History of Immigration Last Test PDF

Chinese immigration policies During World War Two, America cleaned up a lot of their exclusionary immigration policies because of the issues that World War Two brought into the pubic consciousness. It was hypocritical to fight a war for democracy, peace and the end of Nazi racism while simultaneousl...

Chinese immigration policies During World War Two, America cleaned up a lot of their exclusionary immigration policies because of the issues that World War Two brought into the pubic consciousness. It was hypocritical to fight a war for democracy, peace and the end of Nazi racism while simultaneously having so many racist policies at home. The end of Asian immigration restrictions was brought about largely as a result of the United States effort to practice what they were fighting for in World War Two. Further, America was allies with China during World War Two, which was occupied by one of America’s enemies, Japan. In order to get the Chinese to help them with the war effort, be successful allies and defeat their enemy, America needed t be more inclusive of Chinese immigrants. During the Cold War, America was worried that they would “lose” parts of Asia to Communism, specifically Red China. Therefore, they tried to foster positive relationships with these Asian countries to keep them in the Free World. 1943 — Repeal of Chinese Exclusions: Congress passed a measure to repeal the discriminatory exclusion laws against Chinese immigrants and to establish an immigration quota for China of around 105 Visas per year -aided the morale of a wartime ally during WW2...China was a member of the Allied Nations Chinese Confession Program: A program run by the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) ran this program from 1956 to 1965. This program motivated Chinese immigrants who had entered the country illegally to confess and adjust their status. It’s purpose was to end the “Paper Son” System, which allowed Chinese immigrants to create false family members to gain entry to the United States. It normalized the status of Chinese Americans because of the Chinese immigrant confessions about the illegal entries in exchange for legalization in exchange, even though they were subject to deportation. Holt Adoption Agency (began 1955, Still in Existence): The Holt family from Minnesota set up an adoption agency for biracial children who born out of relationships between American soldiers (stationed in Korea during the Korean War) and Korean women. This starts international adoption and helps a lot of Korean orphans find homes in America. Changing Policies in relation to Mexican Americans 1941 - The President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the U.S. government forms the Fair Employment Practices Committee during WWII to handle cases of employment discrimination. Mission: The primary goal of the FEPC was to investigate and eliminate discriminatory hiring practices in industries connected to the war effort, especially those involving defense production and federal contracts. It aimed to ensure that all Americans, regardless of race or ethnicity, had access to jobs in vital wartime industries Why: The FEPC was created to address several pressing issues during World War II: 1. Pressure from Civil Rights Leaders: ​ One of the main driving forces behind the creation of the FEPC was pressure from civil rights leaders, especially A. Philip Randolph, who was the head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first African American labor union. Randolph threatened to organize a massive march on Washington, D.C., to protest discrimination in the defense industry. This threat of a large-scale march was a pivotal factor in Roosevelt’s decision to act. 2. Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in the Workforce: ​ Prior to the establishment of the FEPC, many defense contractors, especially in industries tied to the war effort, discriminated against African Americans, Mexican Americans, and other minority groups. Many jobs, particularly in defense industries like shipbuilding and aircraft manufacturing, were reserved for white workers, and minorities were often excluded or relegated to low-wage, menial positions. 3. Economic Need During World War II: ​ As the U.S. entered World War II, the need for skilled labor and manpower in defense industries grew exponentially. The country’s ability to fight and produce wartime materials depended on the labor force's size and capacity. This meant that excluding large segments of the population (particularly African Americans) from employment was not just discriminatory but also inefficient in a time of national crisis. 4. Fear of Social Unrest: ​ There was a growing recognition that racial discrimination in employment could lead to social unrest, particularly among African Americans. The threat of a  march on Washington led by Randolph, combined with the desire to avoid potential riots or disruptions, encouraged Roosevelt to act. 5. Legacy of the New Deal and Federal Government Intervention: ​ The FEPC was a part of Roosevelt’s broader New Deal policies, which were focused on addressing economic inequality. The committee represented a new, more active role for the federal government in regulating and promoting fairness in employment, particularly for marginalized groups. 1942 - Bracero program starts allowing Mexican citizens to work temporarily in the United States, welcoming millions. The Bracero program, instituted in a bilateral agreement in 1942 amid anticipation of a labor shortage in World War II, gave contracts to Mexican workers to be employed in the U.S. agricultural sector. During its operation, about 4.5 million contracts were signed for workers to come to the United States. Although the program stipulates that braceros are entitled to certain provisions—including equal wages to native workers, free housing, affordable meals, and insurance—these rules are broken by many employers. Many of the farm workers are reported to receive a fraction of the wages of American laborers. Lee G. Williams, the last director of the program under the Department of Labor, refers to the system as “legalized slavery.” The end of the Bracero program results in an acceleration of illegal immigration across the border. 1943 - Los Angeles starts to have Zoot suit riots. The Zoot Suit Riots were a series of racially charged violent clashes in Los Angeles, where groups of U.S. Navy sailors and Marines attacked Mexican American youths, particularly those wearing the distinctive zoot suits. The violence escalated into a multi-day event marked by large-scale brawls, looting, and destruction of clothing. The servicemen stripped the zoot suiters of their clothes, beat them, and humiliated them in public Why: The underlying causes of the Zoot Suit Riots were complex, involving racial prejudice, economic inequality, and tensions during a time of war. 1. Racial Tensions:  ​ Mexican Americans had been living in the U.S. for generations, but were still treated as second-class citizens, often facing discrimination and exclusion. Many Mexican Americans, particularly in Southern California, were proud of their heritage but struggled with systemic racism, poor housing conditions, and limited job opportunities. ​ Anglo American Servicemen: The majority of U.S. servicemen stationed in Los Angeles were white, and they harbored racial prejudices toward Mexican Americans. They saw zoot suiters as symbols of defiance to authority and American values. Some also believed that zoot suiters were unpatriotic, as their extravagant clothing style seemed wasteful during wartime when fabric was being rationed for military uniforms. 2. The Zoot Suit as a Symbol of Rebellion: ​ The zoot suit itself became a flashpoint in the racial tensions of the time. It was seen by many as an unpatriotic symbol because of its extravagant use of cloth, which violated the wartime restrictions on fabric usage. Many American citizens were sacrificing and rationing materials for the war effort, and the zoot suit was viewed as an ostentatious defiance of those efforts. ​ For Mexican American youths, the zoot suit represented resistance to the mainstream American culture that marginalized them. It was a way to assert their identity in the face of discrimination, and for many, it was part of a broader cultural rebellion, not just a fashion statement. 3. Socioeconomic Factors and Tensions: ​ Economic Inequality: During World War II, Los Angeles was a major manufacturing hub, and many people from marginalized groups moved to the city in search of work. Mexican Americans were often relegated to the lowest-paying jobs and faced severe discrimination in housing and employment. The tensions were exacerbated by the economic disparity between Mexican American workers and the white servicemen. ​ Wartime Context: The U.S. was deeply involved in World War II at the time, and racial tensions were high, especially in Los Angeles, which was home to a large military population. Many white Americans believed that non-white groups, including Mexican Americans, should assimilate more into the mainstream. This belief was compounded by wartime paranoia about loyalty, which often targeted minorities as potential threats to national security. 4. The Trigger:  ​ The immediate trigger for the violence was a minor altercation between a group of U.S. Navy sailors and a group of Mexican American youths on June 3, 1943. The incident escalated quickly, and a mob of sailors began attacking young Mexican Americans wearing zoot suits. ​ The violence quickly spread across the city, and over the next few days, mobs of servicemen roamed the streets, beating up anyone they identified as wearing zoot suits. These attacks were racially motivated, but they also highlighted deeper societal tensions, including resentment toward the growing visibility and assertiveness of Mexican Americans in urban areas. - American sailors search Mexican American neighborhoods for "zoot-suiters" (youngMexican teens dressed in baggy pants and long-tailed coats) to beat them up 1944 - Senator Dennis Chávez of New Mexico introduces the first Fair Employment Practices Bill, which prohibits discrimination because of race. The Fair Employment Practices Bill refers to a set of proposed legislative measures in the United States aimed at addressing discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. These bills, introduced in the mid-20th century, were part of the broader movement to combat racial and ethnic discrimination, particularly in the workforce. While there have been several different versions and proposals for fair employment practices over the years, the most significant of these was the Fair Employment Practices Act of 1945, which came out of the need for a permanent federal solution to the problems identified by the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) created by Executive Order 8802 in 1941. The bill was part of the broader civil rights movement aimed at ensuring equal rights for minority groups, especially African Americans, in the post-World War II era. 1945 - Mexican American parents sue California school districts, so the California Supreme Court rules in the parents' favor in Mendez v. Westminster, arguing segregation violates children's constitutional rights. Gonzalo and Feliciana Mendez: Mexican-American parents who became the lead plaintiffs in the case. They were part of a broader group of families who sought to challenge the discrimination faced by their children in segregated schools. Their Children: The Mendez children, along with other Mexican-American children, were among the students who were denied entry into certain public schools based on their ethnic background, being placed in separate "Mexican schools."Mendez v. Westminster was a federal court case challenging the segregation of Mexican-American students in California schools. In particular, the case dealt with the practice of segregating Mexican-American children into separate schools, under the premise that they were culturally inferior or that their language barrier required special education. The families involved in the case argued that this segregation violated their constitutional rights under the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. The case eventually resulted in a ruling that ordered the desegregation of public schools in California, marking one of the first successful legal challenges to school segregation on behalf of Mexican Americans in the United States. 1952 -Bracero Program extended at the urging of American growers to provide agricultural workers- millions recruited from Mexico 1954 - Operation Wetback deported 1 million Braceros. The postwar period causes a swell of illegal immigration to the United States from Mexico, with an estimated three million undocumented Mexicans in the country working mostly in agricultural jobs at significantly lower wages than what American workers receive. Under growing public pressure to act, the Immigration and Naturalization Service under President Dwight D. Eisenhower enacts a nationwide sweep of undocumented Mexican immigrants in the southwestern United States. The sweep, officially termed “Operation Wetback,” authorizes 1,075 Border Patrol agents, along with local law enforcement, to target barrios in California, Arizona, and Texas. - Hernandez v. Texas is the first post-WWII Latino civil rights case heard and decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. The decision strikes against discrimination based onclass and ethnic distinctions. How did WWII and its aftermath affect immigration policy? The truman directive (1945)- created to give priority to displaced persons, especially Holocaust survivors, for US admissions admission War brides act (1945-1947)- a series of laws that allowed foreign spouses and children of US military members to enter with free passage to the united states after world war II. this exempted war brides and their dependents from the immigration act of 1924’s quota system. Operation paperclip (1945-1960)- a secret program that brought german scientists and engineers into the united states to work on nuclear and rocket programs. Operation paperclip was controversial because many of the scientists involved were accused of war crimes. The luce and cellar act (1946)- established quotas annually for indian and filipino immigrants and allowed them to naturalize and become US citizens Terms Hungarian revolution- The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a nationwide uprising against the Soviet-backed government of Hungary. It began as a student protest in Budapest and quickly expanded into a full-fledged revolt against Soviet influence, demanding political reforms, greater freedom, and Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Hungary’s failed revolt against Soviet control triggers an outpouring of refugees. The Eisenhower administration uses a provision in the McCarran-Walter immigration act authorizing the admission of aliens on a temporary basis under emergency conditions. Eisenhower employs parole powers—presidential authority to take unilateral action in emergencies—included in the immigration act to admit around thirty thousand Hungarian refugees. By 1960, more than two hundred thousand Hungarian immigrants are accepted into the country Refuge vs asylum- A refugee is someone who has fled their country and is unable or unwilling to return due to persecution, while an asylum seeker is someone who has applied for protection but has not yet been recognized as a refugee Cuban revolution- Fidel Castro and his guerrilla forces overthrow the government of Fulgencio Batista in Cuba in January 1959 and set up a new communist order, resulting in a mass exodus of Cubans to the United States as political refugees. The first wave includes political supporters of Batista, as well as members of Cuba’s elite and middle class, who largely settle in Florida’s Miami-Dade County. The United States eventually enacts the 1966 Cuban Adjustment Act to allow permanent resident status to Cuban refugees who arrive after 1959. About one million Cubans emigrate to the United States between 1959 and 1990. 1965 changes to the immigration policy- deemed by President Lyndon B. Johnson as “un-American in the highest sense.” The 1965 Immigration and Naturalization Act [PDF] instead sets up a system of preferences, placing an emphasis on family reunification. However, the bill—through the family preference that allows naturalized U.S. citizens to sponsor relatives to emigrate to the country—sets the course for dramatically altering the demographics of the country. Immigrants from Asia, Africa, and Latin America: The new law greatly expanded immigration opportunities for people from these regions, who had previously been largely excluded or limited under earlier immigration laws. Why: The changes to U.S. immigration policy in 1965 were driven by several key factors: 1.​ Civil Rights Movement: The 1960s were a time of significant social change in the U.S., with the Civil Rights Movement gaining momentum. There was a growing public awareness of racial inequality, and many saw the National Origins Quota system as discriminatory. 2.​ Cold War Politics: The United States sought to improve its image globally during the Cold War. The old immigration system, which was seen as discriminatory and ethnocentric, was increasingly out of step with American values and foreign policy goals. 3.​ Economic and Labor Needs: There was a growing recognition that the U.S. economy needed skilled labor from outside the country, especially in fields like technology, medicine, and engineering. Immigrants could fill critical gaps in the workforce. 4.​ Pressure from Immigrant Communities: Many immigrant groups, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe, had long pushed for changes to the immigration system. The new law was seen as a victory for these groups and their descendants. 5.​ Moral and Humanitarian Concerns: The shift toward family reunification and the elimination of race-based quotas was also driven by a desire to address moral concerns about fairness and to align U.S. immigration policy with principles of equal opportunity and human rights. Viatnam refugees- After Saigon is captured by the People’s Army of Vietnam, the Gerald Ford administration enacts the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act to help about 130,000 Southeast Asian refugees. The move receives broad support among civil rights advocates, religious groups, and organized labor, and the number of Southeast Asian “boat people” immigrating to the United States swells by the early 1980s. This new influx, largely brought in by executive parole power, prompts the government to consider a broad overhaul of the nation’s refugee admission system. Vietnamese boat people- The Vietnamese Boat People were refugees who fled Vietnam after the Vietnam War (1955–1975), seeking asylum in other countries, primarily between the late 1970s and the mid-1980s. They were called "boat people" because many of them made perilous journeys by boat, often overcrowded and ill-equipped, to escape the aftermath of the war and the subsequent communist regime. Here’s a detailed look at their story Immigration Reform and Control Act- Immigration Reform and Control Act to address the estimated three to five million undocumented immigrants in the country. The policy officially mandates employers to affirm the immigration status of their employees and outlaws the practice of knowingly hiring undocumented immigrants, although the administration’s enforcement of penalties remains lax. Additionally, the law grants legal status for certain seasonal workers and unauthorized immigrants who arrived in the United States before 1982. However, the IRCA’s most significant legacy is its provision to give undocumented immigrants arriving before 1982 the opportunity to apply for permanent residence before May 1988, a measure that eventually grants legal status to 3 million people, of which 2.3 million are Mexicans. Illegal immigration continues to flow after the IRCA’s passage. H1B visa- The H-1B visa is a non-immigrant visa issued by the United States that allows U.S. employers to temporarily hire foreign workers in specialty occupations. This visa is commonly used by companies to bring in highly skilled professionals, particularly in fields such as technology, engineering, medicine, finance, and education. Greencard- A Green Card, also known as a Permanent Resident Card, is an identity document that grants a foreign national the right to live and work permanently in the United States. Green card holders are considered lawful permanent residents (LPRs) of the U.S., though they are not U.S. citizens Dream act- To address the issue of the estimated 2.1 million minors who are brought illegally to the United States as children, Congress introduces the Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors (DREAM) Act, a policy that would carve out a path to citizenship for these young immigrants if they meet certain conditions, including graduating from a U.S. high school or serving two years in the military. The act goes through several revisions and languishes in Congress through the next decade, prompting states to enact their own versions of the DREAM Act to provide in-state tuition for these immigrants. In 2012, President Obama announces a deferred action program that bars this group of immigrants from deportation, and pledges to make the DREAM Act a part of comprehensive immigration reform. Changes due to 9/11- In response to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, Congress passes the Homeland Security Act of 2002, which overhauls the organization of the federal government’s immigration functions. The act dissolves the Immigration and Naturalization Service and creates the Department of Homeland Security, which overtakes all immigration matters. DHS splits immigration services to divide enforcement functions—handled by the Immigration and Customs Enforcement agency—from naturalization and visa functions. The George W. Bush administration makes border security a top priority, strengthening screening and security measures at airports, allowing agents to more easily detain and deport immigrants with suspected ties to terrorism, and instituting more stringent visa application procedures. The government also enacts a program—suspended in 2011—requiring men from predominantly Muslim countries to pre-register and undergo additional screenings while traveling to and from the United States. 1980 Mariel Boatlift- The Mariel Boatlift was a mass migration of Cuban refugees to the United States that took place in 1980. It was a significant event in U.S.-Cuba relations and had a profound impact on both Cuban-American communities and U.S. immigration policy. Approximately 125,000 Cuban refugees (known as the "Marielitos") left Cuba during the boatlift. They were primarily seeking asylum in the United States, and many were ordinary citizens fleeing economic hardship, political repression, and lack of freedom. However, some of the refugees had criminal backgrounds or mental health issues, which added controversy to the event. Cuban Motivation: 1.​ Economic Hardships: Many Cubans were dissatisfied with the poor economic conditions in Cuba. Despite some early successes in education and healthcare under Castro’s regime, Cuba faced ongoing shortages of goods, food, and economic stagnation in the 1970s and 1980s.  2.​ Political Repression: The Cuban government was known for its authoritarian nature, with severe restrictions on political freedoms, free speech, and civil liberties. Many Cubans were seeking political asylum to escape this repression. 3.​ Fidel Castro’s Strategy: Fidel Castro’s decision to allow mass emigration was influenced by a mix of internal and external political factors. Castro’s regime had always been wary of potential opposition from within the country, and opening the gates to emigration was a way to release pressure from within Cuba. Some have speculated that Castro allowed the boatlift in an attempt to rid Cuba of unwanted or problematic elements, particularly those with criminal or anti-government tendencies. U.S. Motivation: 1.​ Humanitarian Concerns: The U.S. government, under President Jimmy Carter, generally favored the notion of providing asylum to political refugees and supporting human rights. Many Cubans fleeing political repression and economic hardship were welcomed as legitimate refugees. 2.​ Cold War Context: During the Cold War, the U.S. often positioned itself as the defender of freedom and democracy, particularly in contrast to communist regimes like Cuba. The boatlift fit into this broader ideological struggle between the U.S. and the Soviet-aligned Cuban government. 3.​ Miami’s Cuban-American Population: Many Cuban-Americans in Miami saw this as an opportunity to reunite with family members left behind in Cuba. Some took advantage of the situation to sponsor relatives and loved ones, contributing to the mass migration. 4.​ Domestic Politics: The boatlift also put political pressure on the U.S. government, particularly in the Miami area, where there was already significant anti-Castro sentiment. While many Cuban-Americans were supportive of the boatlift, others were concerned about the social and economic implications of the sudden influx of new refugees. 2016- Trump Travel Ban and Family Separation Policy- A week after entering office, President Donald J. Trump signs an executive order on terrorism prevention that suspends the refugee program for 120 days, bans Syrian refugees indefinitely, and decreases the cap on refugee admissions to fifty thousand. It also bans nationals of Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen from traveling to the United States for ninety days. Thousands protest the so-called Muslim travel ban in cities, particularly at airports, where dozens of foreigners are detained by immigration officials. In February, a federal judge imposes a nationwide restraining order on the ban. The Trump administration revises the executive order twice, and in June 2017 the Supreme Court allows the third iteration to take partial effect.