HPGD1103 Curriculum Development PDF

FACULTY OF EDUCATION HPGD1103 Curriculum Development Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) HPGD1103 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Prof Dr John Arul Phillips Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) Third edition 2023 Second edition 2021 First edition...

FACULTY OF EDUCATION HPGD1103 Curriculum Development Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) HPGD1103 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Prof Dr John Arul Phillips Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) Third edition 2023 Second edition 2021 First edition 2010 Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), HPGD1103 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President of Open University Malaysia (OUM). www.oum.edu.my Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) Table of Contents Course Guide ix–xiv Topic What is Curriculum? 1 1 1.1 1.2 Definitions of Curriculum The Hidden Curriculum 4 8 1.3 Curriculum Approaches 10 1.3.1 Curriculum as Content 10 1.3.2 Curriculum as Product 11 1.3.3 Curriculum as Process 14 1.4 Foundations of Curriculum 15 1.5 Curriculum Development 17 1.6 Curriculum as a Discipline 18 1.7 Curriculum and Instruction 19 Summary 23 Key Terms 23 References 24 Topic Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum 25 2 2.1 2.2 What is Philosophy? Philosophy of Education 27 29 2.3 Philosophy and Curriculum 30 2.4 Perennialism 31 2.4.1 What is Perennialism? 31 2.4.2 The Perennialist Curriculum 33 2.5 Essentialism 37 2.5.1 What is Essentialism? 37 2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum 38 2.6 Progressivism 39 2.6.1 What is Progressivism? 39 2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum 41 2.7 Reconstructionism 42 2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism? 42 2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum 43 2.8 Abu Nasr Al-Farabi 46 2.8.1 Al-Farabi on Education 47 2.8.2 Al-Farabi on Curriculum 48 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) iv TABLE OF CONTENTS 2.9 Confucius 49 2.9.1 Confucius on Education 50 2.9.2 Confucius on Curriculum 51 2.10 Rabindranath Tagore 53 2.10.1 Tagore on Education 53 2.10.2 Tagore on Curriculum 54 Summary 55 Key Terms 56 References 56 Topic Psychological Foundations of Curriculum 58 3 3.1 3.2 Understanding Learning Behaviourism 60 62 3.2.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) 62 3.2.2 Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) 64 3.2.3 B. Frederick Skinner (1900–1980) 65 3.2.4 Walter Bandura (1925–Present) 67 3.2.5 Behaviourism in the Classroom 68 3.3 Cognitivism 69 3.3.1 The Information Processing Approach 71 3.3.2 Meaningful Learning 73 3.3.3 Levels of Cognitive Development 74 3.3.4 Metacognition 76 3.3.5 Cognitivism in the Classroom 78 3.4 Constructivism 79 3.4.1 Learning is the Active Construction of Knowledge 79 3.4.2 Learning is a Social Activity 80 3.4.3 Constructivism in the Classroom 82 3.5 Humanism 83 3.5.1 Abraham Maslow 84 3.5.2 Carl Rogers 85 3.5.3 Arthur Combs 85 3.5.4 Humanism in the Classroom 86 Summary 89 Key Terms 90 References 90 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TABLE OF CONTENTS v Topic Social and Historical Foundations of Curriculum 92 4 4.1 4.2 Society and Curriculum Changing Economy and Curriculum 95 97 4.3 The Changing Family Institution and Curriculum 100 4.4 Cultural Diversity and Curriculum 101 4.5 Special Interest Groups and Curriculum 102 4.6 Knowledge that is Most Worth 104 4.7 Evolution of Curriculum 106 4.7.1 Case Study 1: History of the American School 106 Curriculum 4.7.2 Case Study 2: History of JapanÊs School 113 Curriculum Summary 120 Key Terms 120 References 121 Topic Curriculum Planning 123 5 5.1 5.2 The Curriculum Development Process Models of Curriculum Development 125 125 5.2.1 The Tyler Model 126 5.2.2 The Taba Model 129 5.2.3 The Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis Model 132 5.3 Goals of Education 134 5.4 Levels of Goals 135 5.4.1 Educational Philosophy 136 5.4.2 Educational Goals 138 5.4.3 Curriculum Goals 140 5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives 140 5.4.5 Instructional Goals 143 5.4.6 Instructional Objectives 143 5.5 Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 144 5.6 Classifying Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 146 5.6.1 Cognitive Domain 147 5.6.2 Affective Domain 148 5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain 149 Summary 152 Key Terms 153 References 153 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Topic Curriculum Design 155 6 6.1 6.2 What is Curriculum Design? Content Selection 157 158 6.2.1 What is Content? 158 6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content? 159 6.2.3 How Should Content be Selected? 159 6.3 Principles of Content Organisation 162 6.3.1 Scope 162 6.3.2 Sequence 163 6.3.3 Integration 165 6.3.4 Continuity 165 6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum 166 6.4 Selection of Learning Experiences 168 6.4.1 What are Learning Experiences? 168 6.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences 170 6.5 Curriculum Designs 171 6.5.1 Subject-centred Designs 173 6.5.2 Learner-centred Designs 176 6.5.3 Problem-centred Designs 179 Summary 181 Key Terms 182 References 182 Topic Curriculum Implementation 184 7 7.1 7.2 What is Curriculum Implementation? Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process 187 188 7.3 Types of Curriculum Change 191 7.4 Resistance to Change 192 7.5 Case Study: Curriculum Reform and Implementation 195 in Indonesia 7.6 Individuals Involved in Curriculum Implementation 197 7.6.1 Teachers 197 7.6.2 Students 200 7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters 201 7.6.4 Parents 202 7.7 Case Study: EnglandÊs National Curriculum for 203 Secondary Schools 7.8 Implementing Curriculum in the Classroom 204 Summary 209 Key Terms 210 References 210 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Topic Curriculum Evaluation 212 8 8.1 8.2 Curriculum Evaluation Formative and Summative Evaluation 215 216 8.2.1 Formative Evaluation 217 8.2.2 Summative Evaluation 217 8.3 Curriculum Evaluation Models 218 8.3.1 Context, Input, Process and Product Model 219 (CIPP Model) 8.3.2 Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on 221 Technology Integration in Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools 8.3.3 StakeÊs Countenance Model 223 8.3.4 EisnerÊs Connoisseurship Model 224 8.4 Phases of Curriculum Evaluation 227 8.5 Instrumentation for Curriculum Evaluation 227 8.5.1 Questionnaires and Checklists 228 8.5.2 Interviews 228 8.5.3 Observations 229 8.5.4 Documentation Reviews 229 8.6 Case Study: Evaluation of a Mathematics Curriculum 232 in South Africa Summary 234 Key Terms 235 References 236 Topic Curriculum Issues and Trends 237 9 9.1 Challenges Impacting Curriculum 9.1.1 Information Age 240 241 9.1.2 Changing Workplace 241 9.1.3 Mass Media 242 9.1.4 Greater Democracy 242 9.2 Curriculum Issues 243 9.2.1 Differentiated Curriculum for the Gifted 243 9.2.2 Compensatory Education 245 Summary 248 Key Terms 248 References 249 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Topic Future Directions 250 10 10.1 10.2 Character Education Performance Assessment 251 252 10.3 Retooling Schools for the Future 256 10.3.1 Schools for All 258 10.3.2 Thinking Goes to School 260 10.3.3 Personalised Schools 264 10.3.4 Technology-based Schools 265 Summary 267 Key Terms 268 References 268 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) Course Guide COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the course materials. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course Guide as you go through the course materials as it will help you to clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook. INTRODUCTION HPGD1103 Curriculum Development is one of the courses offered at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks. COURSE AUDIENCE This course is offered to learners taking the Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching (PGDT) programme. The main aim of the course is to introduce to learners the knowledge and skills in developing school curriculum. The course explores the various definitions of curriculum, followed by a discussion on how philosophical beliefs, psychological perspectives, societal demands, and the legacy of history impact the curriculum. Next, the curriculum development process is discussed with particular emphasis on curriculum planning, design, implementation, and evaluation. Finally, the course focuses on the issues and future curriculum development trends in todayÊs dynamic society. As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the correct course materials, understand the course requirements, and know how the course is conducted. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) x COURSE GUIDE STUDY SCHEDULE It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every credit hour. As such, for a 3 credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study hours. Figure 1 shows the student learning time (SLT). Figure 1: Student Learning Time COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this course, you should be able to do the following: 1. Analyse how philosophy, psychology, history, and society impact the curriculum. 2. Evaluate the issues of curriculum development. 3. Develop a curriculum using a curriculum development process suitable for a teaching institution. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  COURSE GUIDE xi COURSE SYNOPSIS This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as follows (refer to Table 1): Table 1: Synopsis for Each Topic Topic Description 1 Examines different definitions of curriculum, the hidden curriculum, approaches to viewing curriculum, and a brief introduction to the curriculum development process. 2 Analyses four main philosophical beliefs (perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism) and how they influence the curriculum. 3 Evaluates four psychological perspectives (behaviourism, cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism) and how they influence the curriculum. 4 Explores how societal forces and demands (culture, work, technology, and globalisation) influence curriculum. The curriculum of the United States and Japan are examined to show how the curriculum have changed over time. 5 Compares the curriculum development models of Tyler, Taba, Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis and the tasks involved at different levels of curriculum planning. 6 Examines the criteria for content selection (significance, utility, learnability, feasibility, and utility), the principles of content organisation (sequence, scope, integration, and balance) and models of curriculum design (subject matter-centred, learner-centred, and problem-centred). 7 Discusses curriculum implementation as a change process, the categories of curriculum change, the resistance to change, why people resist change, and the role and responsibilities of people involved in curriculum implementation. 8 Compares three curriculum evaluation models (CIPP, Stakes countenance model, and EisnerÊs connoisseurship model) and the data collection techniques for decision-making. 9 Critically evaluates different curriculum issues, such as the impact of globalisation, the knowledge economy, national unity, and citizenship education. 10 Focuses on the character curriculum and suggests possible future scenarios in determining the curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) xii COURSE GUIDE TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text arrangement for each topic is as follows: (a) Learning Outcomes This section refers to what you should achieve after you have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your understanding of the topic. (b) Self-Check This component of the module is included in strategic locations throughout the module. It may be located after one subtopic or a few subtopics. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this component, reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood the subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly in the module itself. (c) Activity Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to answer questions, explore short case studies or conduct an observation or research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage in Higher Order Thinking skills (HOTs) i.e. analysing, synthesising and evaluating instead of only recalling and defining. (d) Summary You will find this component at the end of each topic. It summarises various important parts of each topic and helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details in the module. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  COURSE GUIDE xiii (e) Key Terms This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to explain, you should look for the terms in the module. (f) References A list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents and sources can be found in this section. The list may appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (in the References section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or refer to the suggested references to obtain additional information and enhance your overall understanding of the course. PRIOR KNOWLEDGE There is no prior knowledge needed. ASSESSMENT METHOD Please refer to. REFERENCES Boyle, B., & Charles, M. (2016). Curriculum development: A guide for educators. Sage Publications. Glatthorn, A. A., Boschee, F., & Whitehead, B. M. (2009). Curriculum leadership: Strategies for development and implementation (2nd ed.). Sage. Hale, J. A., & Fisher, M. (2013). Upgrade your curriculum: Practical ways to transform units and engage students. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development (ASCD). Jacobs, H. H. (2010). Curriculum 21: Essential education for a changing world. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development (ASCD). Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2018). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues (7th ed.). Pearson Education. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) xiv COURSE GUIDE TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL LIBRARY The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases and several of them are shown in Figure 2. As an OUM learner, you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library. Figure 2: Among the Online Databases Available at TSDAS Digital Library Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  Topic 1 What is Curriculum? By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Define curriculum. 2. Compare the various definitions of curriculum proposed by different scholars. 3. Explain what is hidden curriculum. 4. Differentiate between the three approaches to the curriculum. 5. Identify the foundations of the curriculum. 6. Discuss the connection between curriculum and instruction. 7. Describe the curriculum development process. 8. Argue whether the curriculum is a discipline. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 2 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? You would have probably come across these headlines in Malaysian newspapers (refer to Figure 1.1). Figure 1.1: Headlines in Malaysian Newspapers These headlines indicate societyÊs concern with what is going on in schools, particularly the curriculum. It should be remembered that a curriculum is a contract between society and those in power stating how the next generation of young people will be educated. Hence, the general public has the right to question how schools prepare the next generation of citizens. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 3 As the society becomes more educated, more members are keen to express their views on various issues regarding what schools do and what is taught in schools. Sometimes it is tempting to ask whether society ever comes to a consensus on what it wants schools to do. Some population demand that schools teach mastery of a discipline in terms of facts, concepts, and principles. In contrast, others call for reducing content and instead emphasise on developing critical and creative thinking. Still, others feel that schools are not paying enough attention towards developing studentsÊ character. It appears that society is confused, not knowing what it wants of its schools. However, what may be defined as confusion is dynamism in reality because curriculum reflects our values, choices, and perspectives in differing contexts. As society changes, so will the curriculum because it reflects society at a particular time. For example, during colonial times, education in Malaysia was confined to producing clerks and office assistants for the English administrative system. Whether we consider curriculum as a list of subjects taught in schools or all learning experiences acquired in school, there is no denying that curriculum affects everyone. The curriculum concerns everyone, whether teachers, academics, students, parents, politicians, business people, professionals, government officials or the person on the street. ACTIVITY 1.1 1. Choose any three headlines listed earlier in Figure 1.1. Why are the issues important? 2. Locate and report other concerns about the curriculum that you have come across. Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 4 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 1.1 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM Like most things in education, there is no agreed-upon definition of „curriculum‰. The word originates from the Latin word currere, referring to the lap or course around the track where Roman chariot race was held (refer to Figure 1.2). Figure 1.2: Rome Chariot Race Source: https://bit.ly/3YHUaVM The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as: The whole body of a course in an educational institution or by a department. In contrast, The Oxford English Dictionary defines curriculum as: Courses taught in schools or universities. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 5 Curriculum means different things to different people. Most people, including educators, equate curriculum with the syllabus (Do you agree? ), while a few regard curriculum as all the teaching-learning experiences a student encounters in school. Since the early 20th century, when Franklin Bobbitt, dubbed the Father of Curriculum, wrote his book The Curriculum in 1918, various theoreticians and practitioners have proposed various definitions of curriculum (refer to Table 1.1). Table 1.1: Definitions of Curriculum Theoretician Definition Tanner „The planned and guided learning experiences and intended (1980) outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learnersÊ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence.‰ (p. 13). Schubert The contents of a subject, concepts, and tasks to be acquired, (1987) planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, the product of culture and an agenda to reform society. Pratt A written document that systematically describes planned goals, (1980) objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures, etc. Goodlad and Su A plan consisting of learning opportunities for a specific time (1992) and place. This plan aims to bring about behaviour changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the schoolÊs guidance. Cronbleth Answering three questions: What knowledge, skills and values (1992) are most worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? How should the young acquire them? Grundy A programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed, (1987) so pupils attain certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives as far as possible. Ornstein „All of the experiences that individual learners have in a program (1987) of education. The purpose of the curriculum is to achieve broad goals and specific objectives. It is planned based on a framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice‰ (p. 5). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 6 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? Figure 1.3 shows a summary of various curriculum interpretations. LetÊs find out together. Figure 1.3: A Summary of Various Curriculum Interpretations Source: Oliva & Gordon (2012) Are you confused with the different curriculum interpretations? Well, donÊt be! It is not necessarily a bad thing to have numerous definitions of curriculum. The variety of definitions demonstrates the fieldÊs dynamism. This variety exists because it reflects the philosophical beliefs, conceptions of human learning, pedagogical strategies, political experiences and cultural and societal background of the planned curriculum (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Though much time may be spent on defining curriculum, it may be well spent because it encourages exploring many possibilities. One should be aware that if a curriculum is too narrowly defined, there is the tendency and likelihood to omit, ignore or miss relevant factors related to teaching and learning because they are not part of the written plan. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 7 On the other hand, it would not be easy to implement if they are too broadly defined because they may be open to different interpretations. These diverse definitions will make evaluating the achievement of the goals and objectives of the programme more difficult. Despite varying definitions of curriculum, there seems to be a consensus that it is a statement of: what students should know (knowledge or content); what students should be able to do (skills); how it is taught (instruction); how it is measured (assessment); and how the educational system is organised (context). Thus, the curriculum is a structured plan of intended learning outcomes involving knowledge, skills, behaviour, and associated learning experiences organised as a sequence of events a student acquired through education and training. How we conceive the curriculum is important because our conceptions and ways of reasoning about curriculum reflect how we think, study, and act on the education made available to students. In short, how we define the curriculum reflects our assumptions about the world (Cornbleth, 1990). SELF-CHECK 1.1 1. Identify the FIVE common features of a curriculum mentioned in most of the definitions given by scholars in the field (excluding Oliva & Gordon, 2012). 2. Select SIX interpretations of the curriculum summarised by Oliva and Gordon (2012) which you think gives a comprehensive definition of curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 8 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 1.2 THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM You may have heard of the phrase „hidden curriculum‰. What is it? The phrase hidden curriculum was coined by the sociologist Philip Jackson in his book Life in Classrooms, written in 1968. He drew attention to the idea that schools did more than transmit knowledge from one generation to another. Students learn things that are not taught in the formal curriculum. It could be viewed as the entire range of educational experiences promoted by schools and teachers through practices that are not necessarily written down. Doll (1992) pointed out that „every school has a planned, formally acknowledged curriculum, but there is also an unplanned informal and hidden one that must be considered ‰ (p. 5). The planned, formal curriculum focuses on goals, objectives, subject matter, and organisation of instruction. The unplanned, informal curriculum deals with socio-psychological interaction among students, teachers, and administrators, especially regarding their feelings, attitudes, and behaviours. Suppose we only consider the planned curriculum as the official curriculum stated in a written document. In that case, we ignore the planned curriculumÊs numerous positive and negative consequences. Often, we fail to realise the power of the hidden curriculum, which may not be written but will certainly be learned by students. For example, they learn even without being formally taught: about „the rules of the game‰ in the school canteen, playground, corridors of the school and so forth; the specific relationships between senior and junior students, between male and female students, cliques of students; how an order is created and maintained in the classroom, the way individual teachers interpret the behaviour of students; and the way teachers and principals or headteachers have different expectations of students based on interpretations of behaviour in class. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 9 The hidden curriculum involves learning. This curriculum includes how to respond to and cope with authority. It also teaches students how to get on with others, pass the time, deal with boredom, establish priorities, and conform to teachersÊ and peersÊ expectations. SELF-CHECK 1.2 1. What is the hidden curriculum? 2. Why is the hidden curriculum important in education? ACTIVITY 1.2 Give examples of the hidden curriculum other than those stated in the text. Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 10 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 1.3 CURRICULUM APPROACHES Suppose you examine the definitions provided by experts in the field. In that case, there are three ways of approaching a curriculum (refer to Figure 1.4). Figure 1.4: Approaches to Curriculum The first is approaching it as content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. The second is approaching it as a product or the desired learning outcomes. The third is approaching it as a process or what happens in the classroom when the curriculum is practised. 1.3.1 Curriculum as Content It is common for people to equate a curriculum with the syllabus, which is a concise document listing the topics of a subject. You will be familiar with such documents if you have experience preparing students for national examinations. What do they contain? It is a list of topics, concepts to be mastered, and suggestions on how the topics are taught. For example, a primary school mathematics curriculum will consist of topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and so forth. A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of the topics or the order in which they are to be studied. But, there is a tendency for teachers to follow the sequence prescribed in the syllabus. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 11 In most cases, teachers follow the logical structure of selected textbooks because the textbooks have been written to match the syllabus closely, for example, in geography subjects in secondary school. The subjects involve the study of countries or regions. The textbooks begin with physical geographies, such as relief, climate and vegetation, followed by economic activities, such as agriculture, mining, industries, urbanisation, etc. Suppose one adopts the content approach to a curriculum. In that case, the focus will be on the syllabus, and the body of knowledge to be transmitted or „delivered‰ to students using appropriate teaching methods. When curriculum is equated with content, there is the likelihood of limiting instruction to acquiring facts, concepts, and principles of the subject matter transmitted. SELF-CHECK 1.3 1. What do you mean when curriculum is approached as content ? 2. Why is it a common approach of viewing curriculum? 1.3.2 Curriculum as Product Besides viewing curriculum as content to be transmitted, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words, what is desired of students having been taught using a curriculum? Bobbitt (2013), in his book The Curriculum, stated that: Human life, however varied, consists of the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they may be for any social class, they can be discovered. This aim requires only one to go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of their affairs. Further, it will show the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the objectives of the curriculum. They will be numerous, definite and particularised. The curriculum will then be that series of experiences that children and youth must have by way of obtaining those objectives (p. 42). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 12 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? According to Bobbitt (2013), education should prepare people for life with detailed attention to what people need to know to work and live. Go out into the world and see for yourselves what society needs „the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men [women] need‰. The curriculum should not result from armchair speculation but from a systematic study of society. The product of the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently. Ralph Tyler (1949) shares BobbittÊs approach to curriculum. He said that the real purpose of education is to bring about significant changes in studentsÊ patterns of behaviour. We will examine TylerÊs view in more detail in Topic 5. Any statement of objectives of the school must be a statement of changes to take place in the students. This way of approaching curriculum is attractive because it is systematic and has considerable organising power. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives, which provide a clear notion of outcomes or desired products so that content and teaching methods may be organised and the results evaluated. When learning, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller units „numerous, definite and particularise ⁄ series of experiences which children and youth must have ‰ (Bobbitt, 2013). As many of you will have experienced, the result can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. These skills can lead you to focus on the parts rather than the whole. It focuses on the trivial rather than the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment, which resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed the course or has learned something. The role of overall judgment is somehow sidelined. SELF-CHECK 1.4 1. How is curriculum as a product different from the curriculum as content? 2. According to Bobbitt (2013), what should be the overall purpose of a curriculum? 3. How are these objectives to be derived? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 13 ACTIVITY 1.3 Criticisms of the „Curriculum as Product‰ Approach There are a number of disagreements with the curriculum as product approach. The first is that the curriculum can become too technical and sequential. The tendency is for the curriculum to exist prior to and outside the learning experiences which takes much away from learners and end up with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how they will do it. The success or failure of a curriculum is judged on the basis of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour of learners. If the curriculum is closely followed it might limit creativity and turn educators into technicians. Also, since the approach emphasises measurability, it implies that behaviour can be objectively and mechanistically measured. There are obvious dangers here; there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being measured. It is often very difficult to judge what the impact of particular experiences has been. Sometimes years after the event, only then will we come to appreciate what has happened. Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000). Curriculum theory and practice, The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm (a) To what extent do you agree with the criticisms of the curriculum as product approach? (b) What are some advantages of this approach? Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 14 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 1.3.3 Curriculum as Process We have seen that the curriculum as content approach emphasises the content to be transmitted. In contrast, the curriculum as a product approach focuses on setting instructional or behavioural objectives. Another way of looking at curriculum is via a process. Here, the curriculum is not seen as physical but rather as the interaction of teachers, students, and knowledge. It is what happens in the classroom, such as the questions asked by the teacher, the learning activities students engage in and so forth. It is an active process emphasising the context in which the processes occur. Stenhouse (1975) used the analogy of a recipe in a cookbook which teachers translate into practice in the classroom. Like a recipe, it can be varied according to taste; so can a curriculum. According to the process, the approach curriculum is seen as a scheme for the practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a content syllabus to be covered. The classroom can be regarded as a laboratory, where the teacher is like a „scientist‰ who tests the ideas stated in the curriculum. The teacher translates an educational idea into a hypothesis tested in the classroom. It involves critical testing rather than acceptance. The focus is on finding out those processes which enhance (if it is successful) or hinder (if it goes wrong) a personÊs learning. So, the curriculum is not a finished product but rather the proposed educational ideas teachers must verify in the classroom. This approach differs from the product approach. The desired pre-determined behaviours have been fixed and applied to all learners. You may not know what you will get. It might be different from the specified curriculum document. Forrest Life is like a box of chocolates. You never know what you’re Gump going to get. A process approach to curriculum theory and practice, as argued by Grundy (1987), tends towards making the learning process the teacherÊs central concern, emphasising thinking and meaning-making. The process approach to curriculum treats the learners as humans, not as objects. They have a say in what is going on in the teaching-learning session. The focus is on interaction, and attention shifts from teaching to learning. On the other hand, the product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme, tends to direct attention to teaching. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 15 1.4 FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Debate is continuing as to the definition of curriculum. Imagine what would have happened if we had to wait for an agreed-upon definition of curriculum. Despite this lack of consensus, it has not hindered institutions, school districts, states, and nations from continually developing and improving curriculum in schools, colleges, universities, and training organisations. The design and development of the curriculum is a team effort involving curriculum planners, curriculum developers, teachers, academicians, education officers, administrators, community members and many others. They decide the goals of the curriculum, what content to include and how it should be organised. In addition to these, they suggest how it should be taught and determine whether the efforts have been successful. To help them make these decisions, they have turned to philosophy, psychology, sociology, and history. These foundations have been accepted as the basis of a curriculum. We shall discuss the influence of these disciplines in detail in Topics 2, 3 and 4, respectively. These disciplines have produced a vast amount of knowledge that provides guidelines for people interested in developing curriculums. For example, philosophy has evolved numerous beliefs about how people should be educated and what knowledge is worthwhile. These beliefs have provided curriculum developers with guidelines on how they should go about designing a curriculum. From psychology, various perspectives on how humans learn have been proposed. This knowledge is of great significance, whereby a curriculum is a plan that helps individuals to learn. Research provides insight into how learning can occur at different stages. The curriculum developers decide how a body of content is taught. Courses such as sociology, economics, culture, and politics provide knowledge for society. A curriculum is a reflection of the societal values and beliefs it serves. It is usually a response to what society wants and desires. The community plays an important role in influencing what is taught in the classroom. Finally, many curriculum plans have evolved from earlier times, and curriculum developers refer to historical events to better understand the decisions made at different times. Refer to the newspaper headlines at the topicÊs beginning. The headlines provide a better understanding of curriculum development efforts. We will examine the curriculum of early America and Japan in Topic 4 to understand how and why curriculum changes with the evolution of society. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 16 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? ACTIVITY 1.4 Problems with the „Curriculum as a Process Approach‰ Teachers who want uniformity in what is taught will find this approach problematic because the focus is on the learner. So, there will be different content and delivery methods to cater to individual needs. Examinations would be difficult to conduct because learners would learn different things at different paces. It would not be fair to have one examination as you might not be assessing the real ability of a learner. Examinations do not pay attention to the context in which learning takes place, so some students might be disadvantaged. Teachers implementing a curriculum using the process approach must believe that learning is the making of meaning and the construction of knowledge. If teachers are not convinced this should be the aim of education, then the process approach will not succeed. (a) To what extent do you agree with the problems with the „curriculum as a process approach‰? (b) Do you think the curriculum as a process approach would be easier to implement if there were no centralised or national examinations? Why? (c) What is the main difference between the curriculum as a product and curriculum as a process approach? Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 17 1.5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Curriculum development is a process involving many different people and procedures. Thus, it is usually linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases: curriculum planning, design, implementation, and evaluation. We will discuss each phase in detail in Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8. If you were to specialise in curriculum, each of these phases would be taught as a separate course. The process phases provide us with guideposts and structure to clarify our thinking. The phases can be graphically or pictorially illustrated and are conceived in technical terms – assuming that one must know the process to appreciate and understand it fully. DonÊt worry! By the end of Topic 8, you will fully recognise the technical terms associated with each of these phases of curriculum development. Many curriculum development models have been proposed. Generally, most models involve four phases (refer to Table 1.2). Table 1.2: Phases in Curriculum Development Model Phase Description Curriculum It involves decisions about the philosophy of education and the planning aims of education. After deciding on the philosophical beliefs, curriculum goals and objectives are derived and later translated into the classroom as desired learning outcomes for the students. Curriculum It refers to the way curriculum is conceptualised and involves the design selection and organisation of content and the selection and organisation of learning experiences or activities. Among the issues that must be resolved is deciding „what knowledge is of most worth‰ and „how the content should be organised to maximise learning.‰ Curriculum It happens in a classroom setting. It involves getting people to implementation practise the ideas in the curriculum and providing them with the necessary resources, training, and encouragement. Curriculum Determining the extent to which the efforts in implementing evaluation the ideas of the curriculum have been successful. It involves identifying factors that have hindered implementation and success stories; and, most importantly, whether students have benefited from the programme. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 18 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 1.6 CURRICULUM AS A DISCIPLINE Can curriculum be considered a discipline like sociology, economics, biology or political science? Graduate students have taken courses in curriculum planning, evaluation, primary school curriculum, and so forth in various universities. Many graduate schools offer doctoral curriculum and instruction specialisation, better known as „C&I‰. To decide whether an area of study is a discipline, one must first ask, „What are the characteristics of a discipline?‰ If we know the characteristics of a discipline, then maybe we can decide if „curriculum‰ is a discipline. According to Oliva and Gordon (2012), a discipline has the following characteristics: A discipline should have an organised set of theoretical principles. A discipline encompasses a body of knowledge and skills pertinent to that discipline. A discipline has its theoreticians and its practitioners. The field of curriculum has its own set of principles. For example, the term „curriculum" itself describes very complex ideas. In curriculum planning, principles include educational philosophy, curriculum goals, and learning objectives. They are applied in developing school programmes, universities, and training centres. In curriculum design, the principles of scope, sequence and balance are used to organise the content taught. The field of curriculum has also its own body of knowledge and skills. However, much of it has been borrowed from several pure disciplines. For example, in selecting content (What to teach?), the curriculum has relied on the principles, knowledge, and skills from psychology, philosophy, and sociology. The curriculum has drawn from management and organisational theory in content organisation. In implementing the curriculum, various ideas from systems theory, organisational behaviour, and communication theory have been used to enhance its effectiveness. For example, research in organisational behaviour has been used to bring about change among teachers, educational administrators, and the community. Has the field of curriculum its own body of knowledge and skills? Applying the ideas drawn from the different disciplines and through experimentation has generated its own body of knowledge and skills, or at least, new interpretations of principles as applied in the educational setting. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 19 Additionally, the field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and practitioners. They include curriculum planners, curriculum developers, and so forth, who are termed, curriculum specialists. These specialists are well-versed in areas relating to the curriculum. They include the history and origin of a curriculum (to know of earlier successes or failures), curriculum planning and how a particular curriculum is to be implemented in schools successfully. The specialist is well-informed about how students learn, how teachers react to change and obstacles to improvement. Perhaps, after completing this course, you might be more convinced that the curriculum meets the requirement of a discipline, or maybe not! The curriculum specialist generates new knowledge by recombining existing programmes, adopting new approaches and constructing a new curriculum. SELF-CHECK 1.5 1. Why do curriculum developers rely on the knowledge and skills of other disciplines? 2. How would you justify the field of curriculum to be a discipline? 1.7 CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION Now that you have an idea of a curriculum, what is the relationship between curriculum and instruction? Simply put, the curriculum is what is to be taught, while instruction is how it is taught. Hence, in a way curriculum and instruction can be viewed as a partnership. We may think of the curriculum as a plan stipulating the content to be taught and the learning experiences to be included. Instruction may be considered a methodology, the teaching act, and achievement assessment. In other words, it is putting into practice what has been planned. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 20 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? Oliva and Gordon (2012) described curriculum and instruction as two entities. You could have a situation in which the two entities are apart, called the dualistic model (refer to Figure 1.5). Figure 1.5: Dualistic Model Source: Oliva & Gordon (2012) What occurs in the classroom under the teacherÊs direction has little relationship to what is stated in the curriculum plan. Planners ignore what teachers are doing and vice versa. The curriculum or the instructional process may change without affecting one another. This separation will cause serious harm to each other. On other occasions, curriculum and instruction are mutually interdependent, as shown in the concentric model (refer to Figure 1.6). Figure 1.6: Concentric Model Source: Oliva & Gordon (2012) In this model, curriculum assumes the superordinate position while instruction is subordinate; that is, instruction is a subsystem of a curriculum that is a subsystem of the whole education system. This model implies a hierarchical system, with curriculum dominating instruction. Instruction is not a separate entity but a dependent portion of the curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 21 In other situations, curriculum and instruction may be separate entities with a continuing circular relationship, called the circular model (refer to Figure 1.7). Figure 1.7: Circular Model Source: Oliva & Gordon (2012) The curriculum makes a continuous impact on instruction, and similarly, instruction impacts on curriculum. This model assumes that instructional decisions are made after curriculum decisions are made. But, these curriculum decisions are later modified when implemented and evaluated in the classroom. This process is continuous, repeated, and never-ending. Of all the models, the cyclical model seems the best alternative as it emphasises the need for a close working relationship between implementers and planners. Though curriculum and instruction may be different entities, they are interdependent and cannot function in isolation. It is impossible to plan everything that happens in the classroom in the curriculum document. It should be accepted that what is planned on paper may not work in real-life because the numerous factors operating in the classroom are impossible to pre-determine. The constant feedback from the classroom as to what works and what does not work has to be recycled to curriculum developers so necessary adjustments and modifications can be made to the curriculum plan. This process may explain the need for pilot testing a curriculum before it is widely implemented. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 22 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? ACTIVITY 1.5 1. Write down your definition of curriculum. (a) What does your definition of curriculum include? Does it includes a process? A product? Materials for teaching? An approach to education, and methods of instruction that fosters certain values and attitudes? (b) Compare your definition with the definitions given by scholars in the field. How similar or different is it to yours? 2. „The curriculum on paper and the curriculum in action‰. What do you understand by this statement? 3. „The curriculum is too examination-oriented, and children are deprived of their childhood‰. Do you agree with this statement? Justify. 4. „An over-loaded curriculum is a concern of many teachers. Increasingly, teachers feel that there is not enough time to cover all the traditional material being put into the curriculum‰. (a) To what extent do you agree? (b) Suggest solutions to overcome the problem. Discuss these with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 23 A curriculum is a statement of what students should know, and be able to do, how it is taught, measured, and how the educational system is organised. Curriculum can be approached as content (knowledge, skills, and values), product (desired learning outcomes) and process (interactions in the classroom). Curriculum development is a process involving planning, designing, implementation, and evaluation. Curriculum can be considered a discipline because it has an organised set of theoretical principles, including a body of knowledge and skills, and has theoreticians and practitioners. The relationship between curriculum and instruction is interdependent, continuous, repeated, and never-ending. Concentric model Cyclical model Curriculum Dualistic model Curriculum and instruction Hidden curriculum Curriculum development Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 24 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? Bobbitt, F. (2013). Scientific method in curriculum-making. In: D. J. Flinders & S. J. Thornton (Eds.), Curriculum Studies Reader (4th ed.), pp. 11–18. RoutledgeFalmer. Cornbleth, C. (1990). Curriculum in context. Falmer Press. Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: Product or praxis? Falmer Press. Jackson, P. W. (1968). Life in classrooms. Teachers College Press. Oliva, P. F., & Gordon II, W. R. (2012). Developing the curriculum. Pearson Higher Education. Ornstein, A. C. (1987). The field of curriculum: What approach? What definition? The High School Journal, 70(4), 208–216. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundation, principles, and issues. Pearson Education. Stenhouse, L. (1975). Defining the curriculum problem. Cambridge Journal of Education, 5(2), 104–108. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  Philosophical Topic 2 Foundations of Curriculum By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Define philosophy. 2. Define educational philosophy. 3. Compare the philosophical beliefs of perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism. 4. Explain the influence of the four educational philosophies on curriculum. 5. List the main features of the educational philosophies of Farabi, Confucius, and Tagore. 6. Discuss the implications of the philosophies of Farabi, Confucius, and Tagore on curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 26 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM A curriculum is developed based on certain beliefs and orientations, conceptions of learning, and the demands of society. In Topic 1, we discussed the different definitions of curriculum. We also briefly discussed the foundations of curriculum, the curriculum development process, and the relationship between curriculum and instruction. In this topic and the following two topics, we will examine the foundations of the curriculum in greater detail. In other words, how different traditional disciplines have influenced curriculum. This topic will focus on the philosophical beliefs that influence curriculum. In Topic 3, we will focus on the psychological perspectives that impact the curriculum. In Topic 4, we will discuss the role of society in determining what is to be included in a curriculum, as well as the legacy of significant historical events. ACTIVITY 2.1 Consult Private Sector on Curriculum Kuala Lumpur, Sat – The Prime Minister wants education officials to consult the private sector when drawing curriculum for secondary and tertiary level education to produce the right people for the job market. Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi said that private sectorÊs manpower needs and future trends would allow adjustments to be made to the current curriculum. The curriculum must see that those entering the work market after completing their secondary education, diploma or degree courses are equipped with knowledge that is useful to the nature of their jobs, he added. „Consultation to get views of the private sector should be for Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia-level and onwards (Year 11 onwards). This approach is important because of the rapid and dynamic industrial development taking shape. We cannot run away from supplying a workforce needed by industries for nation building‰. Abdullah said after opening the two-day second Malay Education Congress today. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 27 Read the newspaper report on Consult Private Sector on Curriculum. (a) What do you understand by the phrase „equipped with knowledge that is useful to the nature of their jobs‰? Give specific examples. (b) „We cannot run away from supplying a workforce needed by industries for nation-building ‰. To what extent do you agree that this should be the role and function of schools and universities? Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 2.1 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? LetÊs begin with philosophy. The word philosophy is a combination of the Greek words „philos‰ (love) and „sophia‰ (wisdom), which translated means „love of wisdom.‰ Philosophers seek wisdom and are curious about the world, seeking to understand the nature of things. Philosophers study the works of other philosophers and state anew what others have put forward and propose new philosophies. The result of philosophy is often not so much putting forward new philosophies or propositions but making existing philosophies or propositions clearer. A philosopher can know philosophy even though they engage in little or no philosophising. Philosophy also refers to the collective works of other philosophers. It can mean the academic exploration of various questions raised by philosophers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 28 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM For centuries philosophers have been interested in such concepts as morality, goodness, knowledge, truth, beauty, and our very existence. Among the questions philosophers ask are (refer to Figure 2.1): Figure 2.1: Common Questions from Philosophers Philosophers use certain methods of inquiry. They often frame their questions as problems or puzzles about interesting and confusing subjects. Popularly, the word philosophy may also refer to someoneÊs perspective on life (philosophy of life) or the underlying principles or methods of achieving something. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 29 2.2 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION Now, letÊs examine a branch of philosophy: the philosophy of education. What is the philosophy of education? Philosophy of education studies questions such as: What is education? What is the purpose of education? What does it mean to know something? What is the relationship between education and society? The philosophy of education recognises that the development of civil society depends on education. Hence, it will make them become responsible, thoughtful, and enterprising citizens. In addition, it develops them to be ethical and moral, with aesthetic values. Further, it makes them more mature in politics, and economics, can face challenges, and know who they are. Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 2,000 years were not philosophers of education but have, at some point, considered and written on the philosophy of education. Among them are Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Dewey, Adler, Confucius, Al-Farabi, and Tagore. These philosophers have been critical voices in the philosophy of education. They have contributed to our basic understanding of what education is and can be. They have also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the problems in education. We will discuss their contributions to education later in the topic. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 30 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 2.3 PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM What is the connection between philosophy and curriculum? For example, when you propose teaching a particular body of knowledge, course or subject, you will be asked, „What is your philosophy for introducing that content?‰ If you cannot answer the question, you may be unable to convince others to accept your proposal. Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision-making and is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum. Philosophy becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation, and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom. It provides the answers for „What subjects are of value?‰ and „How should students learn the content?‰ It also helps us to answer more precise tasks. For example, when it comes to choosing textbooks, giving homework, deciding the number of tasks, assessment, and using the results. „In modern times, there are opposing views about the practice of education. There is no general agreement about what the young should learn either in relation to virtue or to the best life; nor is it clear whether their education ought to be directed more towards the intellect than the character of the soul. And it is not certain whether training should be directed at things useful in life, those conducive to virtue, or non-essentials. And there is no agreement as to what does tend towards virtue. Men do not all prize the same virtue. So naturally, they differ also about the proper training for it.‰ Would you believe that the above statement was written more than 2,000 years ago by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and we are still debating the same issues today? Sometimes one wonders whether we know what we want! We lament studentsÊ poor basic skills and call for a return to the basics. At the same time, we want students to develop critical thinking skills and call for lesser emphasis on rote learning. Throughout the centuries, many philosophies of education have emerged, each with his or her own beliefs about education. This topic discusses four Western philosophies: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism. Also discussed are the viewpoints of three Eastern philosophers: al-Farabi, Tagore, and Confucius. These educational philosophies are examined to see the proposed curriculum and how teaching and learning should be conducted. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 31 SELF-CHECK 2.1 What do philosophers do? ACTIVITY 2.2 1. List the concept of philosophers that interest you. 2. What is philosophy of education? How is it related to the curriculum of a school system? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 2.4 PERENNIALISM In this subtopic, we will learn the definition of perennialism and the description of perennialist curriculum. 2.4.1 What is Perennialism? Perennial means „everlasting,‰ like a perennial flower that blooms year after year. Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy, is rooted in the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle. Two modern-day proponents of perennialism are Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The perennialists believed that humans are rational and that education aims „to improve man as man‰ Hutchins (1953, cited in Cole, 1976). The answers to all educational questions are derived from the answer to one question: What is human nature? According to them, human nature is constant, and humans can understand natureÊs universal truths. Thus, education aims to develop the rational person and uncover universal truths by training the intellect. Character education should be emphasised to develop oneÊs moral and spiritual being. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 32 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas had lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should be studied in school. A list of the „Great Books‰ was proposed covering literature, art, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, science, economics, politics and so forth. Examples of such books are (refer to Figure 2.2): Figure 2.2: Examples of Great Books The book selected had to have contemporary significance; that is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times. The book should espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals in the last 2,000 years. The book should attract people to read it again and again, and benefit from it. The perennialists believed that these are historyÊs finest thinkers and writers. Their ideas are profound and meaningful even today, as when they were written. Students who study these profound and enduring ideas will appreciate learning for its own sake and develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 33 2.4.2 The Perennialist Curriculum Based on the beliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had the following characteristics: The „Great Books‰ programme or more commonly called the liberal arts, will discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. To read the book in its original language, students must learn Latin and Greek. Students also had to learn grammar, rhetoric, logic, advanced mathematics and philosophy (Hutchins, 1936 cited in Cole, 1976). The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum. This curriculum wanted students to discover the most insightful and timeless ideas for understanding the human condition. At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982), in his book the Paideia Proposal, recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum for all students. The educationally disadvantaged had to spend some time in preschools. Perennialists were not keen on allowing students to take electives (except second languages) such as vocational and life-adjustment subjects. They argued that these subjects denied students the opportunity to develop their rational powers fully. The perennialists criticised the vast amount of disjointed factual information educators have required students to absorb. They urge teachers to spend more time teaching concepts and explaining how they are meaningful to students. Since an enormous amount of scientific knowledge has been produced, teaching should focus on the processes by which scientific truths have been discovered. However, the perennialists advise that students should not be taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be incorrect because of future scientific and technological findings. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 34 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against relying on textbooks and lectures to communicate ideas. They can engage in dialogue and mutual inquiry sessions to enhance their understanding of ideas and concepts that have stood the test of time. Emphasis should be on teacher-guided seminars. A student should learn to learn and not be evaluated. Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but to pursue knowledge for its own sake. „University students may learn a few trees, perennialists claim, but many will be quite ignorant about the forests: the timeless philosophical questions‰ (Hutchins, 1936). Teaching reasoning using the „Great Books‰ of Western writers is advocated using the Socratic method to discipline studentsÊ minds. Emphasis should be on scientific reasoning rather than mere acquisition of facts. Teach science but not technology, great ideas rather than vocational topics. Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any society at any time. Thus, the books are appropriate for American society. Students must learn to recognise controversy and disagreement in these books because they reflect real personal disagreements. Students must think about the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion. Schools should teach religious values or ethics. The difference between right and wrong should be emphasised, so that students have definite rules they must follow. SELF-CHECK 2.2 1. Identify the main features of the perennialist curriculum. 2. According to perennialism, what should be emphasised in the classroom? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 35 ACTIVITY 2.3 The Great Books The Great Books refer to a curriculum and a book list that came about as the result of a discussion among American academics and educators, starting in the 1920s and 1930s. It was initiated by John Erskine on how to improve higher education by returning to the western liberal arts tradition of broad cross-disciplinary learning. Notable among the academics and educators were Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. They felt that the emphasis on narrow specialisation in American universities and colleges had harmed the quality of higher education by failing to expose students to the important products of Western civilisation and thought. The Great Books started out as a list of 100 essential texts which were selected based on the criteria that it had relevance to present problems and issues and it is relevant to a large number of the great ideas and great issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals. The Great Books covered fiction, history, poetry, natural science, mathematics, philosophy, drama, politics, religion, economics, and ethics. Examples of the books are: HomerÊs The Iliad and The Odyssey Works of Aristotle and Plato Archimedes Measurement of a Circle, On Spirals, Treating Mechanical Problems ChaucerÊs Canterbury Tales Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 36 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM ShakespeareÊs complete works Descartes The Geometry Karl MarxÊs Das Kapital Leo TolstoyÊs War and Peace William JamesÊ The Principle of Psychology The Great Books was criticised as being elitist and giving importance to „dead white males,‰ while ignoring the contributions of females and minorities (such as Afro-Americans). Another destructive criticism was that the books were more to create the illusion of being cultured without any real substance behind them. Source: Great Books of the Western World. Available at http://www.answers.com (a) What other books from the list of The Great Books do you know? (b) What were the main arguments put forward by the perennialists for using The Great Books? (c) Do you agree with the criticisms of The Great Books? Justify. Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 37 2.5 ESSENTIALISM In this subtopic, we will learn the definition of essentialism and the description of essentialist curriculum. 2.5.1 What is Essentialism? Essentialism comes from the word „essential‰, which means the main things or the basics. Essentialism is an educational philosophy. It was originally popularised in the 1930s by William Bagley and later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Rickover. As an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling in students the „essentials‰ or „basics‰ of academic knowledge and character development. When it was first introduced as an educational philosophy in American schools, it was criticised as too rigid. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik, which caused panic in educational circles as Americans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of education followed that led to an interest in essentialism. Essentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools should not try to reshape society radically. Rather, they should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers should instil traditional virtues such as respect for authority, fidelity to duty, consideration for others, and practicality. Essentialism places importance on science and understanding the world through scientific experimentation. To convey important knowledge about the world, essentialist educators emphasised instruction in natural science rather than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or comparative religion. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 38 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum Based on the beliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the following characteristics: The „basics‰ of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature. Essentialists disapprove of vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with „watered down‰ academic content. Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading, and measurement. They are gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. While learning art and music (subjects most often associated with the development of creativity), students are also required to master information and basic techniques. Students are promoted to the next higher grade by mastering the required material for their grade level. Essentialist programmes are academically rigorous for slow and fast learners – common subjects for all students regardless of their abilities and interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to the studentÊs ability. It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year and more challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be oriented around the teacher, who serves as the studentsÊ intellectual and moral role models. Teaching is teacher-centred, and teachers decide what is most important for students to learn with little emphasis on student interests. Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores to evaluate progress. This method will divert the students time and attention from learning the academic subjects. In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be „culturally literate,‰ to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists hope students will possess basic skills, extensive knowledge, discipline, and practical minds when they leave school. The students should then be capable of applying their knowledge in real-world settings. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 39 Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students learn to respect authority in both school and society. Teachers must be mature and well-educated, know their subjects well, and transmit their knowledge to students. SELF-CHECK 2.3 1. What are the THREE main features of the essentialist classroom? 2. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of an essentialist curriculum. 2.6 PROGRESSIVISM In this subtopic, we will learn the definition of progressivism and the description of progressive curriculum. 2.6.1 What is Progressivism? Progressivism is a philosophical belief that education must be based on the fact that humans are social beings and learn best in real-life activities with other people. John Dewey (1859–1952) was the most responsible for progressivism. Dewey wrote extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of knowledge), ethics and democracy. However, his philosophy of education laid the foundation for progressivism. In 1896, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School to test his educational ideas. His writings and work with the Laboratory School set the stage for the progressive education movement. The progressive movement stimulated American schools to broaden their curriculum, making education more relevant to the needs and interests of students. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 40 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit societyÊs identity by preparing young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate of democracy; for it to flourish, he felt that education should allow learners to realise their interests and potential. According to him, certain abilities and skills can only be learned in a group. Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation separates the mind from the action. Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial barriers of race and class by encouraging communication between various social groups (Dewey, 1920). He described education as a process of growth and experimentation in which thought and reason are applied to solve problems. Children should learn as if they were scientists using the scientific method proposed by Dewey (1920, cited in Thorburn, 2020) (refer to Figure 2.3): Figure 2.3: Scientific Method Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 41 Students should constantly experiment and solve problems, reconstructing their experiences and creating new knowledge using the proposed five steps. Teachers should not only emphasise drills and practice. Still, they should expose learners to activities that relate to studentsÊ real-life situations, emphasising „learning by doing‰. 2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum Based on the beliefs of progressivism, the curriculum proposed had the following characteristics: Progressivists emphasise the study of natural and social sciences. A teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological, and social developments. Learning should be related to present community life to expand learnersÊ personal experience. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should centre on the studentsÊ experiences, interests, and abilities. Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher-order thinking and knowledge construction. For example, in addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by making field trips to interact with nature and society. Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view. Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time. In fact, they should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects. Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognises the accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background, and gender. By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the home, workplace, and schoolhouse should blend to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience. It is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday become a thing of the past. Students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside school. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 42 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM SELF-CHECK 2.4 1. What are the main arguments of the progressive movement? 2. List some of the main features of the progressive curriculum. 3. What are the main differences between progressive curriculum and essentialist curriculum? 2.7 RECONSTRUCTIONISM In this subtopic, we will learn the definition of reconstructionism and the description of reconstructionist curriculum. 2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism? Reconstructionism was a philosophy uniquely popular in the US during the 1930s through the 1960s. It was largely the brainchild of Theodore Brameld from Columbia Teachers College. He began as a communist but shifted to reconstructionism. Reconstructionism is a philosophy that believes in the rebuilding of social and cultural infrastructures. Reconstructionists favour reform and argue that students must be taught how to bring about change. Students are to study social problems and think of ways to improve society. Another proponent of reconstructionism was George Counts (1932). A speech titled Dare the School Build a New Social Order suggested that schools become the agents of social change and reform. Students cannot afford to be neutral but must take a position. Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity, and differences in socioeconomic status. Related to reconstructionism is another belief called critical pedagogy. It is primarily a teaching and curriculum theory designed by Henry Giroux and McLaren (1986), focusing on using revolutionary literature in classrooms aimed at „liberation.‰ Radical in its concep