HSP3U Final Exam Review Notes PDF

HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Introduction to Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology - HSP3U Final Exam Review Unit 1 - Research & Inquiry Skills 01 - Introduction to Social Sciences ​ Social scienc...

HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Introduction to Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology - HSP3U Final Exam Review Unit 1 - Research & Inquiry Skills 01 - Introduction to Social Sciences ​ Social sciences: study of people as individuals, and as groups (families, tribes, communities, exploration of societies/ relationships); sometimes referred to as behavioural sciences ​ Social scientists: focus on human characteristics that are observable and measurable. Things people do, think, buy, avoid, support, demonstrate against…etc ​ All three subjects, Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology are not entirely separate, but they each have a different focus ​ All three subjects investigate why humans act and behave as they do, but from different POVs ​ Venn Diagram of Comparison: Interpreting “human-ness” ​ Anthropology: evolution (physical proof like genetics, DNA, fossils, developed brains) ​ Psychology: the ability to interpret and manipulate mental ideas, obtain information and solve problems ​ Sociology: communication, shared values and norms Glossary: School of thought a common view taken by a group of like-minded people on a specific topic Theory set of ideas intended to explain or justify something 1 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Branch a division of a subject, area of specialized skill/knowledge Field topic, area or subject of academic interest Intro to Anthropology: ​ Definition: The study of humans of the past and the present (culture, language, physical remains, material evidence) ​ Two branches of Anthropology: Physical Anthropology Cultural Anthropology Material evidence like pottery, structures or Language, shared values/beliefs/behaviours, human remains religion, politics, food ​ Humans belong to the biological group of ​ What people do, what people make, and primates; anthropologists intend to what they believe understand humanness through the study ​ Includes all behaviour of people in their of primates. daily lives (e.g. doing dishes), from daily ​ We share 98-99% of our genetics with rituals to beliefs about abstract concepts other primates like chimps and gorillas → (e.g. Time/Space) common ancestors. ​ learned and transmitted from one ​ Anthropologist Jane Goodall: living with generation to the next chimpanzees and studying their common characteristics with humans, discovered that chimpanzees make and use tools just like humans Intro to Psychology: ​ Definition: The scientific study of the human mind and behaviour (individually) ​ Bobo doll experiment of modelling behaviour - children tend to adopt the behaviour of the adult model they observed (aggressive or non-aggressive) ○​ Children who observe aggressive adult models behave violently on the dolls ​ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs - each need on the bottom must be satisfied before going up to the next level. It is possible to move up and down the hierarchy over one day. 2 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Intro to Sociology: ​ Definition: The study of the structure and dynamics of human groups and their effects on behaviour ​ The relationships between people and the social structures they develop (group interactions; interpersonal) ​ Individuals in a group setting → then detect general patterns of human behaviour Different Approaches on a Topic/Issue: ​ Anthropologists: by examining the development of culture and rituals, the evolution of past and present ○​ Is it part of the culture in this area to feel indifferent about violence towards women? ○​ Is violence towards women a normal occurrence in the historical period? ​ Psychologists: by examining one’s thinking processes, behaviour, feelings, motives ○​ What is being done to identify and treat potential criminals? ​ Sociologists: by examining the behaviours of people in groups, social relationships, institutions in society ○​ Do we blame society for making it acceptable for people to stand by and watch someone get hurt, and not intervene? 02 - Social Science Inquiry Model Definition: ​ It is the formal process that structures social science research ​ There are similarities between this model and the scientific method (conclusions, hypothesis) ​ Researchers may have to start over and revise their investigation during any part of their investigation Steps in the Social Science Inquiry Model: 1.​ Questions: a.​ Social scientists begin with questions about a topic that interests them and has an impact on many people b.​ Questions should have the potential to be answered through investigation c.​ A focus area such as sociology, anthropology or psychology will be selected d.​ A central research question will be chosen e.​ Two types of questions: i.​ Open questions do NOT have a yes or no answer (requires explanation) ii.​ Closed questions have a yes/no answer 2.​ Focus (Background Research): a.​ Social scientists take notes about what they already know about their topic and consider what research they have previously learned i.​ Research may be through: 3  HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes 1.​ Online, Articles, Books, Journals 3.​ Develop a Hypothesis: a.​ A hypothesis is a possible answer to your central research question i.​ If, then, because… 4.​ Collect Data: a.​ Social scientists use different methods to gather information on their topic b.​ They will select the methods that will provide the most relevant information to confirm their hypothesis i.​ e.g.: Surveys, experiments, interviews, case studies, observations… ii.​ Effective data collection may not need to survey/interview the whole population; only representatives are selected 5.​ Assemble and Analyze Data: a.​ Social scientists organize their data into charts, graphs or another format that best communicates their main ideas 6.​ Stop and check: a.​ Social scientists must ensure they have collected enough data to refute or confirm their hypothesis b.​ If not, they will return to Step 4 to gather more data 7.​ Present Results: a.​ Social scientists will present their discoveries to others (e.g. in a presentation) 8.​ Reflection: a.​ Social scientists will reflect and evaluate their research process and results b.​ Identify the rewards and challenges that emerged when conducting research to investigate their central question 03 - Research Methods An Overview of Research Methods Used by Social Scientists & Research Methods.pptx Research Method Advantages Disadvantages Disciplines that use the method Case studies An in-depth study of one ​ Observation could be Anthropology specific situation time-consuming Sociology ​ One specific case may Psychology Definition: ​ A multitude of details not apply to other cases observation of an ​ Can form hypotheses (variables) individual or a group ​ Apply hypotheses to other ​ Can have implicit bias over a period of time individuals, social groups, ​ Research findings may or cultures not be convincible Examples: Poverty in Brazil (Anthropology) ​ Anthropologist Nancy Scheper-Hughes participant-observed the living conditions in a poor town in Brazil (during the period in which Brazil has a economic expansion) ​ Results: Economic expansion caused malnutrition, impoverishment 4  HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes and abuse of substances; social scientists must probe behind the governmental statistics to find real pictures of people’s lives Experiments ​ Clearly determines the ​ Ethical considerations Sociology Definition: to relationship between two while experimenting Psychology determine how one factors (Cause and effect) with human beings factor is related to ○​ Unethical if another ​ Accurate and precise participants suffer results (pooled from from consequences average data) ​ Difficult to control other variables ​ Easy to replicate/ ​ Artificial sources of standardized error may occur Example: The Bystander Experiment by John Darley and Bibb Latane **Social scientists ​ After the murder of Kitty Genovese → Investigation on factors that should not intrude or influence bystanders to intervene in public situations harm the ordinary life ​ Involving confederates playing a frisbee game at the Grand Central of the participants Station, a situation that seems unfitting ​ IV: The reaction of confederates; DV: the reaction of bystanders ○​ IV displays a positive reaction → DV (bystanders) would likely intervene in the game. ○​ IV displays a negative reaction → DV (bystanders) will not join the game. ​ Modelling effect: individuals model others’ behaviours in a social setting Surveys and ​ Provide general trends or ​ Limited flexibility or Sociology (most questionnaires responses personalization- commonly used) Definition: ​ Collect results easily respondents cannot (multiple-choice) extend beyond the Psychology Researchers survey ​ Represent an extensive questions themselves a limited number of range of demographic ​ Low response rates individuals to obtain group ​ Possibility of the thoughts or ​ Anonymous non-response behaviours of a large participants group of people Example: Self-Expression Surveys Interview ​ Detailed and specific ​ Time-consuming Anthropology Definition: information ​ Resource-intensive or Sociology Obtaining detailed ​ Flexibility expensive Psychology information from a ​ Well-organized with a ​ Potential subjective few participants AND series of planned bias explanations or questions between the thoughts and interviewer and the behaviour subject ​ Complex study of the topic Unstructured ​ Fresh insights or ideas ​ Time-consuming Sociology Observation with the freedom of ​ Tendency to lose focus Psychology 5  HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Definition: subjects or hard to determine Researchers ​ Provide future hypotheses the subject observe people for research ​ Can be overwhelming without having a purpose Example: Researchers sitting in the cafeteria and observing randomly Structured ​ Clear organization and ​ Difficult to find specific Sociology Observation goals observations given the Psychology Definition: ​ Increase productivity goals Researchers ​ Time management ​ Researchers might observe participants ignore other significant with a plan or a list observations Example: Researchers observe the relationship between car use and grades by observing a classroom for clues of tiredness Participant ​ Relationship building with ​ Potential Bias Anthropology Observation the participants ​ Time-consuming or Psychology Definition: ​ In-depth understanding of requires distant travel Researchers not only immersive experiences ​ Difficult in maintaining observe but also objectives participate in part of Example: Jane Goodall living and learning about the chimpanzees the groups’ activities Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Quantitative Qualitative Purpose ​ To test a hypothesis ​ To build a hypothesis based on ​ To establish relationships research data between variables Description ​ Closed-ended questions ​ Open-ended questions ​ Numerical results ​ Descriptions and comparisons Examples ​ Surveys ​ Interviews ​ Laboratory-based observation ​ Naturalistic observation 04- Ethics ​ Ethical Guidelines of Social Science Research ○​ Protection ​ Participants are to be protected from pain (physical & psychological) ○​ Informed Consent ​ Participants are to be made aware of the purpose of the research ​ Known the procedures and risks associated with participation ​ Must be informed that withdrawal from participation is permissible without consequence, at any time, for any reason 6 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ○​ Privacy ​ Individual privacy is to be protected ○​ Debriefing ​ When the use of deception is necessary, participants must be informed of the real nature immediately following their participation ○​ Approval ​ All experiments involving humans must be reviewed by ​ An independent panel → The potential benefits of the experiment MUST outweigh the risk ​ Landmark Case Study: Philip Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment (pg. 238-239) ○​ Do you think any of the social science ethical guidelines were broken? ​ Protection: The experimenter failed to protect the participants from physical pains, leaving psychological scars ​ Improper Consent: The experimenter did not notice the participants (especially those with prisoner roles) the associated risks. No participants withdrew during the experiment ​ Privacy: The participants were stuck together in groups without any privacy and rights ○​ What elements were set up to make the “prisoners” feel confused and dehumanized? ​ Situations that resemble WWII Nazis concentration camps ​ Sprayed with lice spray, humiliated, locked with thick chains, identified with ID numbers, not their names ○​ What does this experiment tell us about what people are capable of doing? ​ Humans are capable of committing more hostile actions than their normal personalities under extreme conditions ​ Humans quickly become addicted to abusive behaviours (towards others) Ethics: ​ Definition: The branch philosophy that involves defending and recommending a moral code of conduct for people and groups in society ​ Example: The Trolley Problem - Ethical Dilemma and Utilitarianism ○​ An option to save five workers at the expense of another one’s life ○​ Utilitarianism: determining right from wrong by focusing on outcomes ○​ Utilitarians would choose to sacrifice one person’s life to save the other five (more practical solution) ○​ Alternate version - pushing one person off the bridge to save five other lives on the train - more people would not intervene in this case due to psychological guilt of causing someone’s death ​ Ethics vs. Morality ○​ Ethics: the general concept of the philosophical study of morality in social institutions (e.g. Code of Conduct) ○​ Morality: the personal belief concerning moral values, rules and judgements 7  HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ​ Logic in Ethics ○​ Logical reasoning > emotional feeling in critical thinking and ethics (w/ evidence) ○​ Confirmation bias = the tendency to search vigorously for evidence that confirms existing knowledge ​ Canadian Code of Ethics: A national guideline of principles and ethical standards that all social scientists must adhere to. Often revised due to the changing needs of society ○​ Dignity of Persons; Caring/Protection; Integrity of Relationships; Responsibility to Society Unethical Experiments: Experiment Background Details (include Impact on Individuals Ethical or not? Name details specific to the timing and factors Involved (Reasoning for your choice) affecting the behaviours of participants) (positive or negative?) -​ Psychologist John Waston -​ Negative: Albert Unethical. Waston failed to Little Albert exposed a nine-month-old eventually associated the remove the psychological (1920) boy, Albert to loud noises as image of fear with all the fear of Albert and left a he played with WHITE objects white objects (even mild life-long negative impact on -​ To study the nature of fear objects) him. The -​ Psychologist Philip Zimbardo -​ Negative: The Unethical. The experiment Stanford created a mock prison in the experiment left lacked physical and mental Prison University basement, divided psychological trauma on protection for the Experiment into two roles: “guards and the group of “prisoners,” participants, involved (1971) prisoners.” with signs of depression interpersonal abuse and -​ The guards acted increasingly and mental disorders failed to grant privacy to cruel and aggressive towards each participant. the prisoners’ rebellion The Milgram -​ Psychologist Stanley Milgram -​ The confederates remain Unethical. The teachers Study (1974) -​ Conducted an experiment on unaffected (no actual were forced to perform obedience where a volunteer shocks) unmoral shocks on the “teacher” was told to provide -​ Negative: However the actors up to 450 volts, shocks in increasing teachers (participants) without prior disclosure that increments when the were traumatized by the ‘students’ were actors. “student” provided a wrong doing harm against their Milgram failed to protect answer to word-pair morality. participants from questions psychological harm. ​ What criteria can you come up with for an ethical social science experiment? An ethical experiment should not: ​ Give physical or psychological pains to the participants ​ Leave life-long impacts on the participants’ life ​ Deceive participants without telling them the true purpose ​ Violate basic human rights by conducting inhuman tortures or separations 8 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Three Identical Strangers: Nature vs. Nurture ​ This documentary features the story of Robert Shafran, Edward Galland and David Kellman as three identical triplets INTENTIONALLY SEPARATED at birth and raised separately, as the subject for Peter Neubauer’s psychological study in the 1950 ○​ Their mother was pregnant by accident and gave them to an adoption service ○​ The adoption agency intentionally concealed the genetic relationship ○​ The triplet shares similar behaviours and mannerisms, preferences ​ Purpose of the experiment ○​ To examine the relationship of Nature (genetics) vs. Nurture (environment) ○​ To end the debate about which factor has more influence on human behaviours ○​ Result: Nurture plays a more significant role than nature, as the identical triplets turned out to be completely different ​ Background Conditions ○​ Robert was raised in an upper-middle-class family with a busy parenting style ○​ Eddy was raised in a middle-class family with a strict and conservative parenting style ○​ David was raised in a blue-collar family with a mild and approachable parenting style ​ The triplets suffered from psychological disorders, such as separation anxiety as toddlers and manic depression as adults. Eddy committed suicide ​ Code of Ethics Violations: ○​ Informed Consent: Failed to inform the participants of the true purpose of the experiment; failed to inform participants of the risk of the experiment ○​ Deception: Unnecessary use of deception before the adoption ○​ Debriefing: Failed to reveal the true purpose after the experiment begins ○​ Protection: Failed to protect participants from psychological harms such as separation anxiety, manic disorders and mental health issues (long-term) ○​ Right to withdraw: The participants are NOT given any rights to withdraw from the experiment at any time, as they are not aware of the existence of the triplets ​ How does the documentary reflect the importance of ethics in social sciences? ○​ Highlights the importance of an ethical Code of Conduct in psychology, as it provides a guideline to prevent unethical experiments from happening again 9 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Unit 2 - Anthropology 01- Introduction to Anthropology​ ​ Anthropology Quiz Review U2 Fields of Anthropology: ​ Anthropology is the scientific study of the origin, the behaviour, and the physical, social, and cultural development of humans ​ Anthropologists study what makes us humans by examining the following: ○​ Human ancestors, through archeological evidence ○​ Observing living creatures throughout the world ​ Two branches: Physical anthropology and Cultural Anthropology ○​ Physical: Primatology, Paleoanthropology, Human Variation, Forensic Anthropology ○​ Cultural: Linguistic Anthropology, Ethnology, Archaeology Physical Anthropology: ​ Where humans as a species come from, how our bodies evolved to their present form, and what makes humans unique ​ Approaches of physical and natural science: fossils, bones, remnants of human life, artifacts 1.​ Paleoanthropology ​ Study bone and stone remains of our ancient ancestors from millions of years ago ○​ e.g. Skeletal remains, Ancient tools, Animal Bones, remains of vegetable matter ​ Study ancestors based on evidence from the distant evolutionary past ○​ Hominin is a human or human ancestor ○​ Fossils are preserved remains of biological matter ​ Hominin Lucy (Donald Johanson found Lucy in 1974 in Ethiopia): ○​ Lucy is a 3.2 million-year-old skeleton that was found to be 40% complete ○​ The femur and pelvis indicated that she walked upright ○​ Implied the evolution from chimpanzees to humans by the ability to walk upright (Bipedalism: The trait of habitually walking on two legs) ○​ Evolutionary anthropology is all based on scientific evidence ○​ Femur and Pelvis: ​ Walked upright and was about 1m tall - weighing about 60 pounds ○​ Teeth: ​ Age of teeth (adult teeth have come up and started to wear) ○​ Skull Fragment: ​ Brain Size (smaller than a modern human & same size as modern chimpanzees) 10 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ​ Charles Darwin (1809-1882) & Natural Selection: ○​ “Survival of the fittest” ○​ Natural selection explains how animals and plants evolved ○​ Species were forced to evolve, or they would become extinct (species’ change, survival or extinction) ○​ Those that were able to adapt lived and passed down traits that allowed them to survive to their offspring 2.​ Primatology ​ Study the anatomy and behaviours of living primates and investigate what makes us similar to and different from other primates ​ Knowledge gained from learning primates allows humans to learn about ourselves ​ Humans and primates have 98-99% similarity in genetics ​ Similarities: ○​ Both have a bond between mothers and infants for survival ○​ Primates have the longest infant dependency period of all mammals ○​ Dominance hierarchies and aggression over territory ○​ Communicate through facial expressions, touch, vocalizations, and body language ○​ Have rotating forearms, grasping hands and feet, forward-facing eyes, and relatively large brains ​ Opposable thumbs ​ Differences: ○​ Humans are the only primates adapted to bipedalism ​ Humans - can walk for long distances while performing tasks ​ Primates - short distances, no tasks ○​ Developed Brain ​ Develop ideas, words and beliefs ​ Think and reflect on their own behaviour ​ A complex system of morality and spirituality to motivate behaviours 3.​ Human Variation ​ Study of the genetic differences between people and populations, to understand the differences between people from an evolutionary perspective ○​ Variation: variety within species ○​ Heritability: Individuals pass on traits to offspring ○​ Environmental fitness: individuals who are better adapted to their environment will produce more offspring and pass on traits to the next generation ​ Example: Evolution of wisdom teeth: ○​ Our ancestors had larger mouths (a full set of 32 teeth) and ate different foods (abrasive, harder to chew), wisdom teeth no longer useful today ○​ Jaw sizes have changed over time (become smaller) 11 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes 4.​ Others: ​ Biological Anthropology ○​ Genetical transmission of illness and diseases and how environmental and social conditions cause them ​ Forensic Anthropology​ ○​ Use physical injuries, wear of bones or teeth, chemical composition, DNA analysis, and investigations to solve crimes Cultural Anthropology: ​ The study of human beings in different cultural settings around the world both past and present ​ Culture: a total system of ideas, values, behaviours and attitudes of a society commonly shared by most members of a society ○​ Made up of what people do, what people make, and what people believe ○​ Can be anything from daily rituals to abstract concepts ​ e.g. Religion, festivals, clothing, rituals, diet/food….. ​ Cultural anthropologists study a culture for months or years while conducting interviews and observing as they examine the history and structure of languages and the physical remains of past cultures Goal of Cultural Anthropology: ​ To combat ethnocentrism and accept/ respect other cultures ​ Ethnocentrism: the tendency to judge others’ cultures by one’s own values. An ethnocentric view is to look at another culture as strange or inferior. ​ Cultural Relativism: Attitude of respect and acceptance of others’ cultures 1.​ Ethnology ​ Study of the origins and cultures of different races of people. ○​ Marriage customs, kinship patterns, religion, art, technology, etc. Kinship the relationship between two or more people that is based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption Participant The careful watching of a group, in some cases living with members Observation and participating in their culture Ethnography the written account of a culture 2.​ Linguistic Anthropology ​ Study the history and structure of language and the ways humans use language Historical ​ The study of how languages are related to each other and how people Linguistics migrated in the past ​ Compare similarities and differences in language structures 12 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Structural ​ The study of how sounds are put together to make meaning Linguistics ​ Noam Chomsky discovered universal grammar - language is instinctual preset borned in all children Sociolinguistics ​ The study of how people use language within their culture to express status and context (relationships) 3.​ Archaeology ​ Study the physical remains of a past culture through excavations and reconstruction ​ Archaeologists work with historians and physical and cultural anthropologists to make sense of the past (recreate historical stories) 02- Becoming Human: Docu-Series Australopithecus Afarensis: ​ 3.3 million years ago ​ The Great Hominin Lucy and her baby, the juvenile skeleton Selam ○​ Significance: They have both characteristics of an ape and a human (the upper section resembles an ape & the lower section resembles a human) ​ Our ancestors developed bipedalism to: ○​ Pick up fruits on tall trees or climb the trees ○​ Saved energy for survival ○​ Walk farther distances across the savanna (between trees) ○​ Be able to see from the tall grass ○​ Stand up to receive energy from the sun ​ Difference between humans and chimpanzees: the length of childhood ○​ Apes are almost fully formed after the age of 3 (short childhood) ○​ Human brain fully forms after almost two decades (longer childhood→ growth of brain size and function) ​ The Homo genus has expanded brain size: (Why?) ○​ Higher reasoning functions as species develop ○​ Increased cognitive capacity ○​ The environment is ever-changing for species to adapt to new climates ​ Natural selection is the theory that states organisms change structurally and genetically over time, resulting in a gradual development of a new species Homo erectus: ​ 2 million years ago ​ Homo erectus was the FIRST human-like ancestor (taller bodies, larger brains, and shorter arms) ​ 1984 → Richard Leakey discovered a giant Homo erectus skeleton, Turkana boy ○​ Nearly complete skull & skeleton ○​ The earliest human skeleton ever discovered 13  HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ○​ Turkana boy highly resembles a human rather than an ape ○​ However, compared to modern humans, Turkana boy has: ​ Smaller brain capacity, Wider hips, Slower speed ​ Teeth → Turkana boy was 8 years old (short childhood like apes) ​ Human advantages of prolonged childhood: allow the brain to grow larger and have time to learn essential skills and functions ○​ Significance: ​ Its bones helped us understand the evolution from apes to humans ​ Anthropological Technology: ○​ An endocast is a mould taken from the inside of a skull that reveals the shape of the brain. ​ Broca area - a region of the brain that contains neurons involved in speech function ○​ Endocast of the Turkana boy reveals that he has a better-developed brain for communication than the apes (evolution from ape to human) Hominin Evolution: Summary Earliest Latest Australopithecus Homo Homo Homo Homo sapiens Afarensis erectus Heidelbergensis Neanderthalenosis (humans) 3.3 million years 2 million yrs 500,000 to 200,000 to 30,000 200,000 years to 200,000 years years ago present Lucy and Selam Turkana boy 03- Paleoanthropology: Ötzi the Iceman "It is the first time we have a man coming from life, not from the grave.” - Ötzi the Iceman Article 1.​ Describe where, when, and how the Iceman was found. ​ Otzi was discovered on September 19, 1991, by Helmut and Erika Simon, a German couple hiking in the Alps ​ Near the 3200m ridge of the Austrian-Italian border ​ A human body was sticking out of the ice on a commonly used pass ​ The police thought it was the body of a modern climber who accidentally died 14 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes 2.​ What evidence has been found in the natural surroundings where the Iceman was located? ​ The body was freeze-dried at the bottom of a narrow ravine. ○​ Glacier must have moved 1-2m above the man’s head to secure him exactly where he lay (only snow was not enough to fill the space) 3.​ What conclusions have been drawn from this evidence? ​ Otzi lived in about 5300 years ago ​ Late Neolithic or Copper Age ​ One of the oldest and most well-preserved mummies, only evidence from the Stone Age 4.​ List physical artifacts found with the Iceman. ​ A well-preserved and sharp copper axe (one of the oldest) ​ Pieces of fur and leather clothing, string, leather bag ​ A flint dagger ​ A long stick that appeared to be a bow ​ A quiver containing 14 arrows, two fitted with flint arrowheads 5.​ What conclusions have been drawn from this evidence? ​ The copper axe reveals that Otzi lived in a critical transition in the development of human culture, from stone tools to metal tools. It also implies that Otzi’s community is equipped with metallurgy. ​ His flinted arrow disappeared after the Ice Age 3,000 years ago, proving that Otzi belongs to an ancient civilization. 6.​ What general description of the Iceman has resulted? Consider (a) his culture and society and (b) the nature of his death. ​ Culture: Otzi was believed to have lived in the Copper Age, approximately 5300 years ago. This period saw a transition from the use of stone tools to metal tools, and his civilization pioneered the exploration of metallurgy in tool-making. Otzi’s civilization also practiced farming, which was spread from the Middle East, raising several crops and livestock in their village. ​ The nature of his death: Forensic officials initially believed that he was murdered when a copper axe was found on a nearby rock. However, they later discovered that he was shot dead, as evidenced by an arrow hole in his shoulder. 04- Primatology Primates: Humans vs. Chimpanzees Human: Chimpanzees: ​ Complex language ​ Large canine teeth ​ Larger skull and brain capacity ​ Body covered in thick hair ​ Develop long-term partnerships ​ Average life span 50 years 15 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ​ Straight, upright posture ​ Long arms, short legs ​ Technological achievements ​ Big feet and opposable toes ​ Long childhood ​ Strong muscles Similarities: ​ Ability to develop a culture ​ Groom others ​ Affectionate ​ Both teach others ​ Omnivorous ​ Can form communities ​ Have vocal chords ​ Can have aggressive behaviour ​ Ability to make tool Jane Goodall: ​ Jane Goodall was an anthropologist who participant-observed groups of primates (chimpanzees) in the forests of Africa (reservoir) 1.​ How is the behaviour of chimpanzees similar to other primates? ​ Interaction: Chimpanzees can also interact with other individuals in their ‘society’ → playing, juggling, hugging….. ​ Empathy & Emotion: Chimpanzees can also feel a wide range of emotions ​ Homage: Look after each other → Social grooming is the most important way that chimps maintain their social relationships ​ Aggression: Male chimps defend their territories by fighting one another ○​ The gap between humans and chimpanzees is narrowing over the years 2.​ What is the significance of termite fishing? ​ A traditional method in which chimps break off a twig from the tree and poke into ant nests to ‘fish out’ ants for food ​ Unique to chimpanzees (a learned technique, not instinctive) ​ A symbol of developing a culture that can be inherited through generations 3.​ What can we learn from Jane Goodall’s research? ​ Humans share 98.5% genetic similarity with chimpanzees ​ Many characteristics that were once thought to be exclusively human were found to exist in our ancestral forms ​ Evolutionary history defines who we are today 05- Rites of Passage: Cultural Anthropology ​ Rite of passage: A ceremony, ritual or event that marks an individual’s passage from one stage of life to another ○​ Examples: Ceremonies that mark birth, death, adolescence, marriage and death ○​ Different cultures have varying forms to mark those celebrations 16 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ​ Ritual: Prescribed behaviour in which there is no real connection between the action and desired outcome ​ Rites of passage can occur in different stages of life - Canadian Examples: Birth Children ​ Hospital visits ​ First Day of attending school ​ Religious events ​ Growth of Adult teeth ○​ Baptism/ Blessing, Naming ​ Special birthdays Ceremony, Circumcision ​ Reaching Puberty Surgery ○​ Menstruation, Voice changes ​ Graduating from one institution Young Adult ​ Driver’s license ​ High school graduation ○​ Driving and freedom ​ Reaching the age of majority ​ Experiencing intimate relationships ○​ Drinking alcohol / Entrance to 18+ ​ Hunting an animal venues ○​ Voting rights (18+) Adulthood Old Adult ​ Post-graduate studies / professional ​ Death of parents designation ○​ Assuming the role of ​ Beginning a career patriarch/matriarch of your family ​ Beginning serious, courtship ​ Birth of grandchildren relationships (partner, common law) ​ Retirement from career ​ Marriage ​ Retirement living ​ Buying a home ​ Preparation for death (will of properties) ​ Becoming a parent Three Stage Process: ​ Segregation: separated from rest of society and from their original status ​ Transition: initiate in a state of transition where there is often learning, guidance or instruction from a mentor ​ Reintegration: back into society often with a new role, task or responsibilities Bullet Ant Glove Ceremony, Sateré-Mawé: ​ Segregation ○​ Before performing the ritual the boys are not considered worthy and resilient men ​ Transition/ Initiation ○​ Sticking their hands in a glove full of drugged ants, enduring more than 10 minutes each time for 20 times to complete the ritual, must overcome physical torture and pain ​ Reintegration ○​ Once the ritual is completed boys are now classified as a brave adult and a worthy warrior in their community (better man) 17 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes 06- Family and Marriage ​ Matrilineal: A kinship system in which people trace their ancestry through their mothers ​ Patrilineal: A kinship system in which people trace their ancestry through their fathers ​ Bilineal: A kinship system in which people trace their ancestry through both fathers and mothers ​ Monogamy: A relationship where an individual has one partner. Serial monogamy refers to monogamous relationships that occur one after another ​ Polygamy: A form of marriage that involves multiple partners ​ Polygyny: A form of marriage between one husband and multiple wives ​ Polyandry: A form of marriage with one wife and multiple husbands 07- Forensic Anthropology ​ The examination of human skeletal remains for law enforcement agencies to determine the identity of unidentified bones ​ Focus on studying bones and teeth to reveal the identities of skeletons. ○​ E.g. bone epiphyses (epiphysis fusion), pelvis and ribs, teeth, overall bone health ​ Using physical evidence, forensic anthropologists can usually determine a victim’s age and sex, whether the body was subjected to trauma, and how long the victim has been dead. Lassen/Clapper Murder: Link ​ Forensic anthropology is used to investigate the Lassen/Clapper murder mystery. ​ On April 26, 1859, Peter Lassen and Edward Clapper were murdered at Clapper Canyon, Nevada, while on a prospecting trip for silver. ​ Initial suspect on local Indians, but later hovers to the third companion Lemericus Wyatt ​ In 1992, 133 years after the murder, Peter Lassen’s body was discovered ○​ A team of specialized scientists, forensic anthropologists, studied the remains of the body and identified its identity. ​ The real circumstances of the Lassen/Clapper murder remain unclear after forensic investigations, only his identity is confirmed 08- Fight or Flight Response ​ A natural response generated by amygdala in the brain (emotion control centre) ​ Humans respond to perceived threats or danger and stress using either confronting (fight) or escaping (flight) ​ This response is rooted in the evolutionary past ​ A trait also seen in human ancestors- get away from predators and stressful conditions - continued today as a human universal 18 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Unit 3 - Psychology 01- Teenage Brain 1.​ What is the area of the brain that is the latest to evolve and mature? What does it allow us to do? Prefrontal cortex = Latest to evolve / long-term development ​ Differentiates humans from apes ​ Allow us to consider things from the past and the present ​ Wonder of the future → imagination and different from the physical world ​ Curiosity of new existences ​ Allow teenagers to learn new skills and mechanisms ​ Controlling impulses and judgement ​ Higher level organizing and strategizing 2.​ What is the limbic system and how does it work with the prefrontal cortex? ​ The limbic system is the decision-making center & drives emotionality ​ Grows faster than the prefrontal cortex ​ The prefrontal cortex calms down the emotional impulses in the limbic system, therefore allowing humans to make more rational decisions. 3.​ Which neurotransmitter is the most important in adolescence? What is it responsible for? ​ Dopamine stands out among all the neurotransmitters ​ Associated with risk, rewards and motivation ⇒ drives our actions & behaviours 4.​ How can risk-taking be a good thing for brain development? ​ Taking a risk helps to associate the differentiation between risks and safety ​ Each outcome leads to a corresponding imprint on the brain (good or bad) → teenagers grow and develop → learned system 5.​ What part of the brain is responsible for addiction? ​ Increase of dopamine in Nucleus accumbens ​ Much more sensitive to positive stimuli than to adverse effects 6.​ Why is addiction such a dangerous thing during adolescence? ​ Building a negative reward-punishment system & a higher tendency to get addicted ​ Formation of the imprints of the ‘bad’ as ‘good’ 7.​ What part of the brain is responsible for social interaction? ​ The whole brain is dedicated to social interaction, not just one part of the brain. 19 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes 02- Brain Anatomy & Labelling The Cerebrum: Brain Labeling The largest and the most developed portion of the brain (controlling memory, understanding and logic) 1.​ Frontal Lobe Higher cognitive functions decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and movement control, personality and emotion 2.​ Parietal Lobe Sensory information and spatial awareness (touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception**) 3.​ Temporal Lobe Short-term memory, auditory function (language comprehension), speaking function, smelling function 4.​ Occipital Lobe Visual processing centre on the back of the brain **Proprioception: sense of movement, action, and location 5.​ Cerebellum Coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium Brain Stem: Connects brain to spinal cord, involuntary functions (breathing, heart rate, blood pressure) 1.​ Mid Brain Motor control, eye movements, vision and hearing, pain suppression 2.​ Pons Transmits signal between cerebrum and cerebellum 3.​ Medulla Oblongata Control heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure Limbic System: Emotion, memory and learning 1.​ Thalamus Serves as a relay station for information coming to your brain about what you see, taste, touch and hear. 2.​ Hypothalamus Monitors body temperature, intake of food and liquid, sleep, and releases hormones that affect each of these body functions. 3.​ Hippocampus Forming new memories and helps convert short-term memories into long-term memories. 4.​ Amygdala Associates with emotions, particularly fear and anxiety. 20 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Labelled Diagram: ​ Corpus Callosum: Large circular structure connecting the two hemispheres ​ Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the cerebrum ​ Left hemisphere → logic and problem-solving; Right hemisphere → spatial awareness, creativity and imagination 03- Male vs Female Brain Left vs. Right Brain ​ The brain is contra lateral ○​ The left hemisphere controls the movement of the right side of the body ○​ The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body ​ Right-handed = left-brain dominant ​ Left-handed = right-brain dominant Male vs. Female Brain - Structural Differences Size: ​ The average male brain is about 10% larger than the female brain, BUT… ​ The female brain has more tightly-packed neurons and a greater network of connections between neurons. Limbic Cortex: ​ Responsible for regulating emotions ​ Larger in women Parietal Cortex: ​ Involved in spatial perception ​ Larger in males Corpus Callosum: ​ Connects right and left hemispheres ​ ~20% larger in females 21 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Other Differences: ​ Part of the frontal lobe responsible for problem-solving and decision-making may be larger in women. ​ The amygdala, responsible for sexual and social behaviour, may be larger in men. Brain Plasticity: ​ Neuroplasticity (Brain Plasticity) - the ability of our brains to change throughout life and be shaped by our experiences. ○​ The idea that our brain is plastic and malleable ○​ Form new connections (synapses) based on learning and experiences ○​ “Prunes” (eliminates) unused connections that are not needed BBC Sex Survey: ​ Males focus more on facts but females focus more on emotional communications ​ Males have higher sexual intention and desires compared to females ​ Females display more sympathy and help (Young Girl Sitting on the Street Experiment) ​ Males take more risks with increased hormone levels while females value safety ​ Females are more sympathetic and caring towards children ​ Males are better at spatial coordination skills ​ Females are better at language developments 04- Sex vs Gender Sex vs. Gender: ​ Sex - the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women ​ Gender - the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women Sex Gender ​ biological differences between Culturally Defined men and women ​ Roles ○​ XX or XY chromosomes ​ Expectations ○​ Genitals ​ Images and Appearance ○​ Other physical characteristics determined Culturally Constructed by genes 1.​ The symbols associated with gender (clothing) 2.​ Classifications of what is inherently male or female – how male and female is perceived 3.​ Relative values of the genders 4.​ Behavior patterns, including what is appropriate for each gender Biological Sex: ​ Biological Sex: Male or Female ○​ Not defined by chromosomes, genitalia or hormonal profiles ○​ Only defined by GAMETES 22 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ​ Gametes: mature reproductive cells. There are only two types of gametes: ○​ Small ones called SPERM that are produced by males ○​ Large ones called EGGS that are produced by females ​ There are no intermediate types of gametes between egg and sperm cells. ​ Sex is therefore binary and it is not a spectrum. Gender Identity & Expression: ​ Gender Identity: ○​ This relates to how we feel in relation to our sex, regarding whether we feel feminine or masculine ​ Gender Expression: ○​ This relates to the external manifestation of our gender identity; or how we express our gender through our appearance, like clothing and hairstyles and mannerisms ​ The Gingerbread Person: 4 areas to identify our gender ○​ Identity, Attraction, Expression, Sex ​ Transgender individuals: Gender identity is more aligned the opposite sex than their birth sex (different gender identity & biological sex) ​ Intersex individuals: Tend to produce one of the two types of gametes or they are infertile. In some cases, an intersex person’s gametes are not in alignment with the sex they identify as. (having both male & female sexual characteristics and organs) Social Construtivism: ​ Gender Roles: A gender role is a set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex ​ Social constructs develop within a society or group. They don't represent objective reality but instead are meaningful only because people within the society or group accept that they have meaning. ○​ Pink is for girls and blue is for boys is a social construct related to gender and the color of items. The collective perception that a particular color can be associated with a certain gender is not an objective representation of truth or fact. It’s a social convention that came to have meaning within the context of society. 05- Introduction to Psychology Define Psychology: The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes, and the factors that influence these processes. Branches of Psychology​ ​ Conducted experiments on sensation, perception and attention Structuralism ​ Participants describe all mental processes (Wilhelm Wundt) ​ Officially marked psychology as a scientific discipline separate from philosophy & physiology 23 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ​ Believed that mental characteristics developed to allow people Functionalism to survive by solving problems. (William James) ​ Study people in everyday life ​ Process designed to uncover patients’ unconscious thoughts by Psychoanalytic encouraging them to discuss their background, feelings and Theory experiences with a trained psychologist. (Sigmund Freud) ​ It is apart of everyday thinking, ideas include: subconscious, ego, dream analysis, ‘Freudian slips’ Behaviourism ​ Psychology should only study what can be observed, individual (John Watson) behaviour (reaction/response to environmental stimuli) Humanism ​ Human beings make choices and can take control of their lives (1950s) ​ Study of mental processes involved in memory, learning and Cognitive thinking Psychology ​ Researching the brain and its processes by monitoring brain (1950s) activity (what part of the brain is active when we talk, laugh, watch a movie, etc.) ​ Tries to understand general rules that govern Theoretical Psychology behaviour/mental processes ​ Uses theoretical information to help people experiencing Clinical Psychology mental problems (more applicable and practical) ​ The process that activates our sense receptors- sight, Sensation (First Stage) hearing, smell, taste, and touch- transmits signals to the brain ​ A blind spot is where the optic nerve attaches to the retina, with no photoreceptors at the site ​ The process that allows us to select, organize, and interpret Perception sensory signals in the brain ​ Factors that influence: the object itself, the background or (Second Stage) surroundings, and the experiences/feelings of the person who is perceiving Cognition ​ The way people acquire, store and use knowledge 24  HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes 06- Learning Conditioned Learning Definition & Examples ​ We learn to respond to a particular environmental stimulus in a particular way Conditioning ○​ Ex. Conditioned to stop at red light, conditioned to begin a class when bell rings ​ Objects or events that produce a response from a person or other Stimuli living thing ○​ Ex. Traffic light, school bells ​ Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian Classical Conditioning physiologist → study digestion (C.C.) ​ Learning to transfer a natural response Classical Conditioning Terms from one stimulus to another 07a - Classical Conditioning ​ Behaviour theory: Practice ○​ Human behaviour has been shaped by past experiences When a neutral stimulus (bell) ○​ Modification possible through is associated with an conditioning unconditioned stimulus (food ​ Little Albert Experiment: ○​ Neutral Stimulus: white, fuzzy objects & saliva) to become a ○​ Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Loud noises conditioned stimulus (bell & ○​ Unconditioned response (UCR): Crying of fear saliva) ○​ Conditioned stimulus (CS): white, fuzzy objects & (CR): crying of fear Unconditioned Response ​ An automatic, unlearned reaction (instinctual, innate) (UCR) ○​ Ex. dogs are attracted to foods and produce saliva Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Conditioned Response (CR) ​ A learned reaction Conditioned Stimulus (CS) ​ Discovered by B.F. Skinner - Skinner’s Box ○​ The rat is rewarded with foods when Operant Conditioning pressing the lever → positive (O.C.) reinforcement ​ Repetition of responses is influenced by rewards or punishments ​ An event, a situation or a condition that increases the likelihood that certain behaviours will recur Positive Reinforcement ○​ Rewards and positive reinforcements are more effective in changing behaviour. ​ Ex. Training dogs/ cats or raising child and infants 25 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ​ An event, a situation or condition that decreases the likelihood that certain behaviour will recur ○​ Punishments do not prove to have long term success in Negative Reinforcement changing behaviour. ​ Sometimes involve removing an unpleasant stimulus to prevent something from happening (i.e. stop the alarm / beeping / nagging) ​ Albert Bandura - Bobo Doll experiment Case Study Observational Learning ​ People learn by observing others who act as role models Observational Learning Four Processes of Observational Learning Example/Skills Attention Pay attention to others’ behaviours Storage of a mental representation of what you observed Retention in your memory (what worked well) Reproduction Put stored memory into action (practice)‫‏‬ Must be motivated to practice skills Motivation (believe that the skill is important/useful) Classical Conditioning Example​ ​ ​ Operant Conditioning Example Dogs, Bells and Saliva ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Skinner’s Box Case study: Observational Learning - Albert Bandura & Bobo Doll Experiment 1.​ Why did the children imitate aggressive behaviour toward the doll? a.​ Children who observed an adult with aggressive behavior imitate these behaviors b.​ Children pay attention to aggressive behavior, retain these behaviors in memory, then reproduce these behaviors thinking that they are acceptable 2.​ Sometimes adults were either rewarded or scolded for their behaviour. Why did these consequences affect the children’s own behaviour? a.​ Positive reinforcements, such as rewards to the adult, increase the likelihood that an aggressive behavior (kicking the doll) would be imitated b.​ Negative reinforcements, such as watching adults being scolded, decrease the likelihood that the aggressive behavior would be imitated 26 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes 07- Memory ​ Memory is the capacity to acquire, retain, and recall knowledge and skills Types of Memory: Episodic Semantic Procedural Ability to remember events Knowledge of how the world Memory of how to do things/ from the past. works. perform. Levels of Memory: ​ Records information from these senses for only a few seconds ​ Enables you to hold information long enough to record what is necessary Sensory from the environment Memory ​ Hold information long enough to select the important parts ​ Receives information from the environment through senses ​ Refers to what is going on in one’s conscious mind as they consider Short-term sentences and paragraphs Memory ​ Holds information for up to 15-20 seconds (discarded if not used) (with working ​ Stores 7 separate unorganized items memory) ​ Working memory is the active manipulation of information ​ Items that are important and have meaning to you are stored in long-term memory. Long-term ​ We can retain as much info as we want for as long as we want, but we Memory cannot recall everything at will. ​ Use efficient methods of retrieving long-term memory ​ Memories are easy to access if recalled regularly 08- Motivation ​ Motivation is the study of the need or desire to do things; the causes of our behaviour ​ Areas of study for motivation: ○​ Biological factors, genetics ○​ Social factors, cognitive reasoning What Motivates Us? - Video ​ Self-motivation above all others: Motivation is not forced, but spontaneously initiated ○​ Example: Initiatives to give away for free / volunteer rather than force ​ Incentives: Three levels of rewards; but a disadvantage is to decrease intrinsic motivation ​ Tasks that require ONLY mechanical tasks → higher pay leads to better performance ​ Above rudimentary cognitive skills → Higher rewards lead to worse performance 27 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Biological and Social Motivations Biological motivation ​ Refers to innate, physical needs (ie. Hunger, thirst) ​ Biological motivation explanations were first made popular with the instinct theory ​ The theory that instinct, or involuntary and unlearned processes, direct our behaviours ○​ Drive-reduction theory: physiological needs create drives that need to be reduced, which motivates us to satisfy our needs Social Motivation ​ Social motivation: focuses on learned, psychological needs such as praise and success ​ This would include cognitive explanations for motivation ○​ Cognitive explanations look at rewards and punishments ​ Intrinsic motivation: Desire to perform a task for its own sake ○​ It comes from within you (self-initiated) for reasons you have internalized ○​ Example: Maintaining personal financial literacy, becoming an engineer/ surgeon ​ Extrinsic motivation: Desire to perform a task due to external factors (i.e. Reward, the threat of punishment) ○​ Example: Study to score above 95 on a test Negativity Bias ​ Bad news or events tend to have more impact than good ones (Human universal) ​ If someone is punished for not doing something (extrinsic motivation), they probably will feel upset and less likely to be motivated to do that work in the future (intrinsic motivation) ○​ Examples: If someone always performs badly on math, they will not be motivated to study for an upcoming math test ​ Traditional bonus plans based on performance (extrinsic) are not as effective as one’s own thought (intrinsic) ○​ Example: Google’s Engineers work on their own projects for one day per week; intrinsic motivation kept employees excited Freud’s Theory of the Mind ​ During the late 1800s, many studying human behaviour believed that people were aware and conscious of their motives. ​ Freud opposed this ○​ Believed many were unaware of their thoughts and motives because these came from the “unconscious mind.” ○​ Freud believed the mind had 3 parts ​ Not physical, anatomical parts of the brain, but 3 different functions ​ Freud’s three aspects of the mind: Id, Ego and Superego 28 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Ego - Conscious Mind ​ Ego = conscious and rational part of the brain ​ Conscious awareness ○​ Eg. The chair you are sitting on, the words you read on this screen, and the thoughts and memories currently circulating in your mind at this moment ​ The ego develops and changes as we live and experience different aspects of life. ​ Decisions are made in the ego ​ Unconscious mind may influence difficult decisions Id - Unconscious Mind ​ Id = instincts ​ Give in to impulses and biological drives that sustain/promote life ​ Operates at the unconscious level, below the level of awareness ​ Id seeks pleasure and avoids pain– sometimes in socially unacceptable or unrealistic ways ○​ Wishful thinking and dreams are the ids striving to fulfill desires Superego - Unconscious Mind ​ Superego = Morality ​ Acts as a conscience, tells us what we should and should not do ​ Derives from unconscious mind, which is also highly influenced by cultural values, society, and those with whom we live ○​ Example: Parents ​ Teach moral principles through punishment and reward ​ Children avoid negative behaviour for fear of punishment and perform positive behaviour in the hope of a reward ​ Children internalize ideas of right and wrong Id, Ego and Superego work together to create a behaviour. ○​ Id creates instinctual demands (meet basic needs) ○​ Superego adds morality to the action which is taken. ○​ Ego struggles between Id and Superego, adding the need for reality Example: Identify the Id, Superego and Ego from the following scenario: Freud Exercise Will had worked hard all season to break the school record in cross-country. During his last race, he had the opportunity to cut a corner and therefore lower his time, because no officials were watching that part of the course. Id - Instinct Do not tell the officials and keep his record, since no one was watching Superego - Cheating is highly unethical, and he should tell the officials/ judges about his Morality dishonest behaviour 29 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Ego - Rationality He should tell the judges about his miscalculated time for honesty. Even if the (balancing both) judges decide to cancel or change his record, he still has a chance to try his best the next time. Breaking the record with cheating does not count and may result in worse consequences later. Combining the Id, Ego and Superego: ​ Freud believes we are born with only the id (instincts) ​ With growth and maturity, parts of the brain convert into the ego and superego ​ The Ego must learn to: ○​ Deal with drives of Id in a socially acceptable way based on past consequences ○​ Operates according to reality principle (according to the society and the reality) ○​ Uses rational abilities to balance the id (desires) and the superego (restrictions) ○​ Conflict may erupt between the three aspects → Moral dilemma 09- Maslow, Harlow and Emotion Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ​ Freud → Humans are motivated by unconscious minds ​ Maslow → Humans are motivated by their needs in the order of importance ○​ Created the Hierarchy of Needs ​ Physiological, Safety, Belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization (low to high) ​ Once needs at a certain level have been achieved, people may go back to play at lower needs levels. ​ Controversy? Some argued that needs are not met in the ways Maslow outlined ○​ Individuals may place higher importance on esteem than on love and belonging ○​ Poverty or homelessness may not destroy a person’s need for respect 3 Components of Emotion ​ The third element that motivates human behaviour is Emotion ​ Together with unconscious mind and needs, emotion motivates us to act a certain way Cognitive Component ​ The mental state, conscious feelings ​ How we interpret situations → this determines which emotion we will feel ○​ Ex. Feelings of being sad, happy, angry, excited Physical Component ​ Physical characteristics that accompany emotional reaction the person is feeling ​ Without the physiological arousal, the sensation of the emotion would significantly decrease ○​ Ex. Tensed muscles, increased energy, pounding heart (increased heart rate), changes in body temperature ​ People who can detect changes in arousal level experience emotions much more strongly 30 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Behavioural Component ​ The outward expression of our emotions ○​ Ex. Actions, withdrawal, body language, facial expressions and tone of voice ​ Many behavioural components of emotion are universal to all humans Factors and Influence Emotion Heredity ​ We inherit some emotional capacities from our parents (inherent) ​ Recent studies suggest we inherit particular behavioural reactions ​ Cross-cultural research → facial expressions and physiological responses are somewhat innate Learning ​ Emotion is largely determined by learning experiences (particularly early years) ​ We follow life experiences and role models in emotional reactions to new situations Maturity ​ Emotional feelings and reactions develop and change over the lifetime ​ Older people have emotions unique to personal experiences Harry Harlow (1905-1981) ​ American psychology professor, forefront to many tests using primates ​ Developmental psychologist ○​ Believed infants form an attachment to those who provided them with nourishment Harlow Experiments: Paragraph Basic Conditions: ​ First Experiment → Rhesus Monkeys isolated from their mothers ○​ Some monkeys placed with only wire mothers ○​ Others with two wire “mothers” ​ One covered in terry cloth ​ Other with just a feeding bottle attached to the breast ​ Second Experiment → Infant monkeys are scared by a mechanical monster ○​ ALL monkeys immediately attach to the cloth mother for security and comfort Summary of Findings: ​ Monkeys preferred cloth mother, only left her to get food and returned right away (~22 hrs) ○​ Attach to the cloth mother when anxiety arises ​ Infants depend on caregivers for more than just physical needs; emotional needs must be met ​ Meeting emotional needs is crucial → demonstrated in the second experiment ​ Courage from the cloth mother allows them to investigate and attack the source of their fear ​ Monkeys who did not receive affection early in life experienced psychological problems later ○​ Monkeys raised without clothes mothers display signs of insecurity 31 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes 10- Attachment Styles History of Attachment Styles: John Bowlby (1st attachment theorist): ​ “Lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” ​ Interested in understanding the anxiety and distress that children experience when separated from their primary caregivers ​ Observed that feedings did not diminish separation anxiety ​ Behavioural Theories: Initial Attachment was simply a learned behaviour. ​ Merely the result of the feeding relationship between the child and the caregiver (physiological) Bowlby Attachment was characterized by clear behavioural and motivation patterns. suggests… ​ Children seek security from parents when frightened. Mary Ainsworth: ​ Followed up on John Bowlby’s work, tested children and separation anxiety ​ The Stanger’s Situation → Children were separated from their parents & introduced to strangers ​ Established the four styles of attachment: ○​ Secure attachment ○​ Ambivalent-insecure attachment ○​ Avoidant-insecure attachment ○​ Disorganized-insecure attachment (added by Main & Solomon, 1986) Understanding Attachment: ​ The primary caregivers who are available and responsive to an infant's needs allow the child to develop a sense of security ○​ Dependence → secure base for the child to then explore the world ​ Behaviourists suggest that food is the main reason for attachment behaviour ​ Bowlby and others demonstrated that nurturance and responsiveness were the primary determinants of attachment Attachment Styles Secure Attachment: ​ Higher level of maturity, increased empathy, and less disruptive and angry behavior ​ Long-term relationships, fewer trust issues, and greater self-esteem ​ Enjoy engaging with others, and reciprocate feelings ​ Feel protected by their caregivers and that they can depend upon them Ambivalent: ​ Anxious and pre-occupied, higher dependency ​ Guarded and insecure around strangers or when caregivers are not present ​ Ultimately shaping a clingy and overly dependent adult 32 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ○​ Worried when relationships end (highly emotional) ○​ Unwilling to gain proximity in romantic relationships Avoidance vs. Dismissive: ​ Caregivers ignore the needs = Physical and emotional independence ○​ Short-term → Positive & protective factor ○​ Long-term → Damaging and disconnect from their feelings and emotional needs ​ May have difficulties with close and intimate relationships ○​ Can’t share emotions and feelings with their partners or families ​ Ending a relationship will not cause them any distress Disorganized: ​ Mistreated, neglected or traumatized by their caregiver ​ Ultimately shaping a fearful, avoidant child, behaviours are disorganized and confused ​ Often get emotionally distressed and cannot self-soothe Why are Attachment Styles important? ​ Allow us to understand our relationship with others (as children/ adults) ​ Tells the types of challenges we would face and how to manage those challenges ​ Attachment styles are different internal working models. ○​ Shaped by events, interactions and relationships ○​ A set of expectations and beliefs about ourselves, others and relationships 11- Sleep Importance of Sleep The Sleep Cycle ​ Our sleep has 4 stages that can last from 90-120 minutes ○​ Each stage is repeated throughout the night ○​ Dreams can occur in any of the 4 stages & several dreams can occur one night ​ Most memorable dreams occur during REM (Rapid eye movement) sleep ​ 20%-25% of the sleep should be spent in the REM stage (1-2 hours) Stages of Sleep: ​ Stage 1, N1 (light sleep, NREM) ○​ Preparing for a deep sleep ○​ muscles relax ○​ Lower body temperature and slower heart rate ​ Stage 2, N2 (continues in NREM) ○​ completely asleep ○​ immune system repairs the day’s damage ○​ growth hormones are secreted ​ Stage 3, N3 (deeper sleep in NREM) ○​ Metabolic levels slow 33 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes ​ Stage 4 (REM) - Most dreams occur in this stage ○​ Eyes moving erratically back and forth under eyelids ○​ Occur around 90-100 minute in each cycle ○​ increased blood pressure, heart rate, respiration, and brain activity (same as awake) ○​ However muscle tones are lowered to nearly 0 (no voluntary movement) ​ These four stages of one REM sleep cycle repeatedly occur during one night of sleep 12- Dreams​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Why Do We Dream? To fulfill wishes (Freud Connection): ​ Dreams contain a collection of images from conscious lives and have symbolic meaning ​ Everything we remember from our dreams is a symbolic representation of unconscious thoughts ​ Through analyzing dreams, unconscious elements would be revealed to conscious mind To remember and forget learnings & memory: ​ Certain memory processes occur only when we sleep ​ Neo-cortex removes unnecessary memory while sleeping→ “unlearning process” results in dreams To keep our brain working: ​ Continual Activation Theory → dreams results from brain’s need to conslide information and create long-term memories ​ Dreams prevents your brain from shutting down To rehearse & solve problems: ​ Primitive Instinct Rehearsal Theory → dreams allow us to practice our fight or flight instincts ​ Dreaming helps us grasp problems and formulate solutions To heal: ​ Dreaming takes the edge off painful experiences to allow for psychological healing Defining Dreams: ​ DREAM: a story-like sequence of visual images, usually occurring during REM sleep ​ Average about 4 dreams per night (more likely to dream as the night progresses) ​ Most dreams are mundane → refer to recent life events ○​ Recurrent dreamers tended to report more stress in their lives ○​ Lower levels of psychological well-being (negative topics in dreams) ○​ Can incorporate external stimuli ​ We can reason while dreaming and even control our dream ○​ Lucid dreaming → ability to be aware that one is dreaming and to direct one’s dreams ​ 5 minutes after the dream → 50% is forgotten AND after 10 minutes, 90% is lost ​ Blind people can also dream using other sensations 34 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Benefits of Dreaming: ​ Reveal your secret desires and subconscious feelings ​ Increase self-awareness, self-healing, and creativity ​ Learning to recall dreams can make you more assertive and allows you to confront your feelings ⬆️ ⬆️ ​ They can guide you through difficult decisions- relationships, health, career, life experiences ​ Help form long-term memories of learned materials ( REM sleep = memory) Disorders & Abnormalities: ​ Nightmare: a frightening dream occurring during REM sleep ○​ Tend to occur when we feel distressed (i.e. response to real-life trauma) ○​ More common in children ​ Night terrors: occur during NREM sleep (梦游) → don’t remember any when woke up ○​ Suddenly sit up, speak incoherently and screams Types of Dreams: ​ Daydreams- consciousness between wake and sleep. Average of 70-120 minutes a day spent on daydreaming, when your mind wanders ​ False Awakening dreams- Thinking you’ve gone through your daily morning routine, but you’re still asleep ​ Recurring Dreams- can be positive, but most often like nightmares. Conflict in the dream remains unresolved or ignored. Finding a solution usually ends the dreams Dreams & Documentary: PBS ‘What are Dreams’ 1.​ Who is the scientist most associated with dreams? ​ Sigmund Freud 2.​ List three characteristics of REM sleep ​ Sexually aroused ​ Muscle tones lowers to zero (functionally paralyzed, non-responsive) ​ Rapid eyelid movement 3.​ What does REM sleep disorder prevent? ​ Prevents paralysis of muscles in REM sleep (physically act out dream once awake) 4.​ Why did Hobson and McCarley view dreams as more physiological than psychological? ​ Dreams have no psychological purpose (unconscious) ​ Instead, brain continues to build nerve impulses and connections during dreams 5.​ What is the only way for a researcher to ensure that a subject was actually dreaming? ​ Modern technology does not allow accurate detection of dreaming ​ Wake them up and ask them 6.​ How do the emotions of subjects awakened after a dream during NREM sleep differ from those awakened after a dream in REM sleep? ​ Less likely to remember dreams in NREM ​ Mood test reflected positive emotions after awakening NREM sleep (completing words) ​ Mood test reflected negative emotions after awakening from REM sleep ​ Amygdala is primarily responsible for this 35 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes 7.​ What does Dr. Robert Stickgold thinks NREM dreams may do for us? ​ Refines and improves the memory, making it more useful in the future ​ Improved functional performance in consciousness (during the day) 8.​ What does Dr. Matt Wilson believes the rats in his study are doing while dreaming? ​ He believed that they had recurring patterns that reflected reality ​ NREM sleep has past activities compressed & accelerated (in seconds) ​ REM sleep is longer and contains the imagined future world 9.​ Give two examples of past accomplishments that Deirdre Barrett believes dreams were responsible for. ​ Think outside the box (more intuitive, less linear) ○​ Dmitri Mendeleev discovered periodic table ○​ Dr. Frankenstein was dreamed by Mary Shelly 10.​A comparison of word game scores of subjects who had REM vs. no REM ​ People who had REM sleep scored 40% higher scores than NREM subjects ​ REM sleep can boost creativity 11.​Why does Antti Revonsue believe our nightmares are good for us? ​ Simulate risks and dangers that we encounter in real life ​ Indispensable rehearsals (training) of real life and the struggle to survive 12.​What are some of the consequences of not dreaming? ​ High risk of diseases & health issues (i.e. Cardiovascular - stroke) ​ Lack of focus & Anxiety ​ Emotional issues → possible depression ​ Damage to Parietal Lobes (responsible for combining different senses during dreams) 13- Stress Stress vs. Anxiety ​ Stress → a state of tension related to your body attempting to cope with its environment ○​ The body prepares to meet a tough situation ​ Anxiety → a sense of apprehension, dread & uneasiness ​ Both are not negative, they are normal and can be adaptive ​ The stress response (fight or flight) involves the nervous system and specific hormones (i.e. adrenaline) in the body ○​ To perform better under pressure and avoid danger ​ Problem occurs when stress/ anxiety is excessive and prevents normal functioning of the body ○​ Wearing out the body’s reserves ○​ Feeling depleted or overwhelmed ○​ Weakening the immune system → harder to cope with daily demands ​ First learn to recognize when you are stressed → then deal with these stresses ​ Chronic stress (1+ month) can put you more at risk of medical problems such as frequent headaches, viral illnesses and ulcers ○​ Avoiding situations that cause anxiety can make the anxiety worse ○​ Anxiety can put you more at risk of developing depression 36 HSP3U ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Notes Coping Mechanisms ​ Coping mechanisms help decrease the side effects of stress ​ Stress response is triggered by your sympathetic nervous system ○​ Prepares for a fight-or-flight response (Higher heart & breathing rate, blood pressure) ○​ Physiological changes are meant to be temporary and help you when in danger ○​ However, the body cannot distinguish actual danger or emotional stress ​ Chronic stress leads to difficulty sleeping, change in appetite, body aches, anxiety, depression Active vs. Avoidant ​ ACTIVE coping → you recognize the source of your stress and you are changing the situation or the way you respond to it ​ AVOIDANT coping → you ignore the problem or issue that is causing you stress Adaptive vs. Maladaptive ​ Coping mechanisms can be positive (adapti