early in his career to uncover complexes embedded in the personal unconscious. The technique requires a patient to utter the first word that comes to mind after the examiner reads a stimulus word. Unusual responses indicate a complex. Dream Analysis Jung believed that dreams may have both a cause and a purpose and thus can be useful in explaining past events and in making decisions about the future. "Big dreams" and "typical dreams," both of which come from the collective unconscious, have meanings that lie beyond the experiences of a single individual. 30 VII. Jung’s Method of Investigation Active Imagination Jung also used active imagination to arrive at collective images. This technique requires the patient to concentrate on a single image until that image begins to appear in a different form. Eventually, the patient should see figures that represent archetypes and other collective unconscious images. Psychotherapy The goal of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic patients become healthy and to move healthy people in the direction of self-realization. Jung was eclectic in his choice of therapeutic techniques and treated old people differently than the young 31 VIII. Related Research Although Jungian psychology has not generated large volumes of research, some investigators have used the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to examine the idea of psychological types. Some research suggests that extraverts and introverts have different preferences in their choice of partners. Other researchers have reported that personality type is related to academic performance and success. 32 IX. Critique of Jung Although Jung considered himself a scientist, many of his writings have more of a philosophical than a psychological flavor. As a scientific theory, it rates average on its ability to generate research, but very low on its ability to withstand falsification. It is about average on its ability to organize knowledge but low on each of the other criteria of a useful theory. 33 X. Concept of Humanity Jung saw humans as complex beings with many opposing poles. His view of humanity was neither pessimistic nor optimistic, neither deterministic nor purposive. To him, people are motivated partly by conscious thoughts, partly by images from their personal unconscious, and partly by latent memory traces inherited from their ancestral past. Their motivation comes from both causal and teleological factors. On the dimension of biological versus social aspects of personality, Jung’s theory leans strongly in the direction of biology. Analytical psychology can also be rated high on similarities among people and low on individual differences. 34 THANK YOU FOR LISTENING! :) ANY QUESTIONS? 35  T.O.P. Prelim Lectures Chapter 5: Horney | Psychoanalytic Social Theory Samantha Kim A. de Vera, RPm, RGC 1 Contents I. Overview of Psychoanalytic Social Theory II. Biography of Karen Horney III. Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory IV. Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety V. Compulsive Drives VI. Intrapsychic Conflicts VII. Feminine Psychology VIII. Psychotherapy IX. Fromm’s Methods of Investigation X. Related Research XI. Critique of Adler XII. Concept of Humanity 2 I. Overview of Psychoanalytic Social Theory Built on the assumption that social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for shaping personality. People who do not have their needs for love and affection satisfied during childhood develop basic hostility toward their parents and, as a consequence, suffer from basic anxiety. Horney theorized that people combat basic anxiety by adopting one of three fundamental styles of relating to others: (1) moving toward people, (2) moving against people, or (3) moving away from people. Normal individuals may use any of these modes of relating to other people, but neurotics are compelled to rigidly rely on only one. 3 I. Overview of Psychoanalytic Social Theory Their compulsive behavior generates a basic intrapsychic conflict that may take the form of either an idealized self- image or self-hatred The idealized self-image is expressed as (1) neurotic search for glory, (2) neurotic claims, or (3) neurotic pride. Self-hatred is expressed as either self-contempt or alienation from self. 4 II. Biography of Karen Horney Karen Danielsen Horney was born in Eilbek, a small town near Hamburg, Germany, on September 15, 1885. The biography of Karen Horney has several parallels with the life of Melanie Klein. Each was born during the 1880s, the youngest child of a 50-year old father and his second wife. Each had older siblings who were favored by the parents. Each felt unwanted and unloved. Also, each had wanted to become a physician, but only Horney fulfilled that ambition. 5 III. Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory Culture, especially early childhood experiences, plays a leading role in shaping human personality, either neurotic or healthy. She believed that culture, not anatomy, was responsible for psychic differences between men and women. 6 III. Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory Horney and Freud Compared Horney criticized Freud’s theories on several accounts. First, she cautioned that strict adherence to orthodox psychoanalysis would lead to stagnation in both theoretical thought and therapeutic practice (Horney, 1937). Second, Horney (1937, 1939) objected to Freud’s ideas on feminine psychology, a subject we return to later. Third, she stressed the view that psychoanalysis should move beyond instinct theory and emphasize the importance of cultural influences in shaping personality. 7 III. Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory The Impact of Culture Although Horney did not overlook the importance of genetic factors, she repeatedly emphasized cultural influences as the primary bases for both neurotic and normal personality development. According to Horney, Western society contributes to this vicious circle in several respects. 8 III. Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory The Importance of Childhood Experiences Horney believed that neurotic conflict can stem from almost any developmental stage, but childhood is the age from which the vast majority of problems arise. Horney (1939) hypothesized that a difficult childhood is primarily responsible for neurotic needs. 9 IV. Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety Children need to experience both genuine love and healthy discipline. If parents do not satisfy the child’s needs for safety and satisfaction, the child develops feelings of basic hostility toward the parents. Basic Anxiety. “A feeling of being isolated and helpless in a world conceived as potentially hostile” “A feeling of being s m a l l , i n s i g n i f i c a n t , h e l p l e s s , deserted, endangered, in a world that is out to abuse, cheat, attack, humiliate, betray, envy” Repressed hostility then leads to profound feelings of insecurity and a vague sense of apprehension. 10 IV. Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety Four (4) Defenses Against Basic Anxiety Affection. A strategy that does not always lead to authentic love. In their search for affection, some people may try to purchase love with self- effacing compliance, material goods, or sexual favors. Submissiveness. Neurotics may submit themselves either to people or to institutions such as an organization or a religion. Striving for Power, Prestige, or Possession. Power is a defense against the real or imagined hostility of others and takes the form of a tendency to dominate others; Prestige is a protection against humiliation and is expressed as a tendency to humiliate others; and Possession acts as a buffer against destitution and poverty and manifests itself as a tendency to deprive others. Withdrawal. Neurotics frequently protect themselves against basic anxiety either by developing an independence from others or by becoming emotionally detached from them. 11 V. Compulsive Drives Normal individuals are able to use a variety of defensive maneuvers in a somewhat useful way, neurotics compulsively repeat the same strategy in an essentially unproductive manner. Horney (1942) insisted that neurotics do not enjoy misery and suffering. They cannot change their behavior by free will but must continually and compulsively protect themselves against basic anxiety. 12 V. Compulsive Drives The Ten (10) Neurotic Needs The neurotic need for affection and approval. The neurotic need for a powerful partner. The neurotic need to restrict one’s life within narrow borders. The neurotic need for power. The neurotic need to exploit others. The neurotic need for social recognition or prestige. The neurotic need for personal admiration. The neurotic need for ambition and personal achievement. The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence. The neurotic need for perfection and unassailability. 13 V. Compulsive Drives The Three (3) Neurotic Trends In 1945, Horney identified the three basic attitudes, or neurotic trends, as (1) moving toward people, (2) moving against people, and (3) moving away from people. 14 V. Compulsive Drives Neurotic Trends Horney (1950) used the term basic conflict because very young children are driven in all three directions—toward, against, and away from people. Some children move toward people by behaving in a compliant manner as a protection against feelings of helplessness; (COMPLIANT PERSONALITY) Other children move against people with acts of aggression in order to circumvent the hostility of others; and still (AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY) Other children move away from people by adopting a detached manner, thus alleviating feelings of isolation. (DETACHED PERSONALITY) 15 V. Compulsive Drives Important Differences Between Normal Neurotic Attitudes Normal people are mostly or completely conscious of their strategies toward other people, neurotics are unaware of their basic attitude. Normals are free to choose their actions, neurotics are forced to act. Normals experience mild conflict, neurotics experience severe and insoluble conflict. Normals can choose from a variety of strategies, neurotics are limited to a single trend. 16 VI. Intrapsychic Conflicts Two (2) Important Intrapsychic Conflicts Idealized Self-Image. An attempt to solve conflicts by painting a godlike picture of oneself. Self-hatred is an interrelated yet equally irrational and powerful tendency to despise one’s real self. 17 VI. Intrapsychic Conflicts Two (2) Important Intrapsychic Conflicts Idealized Self-Image. Neurotics glorify and worship themselves in different ways: Compliant people see themselves as good and saintly; Aggressive people build an idealized image of themselves as strong, heroic, and omnipotent; and Detached neurotics paint their self-portraits as wise, self- sufficient, and independent. Horney (1950) recognized three aspects of the idealized self- image: (1) the neurotic search for glory, (2) neurotic claims, and (3) neurotic pride. 18 VI. Intrapsychic Conflicts Two (2) Important Intrapsychic Conflicts Horney (1950) recognized three aspects of the idealized self-image: 1. The Neurotic Search for Glory. Horney (1950) referred to this as a comprehensive drive toward actualizing the ideal self. Three (3) Other Elements: Need for perfection. The drive to mold the whole personality into the idealized self. Tyranny of the should. When neurotics try to achieve perfection by erecting a complex set of “shoulds” and “should nots.” Neurotic Ambition. The compulsive drive toward superiority. Drive Toward a Vindictive Triumph. The most destructive element of all; may be disguised as a drive for achievement or success, but “its chief aim is to put others to shame or defeat them through one’s very success; or to attain the power... to inflict suffering on them—mostly of a humiliating kind” 19 VI. Intrapsychic Conflicts Two (2) Important Intrapsychic Conflicts Horney (1950) recognized three aspects of the idealized self-image: 2. The Neurotic Search for Glory. Believing that something is wrong with the outside world, they proclaim that they are special and therefore entitled to be treated in accordance with their idealized view of themselves. Grow out of normal needs and wishes, but they are quite different. When normal wishes are not fulfilled, people become understandably frustrated; but when neurotic claims are not met, neurotics become indignant, bewildered, and unable to comprehend why others have not granted their claims. 20 VI. Intrapsychic Conflicts Two (2) Important Intrapsychic Conflicts Horney (1950) recognized three aspects of the idealized self-image: 3. Neurotic Pride. A false pride based not on a realistic view of the true self but on a spurious image of the idealized self. Usually loudly proclaimed in order to protect and support a glorified view of one’s self. Neurotics imagine themselves to be glorious, wonderful, and perfect, so when others fail to treat them with special consideration, their neurotic pride is hurt. 21 VI. Intrapsychic Conflicts Two (2) Important Intrapsychic Conflicts Self-Hatred. People with a neurotic search for glory can never be happy with themselves because when they realize that their real self does not match the insatiable demands of their idealized self, they will begin to hate and despise themselves. Horney (1950) recognized six major ways in which people express self- hatred. Relentless demands on the self; Merciless self-accusation; Self-contempt; Self-frustration; Self-torment or self-torture; and Self-destructive actions and impulses. 22 VI. Intrapsychic Conflicts Two (2) Important Intrapsychic Conflicts Self-Hatred. Common Expressions of Physical Self-Destruction: Overeating; Abusing alcohol and other drugs Suicide; Working too hard; and Driving recklessly. Common Expressions of Psychological Self-Destruction: Quitting a job just when it begins to be fulfilling; Breaking off a healthy relationship in favor of a neurotic one; and Engaging in promiscuous sexual activities. 23 VII. Feminine Psychology For Horney, psychic differences between men and women are not the result of anatomy but rather of cultural and social expectations. Horney (1937) insisted that basic anxiety is at the core of men’s need to subjugate women and women’s wish to humiliate men. Although Horney (1939) recognized the existence of the Oedipus complex, she insisted that it was due to certain environmental conditions and not to biology. A child may passionately cling to one parent and express jealousy toward the other, but these behaviors are means of alleviating basic anxiety and not manifestations of an anatomically based Oedipus complex. Boys sometimes do express a desire to have a baby, but this desire is not the result of a universal male “womb envy.” Horney agreed with Adler that many women possess a masculine protest; that is, they have a pathological belief that men are superior to women. 24 VIII. Psychotherapy The general goal of Horneyian therapy is to help patients gradually grow in the direction of self-realization. The aim is to have patients give up their idealized self-image, relinquish their neurotic search for glory, and change self-hatred to an acceptance of the real self. The three neurotic trends can be cast in favorable terms such as “love,” “mastery,” or “freedom.” Because patients usually see their behaviors in these positive terms, their actions appear to them to be healthy, right, and desirable. Patients must understand the difference between their idealized self- image and their real self. Horney saw dreams as attempts to solve conflicts, but the solutions can be either neurotic or healthy. 25 IX. Related Research Horney's concepts of morbid dependency and hypercompetitiveness have both stimulated some recent research. Morbid Dependency The current concept of codependency, which is based on Horney's notion of morbid dependency, has produced research showing that people with neurotic needs to move toward others will go to great lengths to win the approval of other people. A study by Lyon and Greenberg (1991) found that women with an alcoholic parent, compared with women without an alcoholic parent, were much more nurturant toward a person they perceived as exploitative than toward a person they perceived as nurturing. 26 IX. Related Research Horney's concepts of morbid dependency and hypercompetitiveness have both stimulated some recent research. Hypercompetitiveness Horney's idea of moving against people relates to the concept of hyper-competitiveness, a topic that has received some recent research interest. Some of this research indicates that, although hypercompetitiveness is a negative personality trait, some types of competitiveness can be positive. Other research has found that hypercompetitive European American women frequently have some type of eating disorder. 27 X. Critique of Horney Although Horney painted a vivid portrayal of the neurotic personality, her theory rates very low in generating research and low on its ability to be falsified, low to organize data, and low to serve as a useful guide to action. Her theory is rated about average on internal consistency and parsimony. 28 XI. Concept of Humanity Horney’s psychoanalytic social theory is rated slightly higher on free choice than on determinism. On the same basis, Horney’s theory is somewhat more optimistic than pessimistic. On the dimension of causality versus teleology, Horney adopted a middle position. Although Horney adopted a middle stance regarding conscious versus unconscious motivation, she believed that most people have only limited awareness of their motives. Horney’s concept of personality strongly emphasized social influences more than biological ones. Because Horney’s theory looks almost exclusively at neuroses, it tends to highlight similarities among people more than uniqueness. 29 THANK YOU FOR LISTENING! :) ANY QUESTIONS? 30