How Students Learn Notes PDF

Nature of Scientific Knowledge and Scientific Inquiry - Science is a multifaceted concept, with varied interpretations and conceptualisations. - Scientific knowledge is considered a body of concepts, laws, and theories. - Scientific inquiry involves the processes of developing knowl...

Nature of Scientific Knowledge and Scientific Inquiry - Science is a multifaceted concept, with varied interpretations and conceptualisations. - Scientific knowledge is considered a body of concepts, laws, and theories. - Scientific inquiry involves the processes of developing knowledge. - Scientific knowledge is empirically based, involves human creativity, is subjective, and is subject to change. - Scientific literacy is the goal of science education; it\'s the ability to use scientific knowledge for informed decisions. - STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) is an integrated approach to education; combining these subjects for a better learning experience. - Scientific inquiry has various forms or process, including descriptive, correlational, and experimental methods; each with its own characteristics - Science is not just about the facts, it\'s about the processes, values, and societal context. - Scientific knowledge is always evolving; it changes as new evidence and perspectives emerge. - Nature of scientific knowledge (NOSK) and scientific inquiry (SI) should be addressed in science education. - Different STEM disciplines have separate conventions for what constitutes knowledge. - STEM is an interdisciplinary approach that needs appropriate teacher training and curriculum development. - Scientific inquiry encompasses the process of investigations, data collection, and drawing conclusions, not a uniform method. - Current reforms (e.g., NGSS) emphasize science practices. - Scientific literacy isn\'t just about knowing facts; it\'s about using knowledge to make informed decisions, considering the nature of science and societal factors. - There are differing views on the exact definition of scientific literacy, and different ways to convey this concept. - How science knowledge is developed, and the factors that lead to its change are important for developing scientific literacy. Chapter 2: The Nature of Technology - Technology encompasses both tools and the systematic processes used to solve problems. - Technology is used in various fields, such as biology (vaccine development), engineering (structural design), and mathematics (calculations and modeling). - The nature of technology is crucial in today\'s society for problem-solving and innovation in science, engineering, and mathematics. - Different perspectives exist on the meaning of technology due to varied experiences and cultural backgrounds - Perspectives include its practical applications, theoretical role in society. Definitions of Technology - Technology has multiple and nuanced meanings, reflecting its historical evolution - Technology can be viewed as processes for solving problems. - Technology can be considered as tools that facilitate complex calculations and modeling. - Technology is shaped by the historical development of its use. - Technology profoundly impacts daily life, shaping human interaction, culture, and values. Technology in Education - Research examines varying perceptions on technology. - Common perceptions of technology include tools, artifacts, and applications of theoretical knowledge - Systemic concepts of technology emphasize the relationship between technology and societal, economic, and cultural contexts. - Technology views are often influenced by sociocultural factors. - Many researchers have investigated the understanding of technology within different educational contexts across various levels. - Technology is viewed as an instrument or a tool by students and teachers. - Technology is seldom recognized for the human and historical impacts on society. Standards Movement in Technology Education - Technology education standards are often focused on the application and use of technology rather than its philosophical underpinnings. - Standards typically emphasize the practical application of technology rather than studying its nature. - There is a dearth of explicit standards regarding the nature of technology in contrast to the standards for science concepts. - Technology is not always viewed as a core subject area in many schools. Further Points - The rapid advancement of technology presents challenges in defining it. - Definitions often emphasize practical applications, potentially overlooking deeper philosophical issues - The application of technology across multiple disciplines is frequently overlooked. - Technology is seen as playing a crucial, albeit sometimes overlooked role in STEM fields. - It can be used as a tool to solve problems but can create new problems if not approached correctly. Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) - NGSS emphasized engineering as a discipline, elevating its status in science classrooms. - Engineering encompasses knowledge, practices, and a unique way of knowing (nature of engineering). - This parallels with the nature of science (NOS), a well-established research area. - Understanding NOS (nature of science) is crucial for scientific literacy. - NOE (nature of engineering) is an essential component of STEM literacy. Nature of Engineering (NOE) in K-12 Education - There\'s no universally agreed-upon list of NOE aspects for K-12 education, unlike NOS. - NOE aspects include solutions being tentative, requiring creativity, employing various disciplines. - NOE includes considerations of ethical and social dimensions. - NOE emphasizes decision-making based on criteria and constraints. - Solutions are not singular; multiple solutions exist. - NOE considerations involve iterative design and learning from failure. - Engineering is a collaborative, socially embedded activity. Teaching NOE - Explicit-reflective instruction is vital to foster understanding of NOE. - Teachers can use various materials, like picture books, to illustrate NOE concepts during design activities. - Linking NOE to design phases aids understanding. - Valid and reliable instruments for assessing NOE are still needed. - Research on NOE is in its infancy, needing more focused study and more instruments. Chapter 4: The Nature of Mathematics and Its Impact on K-12 Education - Mathematics is a subject of debate and controversy, both among mathematicians and the general public. - The content of mathematics is accepted as a crucial component of K-12 education, however, the nature of mathematics taught is not well defined. - Student experiences with learning mathematical concepts vary significantly impacting their understanding and perception of the subject. - Students often perceive mathematics as a set of rules and numbers, while mathematicians tend to see it as a study of patterns. - Pure mathematics focuses on the subject itself, whereas applied mathematics seeks real-world applications. - Absolutist views consider mathematical knowledge as certain and unchallengeable, emphasizing concepts as having always existed and simply being discovered. - Fallibilist views contend that mathematical knowledge is a human construct, subject to potential falsifiability, and influenced by cultural factors. - The traditional method of teaching mathematics often emphasizes procedural knowledge without allowing for creative problem-solving. - Creative problem-solving is a critical component of mathematics and should be promoted in education. - Traditional mathematics education may limit opportunities for students\' problem-solving abilities. - Mathematical understanding is often better developed through problem-solving that encourages students to develop their own reasoning. - Current mathematics education should reflect the tentative nature of mathematical knowledge which is characterized by assumptions, testing and potential revision as in proof. - Students should learn about the context-dependency, subjectivity and continual discovery inherent in mathematics. Philosophical Underpinnings - Absolutist perspective views mathematics as a fixed set of rules and procedures. - Fallibilist perspective views mathematics as ever-evolving and tentative. - The nature of mathematics is taught differently based on the philosophy behind the approach. - Teachers\' philosophical viewpoints affect the strategies employed for teaching mathematics. What K-12 Students Should Know About the Nature of Mathematics - Students should understand mathematics as a way of reasoning by using procedures and practices. - The processes include problem-solving, reasoning, communication, connections and representations. - Curriculum documents in various countries emphasize these skills. - These processes are integrated into curriculum documents in several countries like Australia and Singapore. - Students should realize that mathematics is both creative and tentative, emphasizing that it is continually under development. - Creative problem-solving plays a crucial role in understanding the nature of mathematics. - The tentative nature of mathematics requires an understanding that assumptions can be questioned and re-evaluated. Chapter 6: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education - Education policy reform globally emphasizes 21st-century learning skills, including deeper integration of numeracy, scientific, and technological literacy in curricula. - There\'s a need for skilled labor and professionals in STEM fields, stressing a multidisciplinary approach to better prepare students for STEM occupations. - The number of individuals pursuing STEM careers is lagging behind demand. - STEM education should emphasize technological literacy, especially for students pursuing STEM careers (e.g., engineering, architecture, medicine, IT). 6.1 STEM Education - A major goal of STEM education is to improve proficiency in STEM, regardless of career aspirations, while fostering 21st-century skills. - These skills include critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, collaboration, self-directed learning, scientific, environmental, and technological literacy. - STEM education reimagines traditional teaching methods by integrating the four STEM strands into a unified approach. - Educators face challenges integrating STEM disciplines due to content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge. - Effective STEM education is student-centered, promoting problem-solving and higher-order thinking. 6.1.2 Teacher Education - Preparing teachers to be technologically competent is challenging, requiring ample effort, time, and opportunities. - Teacher comfort with technology integration is not always due to a lack of technology, but also a lack of knowledge about how to effectively integrate it. - Internal factors (personal investment, attitude) and external factors (resources, training, support) influence teacher technology use. - Teacher preparation needs improvement, including ongoing professional development tailored to specific needs. - Teacher education programs have a responsibility to prepare teachers to effectively model and integrate technology. 6.1.3 Digital Literacies and DVGs - Games-based learning is a promising frontier for preparing students for STEM careers. - Digital video games (DVGs) can effectively integrate and reinforce STEM concepts, motivating learners. - DVGs have the potential for effectively integrating STEM concepts and principles, motivating learners. 6.1.4 Engineering Design Process (EDP) and DVG Design - Engineering is often challenging to implement in K--12 classrooms due to a lack of prior science knowledge and access to engineers. - The EDP process contrasts with the scientific process in that it focuses on problem solving rather than generating knowledge hypotheses. - Storyboarding is critical in DVG design, helping structure and organize content, preventing scope creep and aligning with the engineering methodology. - Digital games can help advance the learning of STEM concepts by applying the EDP. - DVGs can potentially incorporate seven of the eight science/engineering practices in K-12 education. 6.2 DVGs in Teacher Education - DVG development assignments situated within teacher education courses can connect video games to STEM education. - Technological competencies are crucial for modern teaching practices. - The training involved in designing the DVGs provides teachers with opportunities to engage in programming, mathematical knowledge, creativity, and logic. 6.2.2 DVG Criteria - Criteria for DVG design include focus on STEM education content and a pluriversal approach to career connections. - Mandatory elements include: rewards, leveling, and avatars to motivate and engage learners. - The development process should involve reflections on research, storyboard development, and feedback. - Implementing DVGs in the classroom involves providing opportunities for teachers to engage in the process of devising materials/tools tailored to specific curricula (e.g. Biology). Current Praxis and Conceptualization of STEM Education - STEM education has been a focus in educational policy and academic discourse for 30 years, with a push for integrated instruction. - The Department of Education promotes STEM education for global leadership, including substantial grants. - Publications on integrated K-12 STEM education are vast and diverse, but consensus on its precise definition is lacking. - Integration can be viewed as connecting previously separate content areas or skills. - Educators and researchers express considerable confusion about STEM teaching and learning practices. - Definitions, levels of integration, and disciplinary boundaries in STEM curricula remain unclear and are inconsistently applied. Positions on Integrated STEM - STEM is a meta-discipline integrating knowledge and skills from science, technology, engineering, and mathematics to solve real-world problems. - Integration involves drawing from each discipline\'s knowledge base to tackle complex problems. - A true integration approach encompasses science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in a lesson. Future Elementary Teachers\' Perspectives on the Importance of STEM - The chapter describes future elementary teachers\' perspectives on the importance of STEM education at the elementary level. - The emphasis on STEM across K-12 has increased, from funding agencies to standards documents like NGSS. - Studies show that less instructional time is devoted to science in elementary schools compared to other subjects like English language arts and mathematics. - The study, based on an earlier study (N=73), surveyed preservice teachers and recent graduates about the importance of STEM at the elementary level using an online survey and open-ended questions. - All respondents in the earlier study reported STEM education as important, listing 10 different reasons. - The diversity of reasons varied significantly across the data set. - A new, more comprehensive study (N=149), replicated the earlier research using a focus group of a subset of surveyed participants. - All participants were pre-service teachers in four or five-year teacher preparation programs. Defining STEM Education - STEM is defined as a process of meaningful interdependence among all disciplines: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. - A STEM teacher could be someone who teaches any one of the four STEM disciplines individually or someone who integrates content from two or more disciplines. - The way teachers (current and future) discuss STEM varies considerably. - Some emphasize interdisciplinary nature of STEM, as described in the Framework for K-12 Science Education and NGSS. - Others focus on STEM\'s connection to science. - Preservice elementary teachers with STEM-focused methods courses were better prepared for integrated instruction. - Environmental literacy courses enhanced their perspective on interdisciplinary links. Elementary STEM Importance Framework (ESIF) - The ESIF is a framework used for analyzing responses to the question \"Is STEM education important at the elementary level?\". - The framework has 10 codes, each with example responses. STEM Switching Experiences - A larger proportion of students leave their initial STEM majors than other disciplines. - Nearly 40% of freshmen intend to major in STEM. - The number of undergraduate STEM students has increased in recent years. - STEM occupations have above-average growth compared to other sectors. - Labor shortages exist in some STEM industries. STEM Switching Studies - Studies have investigated various factors for STEM switching. - A key unanswered question in previous research is the destination of students and their reasons for choosing their new majors. - Students may switch because of issues with instructional delivery or develop a specific interest in related fields from elective courses. STEM as an Interdependent Field - STEM disciplines (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) are commonly perceived as distinct, though interdependent. - Fields like Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Earth Sciences, Agriculture, Environmental Sciences, Forensic Sciences, and Computer Science/Engineering are interdependent by sharing concepts and principles. - Examples where different fields interact, such as pH in biology using logarithmic scales in physics/mathematics, and materials science using principles of Biology, Chemistry, and Physics and aided by technology, illustrate this. Student STEM Experiences - Concerns about college students switching out of STEM fields are long-standing. - A previous study analyzed 23 factors associated with student switching; top four included: loss of interest, better non-STEM options, poor teaching, and overwhelming curriculum. - Other factors include faculty pedagogy, initial negative experiences in introductory courses, and academic interactions with faculty, peers, and university structure (advising/counseling). Student STEM Identity - Identity is a key factor in studying student retention and persistence in STEM fields - Competence, performance, and recognition are key elements of STEM identity. - Experiences in STEM fields have a significant influence on STEM identity. - Environmental influences (peers, friends, family) can affect the perception of STEM majors.