Native American Women: Our Voice, the Air PDF

Native American Women: Our Voice, the Air Author(s): Linda Hogan Source: Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Autumn, 1981), pp. 1-4 Published by: University of Nebraska Press Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3346200 Accessed: 19-02-2025 22:16 UTC JSTOR is a not-for-profit...

Native American Women: Our Voice, the Air Author(s): Linda Hogan Source: Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Autumn, 1981), pp. 1-4 Published by: University of Nebraska Press Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3346200 Accessed: 19-02-2025 22:16 UTC JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms University of Nebraska Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies This content downloaded from 128.223.223.35 on Wed, 19 Feb 2025 22:16:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms  Native American Women: Our Voice, the Air Linda Hogan American Indian women are a diverse group of people placement. Owanah Anderson, the Choctaw director of with many different attitudes, opinions, and lifestyles. We OHOYO, the Indian-Alaska Native Women's Resource are from many different nations, each with separate Center, stated that 67 percent of the Winnebago house- languages and cultures. We have grown up on reserva- holds are headed by women. There is no day care for the tions, allotment lands, and in urban communities. And children, and the average annual income of each woman is yet, in spite of these apparent differences, Indian women $1,690. She stated, "There are those who say women are have many experiences in common and are now seeking equal in our cultures. Which ones?" out new forms of survival, new ways of dealing with the Many Indian women's organizations have been formed complexities of life in contemporary America. in response to this question. The North American Indian The continuation of tribal identity attests to the Women's Association, Women of All Red Nations, and strengths of American Indians. Commonly seen by out- OHOYO are just a few of these organizations. siders as a vanishing group, tribal people have not only Feminism is a complicated issue for Indian women managed to maintain their own traditions, but have been because what affects the women also affects the entire responsible for creating cohesive intertribal communities. community. As individual nations, we have allegiances to Many of the older ways infuse the new, and this transfor- the members of our tribes that seldom exist for non-Indian mation has not diminished the traditions of people who American women. Political and economic injustices are must live in a doubly complex bicultural society, but has practiced against entire tribes, and are not limited to just vitalized cultural identity and created new forms of self- the women. The issue of survival affects all people and the definition and change that is positive. For people who are major efforts of Indian feminists have been struggles bicultural, and nearly all Indians fit this category, the con- against the dominant society. In the article submitted by flicts and clashes between the world of Anglo and the Shirley Hill Witt, Annie Dodge Wauneka, a Navajo ac- world of Indian are critical ones. Nevertheless, Indian tivist, urges Indian women to become more active in women have been competently succeeding at functioning politics and states that she sees the discrimination of In- equally well in two very different worlds. This is a task that dian women as a by-product of federal intervention into demands strength and intelligence. tribal affairs, not discrimination which has grown from Indian women are aware of the difficult position of be- within Indian communities. ing female and minority. Tribal women have the lowest Destruction of tribal land and people has been the result wages in the country, and often because of that poverty, of energy development in many areas. Indian people have Indian children are removed from homes and communities been the victims of oil development, coal mining, uranium more often than children of any other background. mining and milling; yet we are dependent upon these Approximately one-third of all Indian children are re- destructive processes for income and employment. Tribal moved from homes and placed in foster care or adoptive lands have been designated as locations for the disposal of Linda Hogan (Chickasaw) is the author of Calling Myself Home and Daughters, I Love You. Her forthcoming book, Eclipse, is due out from the UCLA American Indian Studies Center; in addition, she has published short stories, essays, articles, and reviews in numerous periodicals and anthologies. She is the author of an award-winning play, A Piece of Moon. She works as poet-in-residence for the state arts councils of Colorado and Oklahoma and has taught at the University of Colorado, Colorado Women's College, and more recently, at Colorado College. Hogan was an invited speaker at the American Writers' Congress and a guest at Yaddo. FRONTIERS Vol. VI, No. 3 @ 1982 FRONTIERS Editorial Collective This content downloaded from 128.223.223.35 on Wed, 19 Feb 2025 22:16:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 2 FRONTIERS radioactive waste products. While it is necessary number in and im- to the population. The latest reports proportion portant that we worry about the status oftheorize Indian women that in of all Native American women in nearly half tribal communities and urban centers, the other the Unitedissues are been the victims of illegal and States have matters of survival and often take precedence involuntaryover con-procedures. sterilization cerns about gender roles. Because of this,Despite Indian thewomen attempts to eradicate Native people and are often more active on the level of national political cultures, Indian women are showing their strength by issues than in women's organizations. taking positions as activist/warriors, tribal leaders, Winona LaDuke (Chippewa) has been responsible community leaders, for religious leaders, healers, lawyers, publicizing these issues. In the 1979 report published physicians, by and educators. Women of All Red Nations, she notes that outParticularly of 546,000in the field of education women have acres of Indian land in Oklahoma, all but 22,000 played acres active and important roles, taking responsibility were leased out for oil development. Nonefor offorming that land Indianhas Alternative Education programs. been controlled by Native people. In the Many Southwest, of these schools have recently been formed on reser- vations by mothers, uranium mining has had devastating consequences on the midwives, teachers. The schools are health of the people. Water intended for irrigation responses to the highof attrition rates for Indian students in crops is being used in mining operations and returned non-Indian toaccording to the National Advisory schools, the water table contaminated by radon daughters. Often Council on Indian Education. The schools incorporate this is the only water available for human andvalues, tribal stock con-and tradition into a curriculum that history, sumption. Radioactive mill tailings cover alsomany acres emphasizes of skills necessary for survival in the basic the tailings tribal land: there are 70 million tons of mill dominant in culture. NewMany women have also been re- Mexico alone. Two million tons are near the Shiprock sponsible for the Survival Schools. These schools are area, in close proximity to a public school somewhat andmore radical than the Alternative Education housing project. Programs, and are often located in urban areas. Most of In the Black Hills of South Dakota, over twenty-five these schools also offer adult education for parents. multinational corporations have been mining and core Adults and children learn skills necessary to cope with drilling, often illegally, on the sacred land of the Lakota. non-Indian society at the same time that they are given a This land has been designated by the federal government full picture of their own world and its relation to the domi- as the "National Sacrifice Area." The Lakota Aquifer in nant society. Pine Ridge has been contaminated by uncapped core dril- In this issue of FRONTIERS, the personal histories and ling. Women in that area have suffered early spontaneous oral histories by Shirley Black Stone Weston, Roseanna abortions, and have given birth to deformed children as a Sneed, and Lucy Swan are examples of how nontradi- result of that contamination. This is not one isolated tional education affected Indian children in the past and incident: the Laguna Pueblo in New Mexico has also had denied them their rights to a cultural heritage and self- an increase in birth defects due to the radioactive tailings esteem. In the Weston essay on food, we see a more con- on that reservation. temporary viewpoint as she writes with humor about her Not only has energy development become a part of the experiences among white students. destruction of tribal people, but there is also the long These oral histories are important for other reasons as history of denial of rights under treaties, rights to legal well. The Agonitos' article on Buffalo Calf Road discusses justice, cultural identity, and economic equality. the difficulties historians encounter in their attempts to Indian women and men are too often victims of the legal piece together any solid picture of Indian women who system: there are numerous cases, including the Yvonne lived in the past. The companion essay by Carolyn Berry Wanrow trial in Washington. Wanrow, a Colville Indian, on Comenha draws attention to another woman whose was accused of first degree murder for shooting a known story has not been given the attention she deserved. While child molester who was entering her babysitter's home the Agonitos have skillfully researched Buffalo Calf through a window. After several years of appeals and Road, they also mention the inadequacies of the records seven years of imprisonment, Yvonne Wanrow was de- they reviewed. Both women are portrayed largely in the clared innocent. Mary Settler, a Yakima Indian, received a context of their fathers, husbands, and brothers by earlier sentence of five years in prison and a fine of $12,000 for historians, usually male. These omissions, however, can buying and selling illegally caught salmon. The profit she often be filled in with information from oral histories and made was used to feed and clothe the Indians in her com- literature that is told or written by Indian women. munity. It is important to note that neither the fishermen The oral histories presented in FRONTIERS not only nor the restaurant supplier who bought the salmon were relate episodes of American history from the viewpoint of indicted. And in Oklahoma City, Rita Silk-Nauni was tribal women, but also show how the past informs the sentenced to 150 years in prison for what appears to be present life of contemporary Indians. The oral histories self-defense and unpremeditated murder. portray the effects of religious groups-Baptist, Catholic, Oklahoma City is also known as the place where large Quaker-on Indian cultures and yet show how the numbers of Indian women have been sterilized. Although cultures have continued despite the enforced denial of this practice has taken place in nearly all Indian Health identity and the assimilation processes at work. The Swan Service hospitals, a recent study showed that in Oklahoma interview, in particular, contains important oral traditions City alone, 1,761 Indian women were sterilized in one that are religious, secular, and mythical, as well as four-year period in the 1970's. This is an overly large historical. Roseanna Sneed relates how storytelling has This content downloaded from 128.223.223.35 on Wed, 19 Feb 2025 22:16:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms  Hogan 3 been an important part of her life and contributedfaceto herwomen. She writes of earth, of change, and of Indian own identity as a Cherokee woman. The oral history of the psychological genocide that is often so subtle we do not Sinruk Mary, written by Maria Brooks, portrays realize a womanit exists. And she writes of the strength it takes to who was able to juggle a variety of cultures and religions, escape that destruction which often becomes destruction of the self. adopt twenty-two children, maintain a reindeer herd, and adapt to changes in her environment. Wendy Rose's poems, from a new collection entitled By incorporating history, by remembering,"The Indian Halfbreed Chronicles," depict the trauma and the women continue to define themselves. It is through effects thisof being "Other." She writes of those who have been colonized, have been victims of genocide through remembering that we survive. It is through this speaking out that our history is preserved more whole and bothintact subtle and overt means. She writes about concerns we than it was in the past. The creative work in this all have of issue for the earth and for human and animal life. She balances FRONTIERS confirms that survival. Gracie Tyon's per-the destructive forces of the nuclear arms race sonal essay ties together her own experience withwith thatherof poem "Throat Song," a celebration of life, earth, her mother and grandmother. She has defined their and self. places in the world as well as her own. She shows that to be an In all of the creative work, we see a few of the themes urban Indian does not in any way deny her history or herthat prevail in Indian literature. There are themes of vision. Dian Million also writes out of a strong sense of, history and oral tradition, how we carry the past into what and connection with, her past-an important trait of all we do in the present, how we view the world. There is the Indian literature. This work connects present and past. It theme of return, going home, as well as return to the self. is personal perspective on history. There are questions of identity and self-definition. And all The literature contemporary Indian women write is of a the writers move toward wholeness, writing about rec- necessity. It is existence and survival given shape in written onciliation of two cultures. The writing, in fact, is a part of language. It is more than poetry and prose. It is an expres- this restoration, an action that brings about wholeness. In sion of entire cultures and their perceptions of the worldSusan Scarberry's essay on Indian perceptions of self, and universe. It is often a transmission, through written land, and cosmos, she describes the importance of that wholeness. It comes from honoring the relations of all language, of the oral traditions that were, and still are, passed on by word of mouth. things. She says the contemporary writers are those "who weave old tales into new forms." Anna Walters' story, "The Resurrection of John Stink," takes the form of many southern Indian story- Wholeness and return are also the themes of Virginia telling styles. It not only contains the conflicting elements Sutter's personal essay. Sutter writes about the signifi- of Christianity and traditional religion, but also includes cance of return, of intertribal and tribal events as ways of the account of how the horse and dog became the friends maintaining tradition, tribal ties, and identity. In essay and helpers of the two-legged people. form Sutter states many of the same themes that are con- Paula Gunn Allen's two poems show another side of tained within the prose and poetry. history. They are, in fact, historical poetry, written in the All of the Indian women whose work appears in this persona, and the voices are convincing. In Allen's own issue are writing from similar perspectives despite the words, the poems redefine historical Indian women who diversity of backgrounds and tribal affiliations. All are were considered to be traitors by whites, and later by other writing about a life that is bicultural, and about survival in Indian people. She says the definition of the women as that complex world. Bea Medicine's review essay points out traitors is not acceptable and is yet another form of how important it is for historians and biographers to con- racism. Like Allen, Rayna Green is also working on a sider that biculturality and how Indian women learn to series of poems about Indian women who are historical adapt to it. Her review essay suggests ways to use materials figures. Green, however, brings those women into the by and about Indian women in the classroom and also present, showing contemporary experience and history in discusses the difficulties these books engender. What she terms of the past, past in terms of the present. says about coping strategies is significant for students in Sandi LeBeau also makes use of the past in her poem, any field researching American Indian people. She writes "Going to Carlisle." The poem, as Indian literature often about "Indian women's self-actualization within systems does, includes family history in a tribal context alongside of expectation imposed from the outside." the historical. She shows aspects of tribal life and tradition Maryann Oshana's article on Westerns discusses some with an overlay of story and oral tradition. She says, "The of these expectations. She includes new stereotypes that Milky Way, as I understand how things have been ex- need to be examined, the stereotypes of Indian women as plained to me, is the path our people travel upon when exotic and erotic beings, and as objects of ridicule. Oshana they die." also offers names of women which future filmmakers Louise Erdrich, who recently won the Nelson Algren might consider in their work. For further reference short fiction award, writes of survival in a tone that has materials, a large and comprehensive bibliography, com- quiet strength. Roles reverse. The hunted and the hunter piled by Lyle Koehler, highlights contributions of Indian merge, become one. The poems contain a mystery and women in various fields, past and present. His introduc- depth that charge them with meaning and intensity. tion to the bibliography likewise offers suggestions for The poems of Joy Harjo incorporate the aspects of future scholarship. identity, "children born, half-breed, blue eyes..." with As this issue of FRONTIERS affirms, Indian women the vision of spiritual life beneath the daily realities which often have strong roles and are capable of maintaining This content downloaded from 128.223.223.35 on Wed, 19 Feb 2025 22:16:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 4 FRONTIERS these roles in both their tribal communities and in the and uphold Indian self-determination and tribal sover- larger context of Euro-American society. Considering theeignty, at the same time they are discovering new indivi- pressures exerted on Indian women-socio-economic dual directions. Each time our voices are heard, we work pressures as well as cultural and personal ones-non- toward fulfilling the needs of tribal people on this conti- Indian readers can see that, as Rayna Green says in her nent. These changes, these voices, guarantee survival. For review article in Signs, "Indian women do not, on the this, I thank all those who submitted work for considera- whole document change; they make change." And the tion and I thank the Board members of FRONTIERS for changes have been positive ones, changes that maintain their support with this special cluster of articles. This content downloaded from 128.223.223.35 on Wed, 19 Feb 2025 22:16:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms