History+ for Edexcel A Level Communist States PDF

 HISTORY + FOR EDEXCEL A LEVEL COMMUNIST STATES in the twentieth century ROBIN BUNCE ANDREW FLINT PETER CLEMENTS 9781471837913.indb 1 6/3/15 5:27 PM  In order t...

 HISTORY + FOR EDEXCEL A LEVEL COMMUNIST STATES in the twentieth century ROBIN BUNCE ANDREW FLINT PETER CLEMENTS 9781471837913.indb 1 6/3/15 5:27 PM  In order to ensure that this resource offers high-quality support for the associated Pearson qualification, it has been through a review process by the awarding body. This process confirms that this resource fully covers the teaching and learning content of the specification or part of a specification at which it is aimed. It also confirms that it demonstrates an appropriate balance between the development of subject skills, knowledge and understanding, in addition to preparation for assessment. Endorsement does not cover any guidance on assessment activities or processes (e.g. practice questions or advice on how to answer assessment questions), included in the resource nor does it prescribe any particular approach to the teaching or delivery of a related course. 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Ltd., Pondicherry, India Printed in Italy A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1471837913 9781471837913.indb 2 6/3/15 5:27 PM  NTENT S CO Introduction v Paper 1 Russia, 1917–91: from Lenin to Yeltsin Theme 1 Communist government in the USSR, 1917–85 2 1a: Establishing Communist Party control, 1917–24 4 1b: Stalin in power, 1928–53 15 1c: Reform, stability and stagnation, 1953–85 28 Theme 2 Industrial and agricultural change, 1917–85 40 2a: Towards a command economy, 1917–28 42 2b: Industry and agriculture in the Stalin era 50 2c: Changing economic priorities, 1953–85 60 Theme 3 Control of the people, 1917–85 70 3a: Media, propaganda and religion 71 3b: The secret police 82 3c: The state and cultural change 95 Theme 4 Social developments, 1917–85 108 4a: Social security 109 4b: Women and the family 120 4c: Education and young people 132 Historical interpretations 144 What explains the fall of the USSR, c.1985–91? 144 Paper 2 Mao’s China, 1949–76 The Big Picture Key Topic 1 Establishing communist rule, 1949–57 200 Section 1: China in 1949 201 Section 2: The new power structure 207 Section 3: Defeating the CCP’s opponents 211 Section 4: China and the Korean War 219 Key Topic 2 Agriculture and industry, 1949–65 231 Section 1: Early changes in agriculture, 1949–57 232 Section 2: The communes 236 Section 3: The First Five-Year Plan, 1952–56 239 Section 4: The Second Five-Year Plan, 1958–62 242 iii 9781471837913.indb 3 6/3/15 5:27 PM  Key Topic 3 The Cultural Revolution and its aftermath, 1966–76 258 Section 1: Mao’s reasons for launching the Cultural Revolution 258 Section 2: The Red Guards and Red Terror 263 Section 3: Attacks on Mao’s political and class enemies 273 Section 4: Winding down the Cultural Revolution, 1968–76 277 Key Topic 4 Social and cultural changes, 1949–76 286 Section 1: The changing status of women 287 Section 2: Education and health provision 295 Section 3: Cultural change 301 Section 4: Religion 304 Paper 2 The German Democratic Republic, 1949–90 The Big Picture Key Topic 1 Establishing and consolidating communist rule in the GDR, 1949–61 322 Section 1: The post-war division of Germany 323 Section 2: The system of government 332 Section 3: Economic developments, 1949–61 337 Section 4: Defending the GDR, 1949–61 343 Key Topic 2 The development of the East German state, 1961–85 355 Section 1: Economic stabilisation after 1961 356 Section 2: The development of a GDR identity 361 Section 3: Relations with West Germany 365 Section 4: Growing international prestige 369 Key Topic 3 Life in East Germany, 1949–85 382 Section 1: Social change and welfare programmes 382 Section 2: Repression and control 391 Section 3: The SED and the Protestant Churches 398 Section 4: Western influences on the GDR 402 Key Topic 4 Growing crises and the collapse of communist rule in the GDR, 1985–90 410 Section 1: Economic stagnation in the 1980s 411 Section 2: Gorbachev’s influence 416 Section 3: The events of 1989 422 Section 4: The end of the GDR, 1989–90 426 Glossary 441 Acknowledgments 449 Answers 454 Index 455 iv Contents 9781471837913.indb 4 6/3/15 5:27 PM  UC TION INTROD History+ for Edexcel A Level: Communist states in the twentieth Each chapter begins with an overview of the theme, topic century supports Edexcel’s Route E. Specifically, it supports or interpretation discussed to set it in context, and ends the following papers: with a chapter summary to help with revision of the key points included in the chapter. Summary diagrams at the Paper 1E: Russia, 1917–91: from Lenin to Yeltsin end of chapters should also help with revision. Paper 2E.1: Mao’s China, 1949–76 Paper 2E.2: The German Democratic Republic, There are a series of other features throughout the book 1949–90 to aid your understanding of the period and develop your essay writing skills. About the course Essay writing skills There are features throughout the book to help develop Your overall A level History course for the Edexcel your essay writing skills. The skills developed by the book specification includes three externally examined papers will directly relate to the skills necessary to do well in the and coursework. If you are studying AS History, there are AS and A level exams. two externally examined papers. The papers are: Essay technique sections at the end of chapters develop Paper 1: Breadth study with interpretations (AS and A essay skills. These include how to: level) Paper 2: Depth study (AS and A level) focus on the question Paper 3: Themes in breadth with aspects in depth (A structure your answer level only). deploy detail This book covers the breadth study with interpretations analyse ‘Russia, 1917–91: from Lenin to Yeltsin’ and two depth create and sustain a balanced argument studies of which you must study one: ‘Mao’s China, and, where necessary, how to approach the sources and 1949–76’ or ‘The German Democratic Republic, 1949–90’. extracts that accompany some exam questions. Practice questions provide exam-style questions so that you How to use this book can practise answering questions related to the different topics and themes that you study. This book had been designed to help you develop the knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in Paper 1 and Help with note making Paper 2. On page ix there is a series of note-making styles, which The book divides into three main parts, dealing with you can use as you work through the book. These are Paper 1, Paper 2.1 and Paper 2.2 respectively. The structure designed to ensure that your note making is clear, and sets of each part parallels the structure of the specification. you up to revise for the exam. Therefore: Note it down activities appear throughout the book to Paper 1 has four themes, each divided into three guide your note taking. They sometimes refer back to the chapters, and a final section dealing with the historical note-making styles outlined at the beginning of the book. interpretation, again divided into four chapters. Each theme and historical interpretation begins with a Big Work together Picture, setting the scene for the material which follows. The book also contains work together activities. These Paper 2 starts with a Big Picture overview of the whole consist of activities designed to help you work together to period and then is divided into four chapters dealing check your understanding of the topics as you go along. with the four key topics of the specification. v 9781471837913.indb 5 6/3/15 5:27 PM  Extended reading Section B of the exam paper also contains two questions, of which you are required to complete one. Questions In addition to the traditional textbook narrative, this in Section B will test the breadth of your knowledge book contains four specially commissioned essays from by focusing on at least one-third of the period you have practising academic historians. These address the historical studied: c.23 years. interpretation and are designed to introduce you to the historical debate in a way that is directly related to the exam. Neither Section A nor Section B requires you to read or analyse either sources or extracts from the work of Recommended reading historians. You can find recommended reading sections throughout Section A and B questions require you to deploy a variety the book. These are designed to point you in the direction of skills. The most important are focus on the question, of both classic works on the subject and examples of more selection and deployment of relevant detail, analysis and, at recent historical writing. the highest level, prioritisation. Questions in Sections A and B will focus on one of the About the exam following concepts: cause consequence The A level exam change/continuity The A level comprises three papers and coursework. Papers similarity/difference 1 and 2 are examined at the same time as part of the same significance. route. Paper 1 is worth 30 per cent of the total A level Therefore the questions will typically begin with one of and Paper 2 is worth 20 per cent. Paper 3 is examined the following stems: separately and is worth 30 per cent, with the coursework making up the final 20 per cent of marks. This section How far … looks at Paper 1 and Paper 2, as these are the papers this How accurate is it to say … book supports. To what extent … How significant … Paper 1 How successful … The Paper 1 exam paper is divided into three parts: Section A, Section B and Section C. The different sections will test Section C different skills and aspects of the history you have studied. Section C of the exam paper is different to Sections A and B. While Sections A and B test your own knowledge, Sections A and B test your knowledge of the period Section C tests your own knowledge and your ability to 1917–85. The questions test your breadth of knowledge of analyse and evaluate interpretations of the past in the work four key themes: of historians. Therefore Section C contains two extracts Communist government in the USSR, 1917–85 from the work of historians. Section C of the exam Industrial and agricultural change, 1917–85 contains one compulsory question. Control of the people, 1917–85 Section C focuses on an interpretation related to the Social developments, 1917–85. following controversy: Section C tests your depth of knowledge regarding a What explains the fall of the USSR, c.1985–91? historical interpretation. It looks at the following aspects of the potential crisis: Sections A and B The significance of the economic weaknesses of the Sections A and B test the breadth of your knowledge, USSR and the failure of reform and each section requires you to write an essay. In both The effects of Gorbachev’s failure to reform the Sections A and B you have to answer one question from a Communist Party and the Soviet Government choice of two. The impact of the national resurgence in the late 1980s Section A of the exam paper contains two questions, of in the Soviet republics and in the communist states of which you are required to complete one. Questions in Eastern Europe Section A will test the breadth of your knowledge by How far Gorbachev and Yeltsin can be seen as focusing on at least ten years. responsible for the collapse of the USSR in 1991. vi Introduction 9781471837913.indb 6 6/3/15 5:27 PM  Section C tests your ability to analyse and evaluate Section B different historical interpretations in the light of your own You should answer questions in Section B in the form knowledge. Therefore it tests a variety of skills including: of an essay. The questions can focus on the following identifying the interpretation concepts: writing a well-structured essay cause integrating own extracts with own knowledge consequence reaching an overall judgement. change/continuity similarity/difference Paper 2 significance. Paper 2 is a depth paper. This means that the questions will test your knowledge of short periods of history. The questions can begin with the following question stems: The key topics of Mao’s China, 1949–76 are: How far … How accurate is it to say … Establishing communist rule, 1949–57 To what extent … Agriculture and industry, 1949–65 The Cultural Revolution and its aftermath, 1966–76 Social and cultural changes, 1949–76. The AS level exam The AS level exam comprises two papers. Paper 1 The key topics of The German Democratic Republic, is worth 60 per cent of the total A level and Paper 2 is 1949–90 are: worth 40 per cent. Establishing and consolidating communist rule in the GDR, 1949–61 Paper 1 The development of the East German state, 1961–85 The AS level exam tests all of the same content as the Life in East Germany, 1949–85 A level exam and is structured in exactly the same way. Growing crises and the collapse of communist rule in However, there are differences between the two exams: the GDR, 1985–90. Sections A and B The Paper 2 exam is divided into two sections. Section A There are three key differences between A level and AS is a source question while Section B requires you to write level in Sections A and B: an essay from your own knowledge. Wording: The wording of AS level questions will be less complex than the wording of A level questions. Section A Specifically, there are likely to be fewer adjectives or In the A level paper questions in Section A require you qualifying phrases in the question. For example: to analyse two primary sources. They will typically be phrased in the following way: A level-style question AS level-style question How far could the historian make use of Sources 1 and 2 How accurate is it to say Was repression the main to investigate [x]? that in the years 1928– reason for the survival 1980, the government of of the Communist You are required to use the sources, your own knowledge the USSR relied wholly government in the USSR and the information given about the sources. You might on repression? in the years 1928–1980? consider the following: Explain your answer. what the sources would tell the historian about the topic Focus: Section A questions can focus on a more limited how nature, origin and purpose of the sources could range of concepts at AS than at A level. Specifically, give the historian more information about the critical at AS level Section A questions can only focus on stance of the author, as well as some evidence about cause and consequences (including success and failure), usefulness whereas A level questions can focus on a wider variety how you can use your knowledge of the historical of concepts. context to support or develop inferences made from Mark scheme: The A level mark scheme has five the sources, and to either confirm the accuracy or levels, whereas the AS level mark scheme only has four. limitations of information within them or to note This means that full marks are available at AS for an limitations and challenge the accuracy of the source analytical essay, whereas sustained analysis is necessary what you could say about the two sources in combination. for full marks at A level. Introduction vii 9781471837913.indb 7 6/3/15 5:27 PM  Section C tests the same skills as Section A at A level, but over two Section C of the AS level exam focuses on the same aspects questions rather than one. of the same debate: The AS level Section A is divided into Part (a) and Part (b). What explains the fall of the USSR, c.1985–91? Part (a) contains one compulsory question related to a As in the A level exam you have to answer one single source. Part (a) asks you to consider how the source compulsory question based on two extracts. The AS level is of value to a historian who is engaged in a specified exam is different from the A level exam in the following enquiry. ways: The question requires you to reach a judgement about The question: The AS level question is worded in the ways in which Source 1 is valuable. In that sense the a less complex way than the A level question. For question is not primarily about looking for the ways in example: which the source is unreliable. Examiners are looking for the following skills: A level-style question AS level-style question detailed contextual knowledge that explains the In the light of differing Historians have different interpretations, how views about the reasons meaning of relevant points made by the source convincing do you find for the fall of the Soviet valid inferences the view that the USSR Union. Analyse and an overall judgement about the value of the source collapsed because ‘rather evaluate the extracts and related to valid criteria. than strengthen the Soviet use your knowledge of state, glasnost eventually the issues to explain your Part (b) contains one compulsory question related to a suggested that the Soviet answer to the following single source. Part (b) asks you to consider how much Government was no longer question. How far do weight to a source for a specified enquiry. Therefore Part sustainable’. To explain you agree with the view (b) requires you to consider the value and the limits of the your answer, analyse and that the collapse of the source. evaluate the material in Soviet Union came about both extracts, using your because of Gorbachev’s Part (b) tests your ability to: own knowledge of the political reforms? issues. comprehend and analyse source material use historical knowledge to weigh the value of the The extracts: At AS level the extracts will be slightly source shorter and you may get extracts taken from textbooks reach a judgement, based on valid criteria, about the as well as the work of historians. In this sense the value of the source. extracts at AS should be slightly easier to read and understand. Section B The mark scheme: The A level mark scheme has five Section B of the AS level exam tests the same content levels, whereas the AS level mark scheme only has four. knowledge as Section B of the A level exam. Section B This means that full marks are available at AS for an comprises three questions, of which you must complete analytical essay, whereas sustained analysis is necessary one. for full marks at A level. Paper 2 Section B questions are very similar to Paper 1 Paper 2 Section B questions (see page vii). The key difference relates to the period on which the question focuses. Paper 2 The AS level exam tests all of the same content as the examines your knowledge of depth. Therefore Section B A level exam and is structured in a similar way. However, questions can focus on a single event or a single year. there are differences between the two exams: Alternatively they might focus on the whole chronology of Section A the course. Section A of the AS level exam is structured in a different way to the A level exam. In essence, Section A at AS viii Introduction 9781471837913.indb 8 6/3/15 5:27 PM  g Note takin Good note taking is really important. Your notes are an You can use mathematical notation: essential revision resource. What is more, the process of making notes will help you understand and remember Full text Mathematical notation what you are reading. Equals = Plus, and + How books work Because ∴ Most books are written as clearly as possible. Therefore Therefore ∴ writers use a variety of techniques to help you learn. Here is an example: Authors often break up their work into key points (the most important ideas and themes) and supporting evidence Text Notes (the details that support the key points). Key points are The Crisis of 1921, which Crisis 1921 = ↑ usually general statements. For example, a key point might included rebellion among the opposition ∴ L be ‘During the Civil War the government increasingly peasants, workers’ strikes and made reforms became a party-state based on the Communist Party.’ The military mutiny, showed the extent of opposition to Lenin’s supporting evidence might be a list of detailed examples government and therefore forced that indicate the key point is correct. Lenin to reform. How to make notes Note-making styles There are a large number of note-making styles. You can Most note-making styles reflect the distinction between key find examples of four popular styles below. All of them points and supporting evidence. Below is advice on a variety have their strengths. It is a good idea to try them all and of different note-making styles. Throughout each section in work out which style suits you. the book are note-making activities for you to carry out. The examples below are of notes taken from Chapter 1 on page 4. Hints and tips The important thing is that you understand your notes. Style 1: Bullet points Therefore you don’t have to write everything down, and you don’t have to write in full sentences. Bullet points can be a useful method of making notes While making notes you can use abbreviations: because: Full text Abbreviation they encourage you to write in note form, rather than in full sentences Communist Party CP they help you to organise your ideas in a systematic fashion New Economic Policy NEP they are easy to skim read later Civil War CW you can show relative importance visually by indenting Lenin L less important, or supporting points. First World War WW1 1 Scan the section before you read it in depth. Identify You can use arrows instead of words: headings (points of explanation). Significantly, you Full text Arrow should try looking for the key points in the first sentence of each paragraph. On your page of notes, set Increased ↑ the key points out in sections. Decreased ↓ ix 9781471837913.indb 9 6/3/15 5:27 PM  2 Now read carefully through the section. Write Style 3: Spider diagrams supporting points or points of evidence under the relevant headings. Spider diagrams or mind maps can be a useful method of The end result should look like this: making notes because: Key features of Russia before 1917 they will help you to categorise factors; each of the main Empire ruled by all-powerful Tsars branches coming from the centre should be a new category Repression widespread they can help you see what is most important; often the Weak rural economy: poverty + little industry most important factors will be close to the centre of the Underground opposition (RSDLP) (SRs) diagram Impact of WW1 – economic chaos = they can help you see connections between different 1 Feb Rev. = Prov. gov aspects of what you are studying; it is useful to draw lines 2 Oct. Rev = L + Bolsheviks take power between different parts of your diagram to show links they can also help you with essay planning; you can use Style 2: The 1:2 method them to quickly get down the main points and develop a clear structure in response to an essay question. The 1:2 method is a variation on bullet points. The method is based on dividing your page into two columns: the first for 1 Draw a circle in the middle of your piece of paper. It the main point, the second for supporting detail. This allows should be large enough to contain the section title. you to see the structure of the information clearly. 2 Scan the section and identify headings. Draw lines out from your central circle – remember to leave plenty of 1 Divide your page like in the example below: room between them so that you can fit in all of your notes. 3 Read through the section carefully. Write supporting 1 third 2 thirds points or points of evidence under the relevant headings. 2 Write the key points in the left-hand section. 3 Write the supporting detail in the right-hand section. The end result should look like this: Key points Supporting detail Russia Powerful Tsars ruled; 1884–1917 = before 1914 Nicholas II Empire – Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, Finland, Estonia Repression widespread – e.g. Lena Goldmine massacre 1912 Little modern industry: 2.4m/140m industrial workers Opposition – underground; aim to overthrow Tsar + end poverty, e.g. RSDLP and SRs x Introduction 9781471837913.indb 10 6/3/15 5:27 PM  The end result should look like this: End poverty Economics: Politics: Little Industry Tsarism NII 1884-1917 Goals Russia before Overthrow Tsar Opposition 1914 RSDLP SR’s Empire: Ukraine, Georgia, Repression: Finland, Estonia Lena Goldmine (1912) Style 4: Index cards Russia Before 1917 Key Features Pre-WW1 Index cards are particularly useful when you are revising for Key Point your exam, or when you are planning your essays. Subtitle Revision Key Point Index cards are small and therefore they encourage you to prioritise by forcing you to note down only the most Subtitle important information. Essay planning You can use index cards to help plan essays in the following way. First, select all of the cards that are relevant to your essay. Arrange the cards in order to develop a structure for your essay. Rearranging the cards can also help work out the best structure for your essay. 1 Scan through the section. Identify either themes or 2 Now read the section carefully. On the back of each important sub-sections. Use a different index card for index card bullet point the relevant notes. each sub-section. On one side of each index card write: – the title of the main section in the top left corner in one colour – the title of the sub-section that you are currently reading about in the middle of the index card in Empire ruled by all-powerful Tsars: 1884–1917 = Nicholas II another colour. Repression widespread: Lena Goldmine massacre 1914 Weak rural economy: poverty + little modern industry Underground opposition to Tsar (RSDLP) (SRs) 3 You can punch a hole in the corner of the cards and tag- tie the cards for each section together. Introduction xi 9781471837913.indb 11 6/3/15 5:27 PM  Paper 1 Russia, 1917–91: from Lenin to Yeltsin Theme 1 Communist government in the USSR, 1917–85 The Big Picture The story of communist government in Russia is one of rise, transformation and decline. At first, under Lenin, the new government was radical, uncompromising and revolutionary. Lenin overthrew the existing government, fought a bitter civil war, and created a wholly new type of government. Lenin claimed he was establishing a government of the workers. However, Lenin’s Russia was a mix of a utopian vision and skilful political compromise. Therefore, in order to ensure the survival of the new government at all costs, Lenin’s government was based much more on administrators and bureaucrats than it was on working people. Fundamentally, Lenin’s government was based on the Communist Party. In fact Lenin established a one-party state which guaranteed the supremacy of the Communist Party within Russian Government. Stalin started a revolution of his own. His ‘revolution from above’ was designed to build on Lenin’s achievement. Lenin had ended capitalism, but Stalin would begin the world’s first serious attempt to create a socialist society. Stalin’s revolution made Russia an economic giant. But it also created a totalitarian state: a government based on terror, propaganda and a cult of personality. After Stalin’s death Khrushchev attempted to reform the Russian Government. Communism in Russia became more humane – people were no longer sent to labour camps or executed in such large numbers. After the horrors of Stalinism, Khrushchev wanted to revive popular faith in Communism. But Khrushchev’s reforms had the potential to destabilise communist rule in Russia. Consequently, in order to protect the power of the Party, Khrushchev was replaced by Brezhnev, a leader that the Communist Party could rely on to protect its position. Under Brezhnev, Communism in Russia lost its revolutionary energy and finally completed its journey from revolutionary movement to party of government. Brezhnev’s greatest strength was also his greatest weakness: his ability to guarantee stability meant that he was unable to reform. Between 1982 and 1985, Russia’s final leaders struggled with the same problems that had faced Khrushchev and Brezhnev: how could the Communist Party reform without abandoning the one-party state created by Lenin? 2 Paper 1 Russia, 1917–91: from Lenin to Yeltsin 9781471837913.indb 2 6/3/15 5:27 PM  In this theme you will consider the following. ➜ How Lenin and the Communist Party won and consolidated power, 1917–24: The changing nature of Lenin’s government from the October Revolution, through the Civil War to Lenin’s death. ➜ Russia under Stalin, 1928–53: The elimination of Stalin’s opponents, the Great Terror and the creation of a personal dictatorship. ➜ Communist government, 1953–85: Khrushchev’s attempts to reform the Communist Government, Brezhnev’s attempts to stabilise communist rule, and the growing political difficulties of the Communist Government under Andropov and Chernenko. TIMELINE 1914 Russia enters the First World War 1917 February The February Revolution overthrows the Tsar 1917 March a Provisional Government is established 1917 October The October Revolution overthrows the Provisional Government. Lenin establishes Sovnarkom. 1918–1921 Increasing political centralisation during the Russian Civil War. Lenin disbands Constituent Assembly 1921 Opposition political parties banned. The Communists triumph in the Civil War. Russia becomes a one-party state 1921 March Party Congress bans factions. 1924 January Lenin dies 1928 Stalin emerges as leader of Russia 1934 January Private criticism of Stalin expressed at the Congress of Victors 1934 December Kirov is murdered in Leningrad 1935 The Great Terror begins with a purge of the Leningrad Communist Party 1936 August Stalin removes high profile opponents in the first of Moscow show- trials 1936 September Yezhov becomes head of the secret police. The Great Terror intensifies 1953 March Stalin dies 1956 February Khrushchev’s secret speech – beginning of widespread de-Stalinisation 1957 July Greater freedom of expression is permitted following the World Festival of Youth and Students 1964 October Khrushchev removed from office. Brezhnev begins to reverse Khrushchev’s reforms 1966 December New criminal code tightens laws on political dissent 1975 Brezhnev becomes increasingly ill and unable to govern effectively 1976 February Brezhnev fails to introduce reforms at the Twenty-Fifth Party Congress, in spite of growing economic, social and political problems 1982 November Andropov initiates reforms to tackle corruption 1984 February Andropov dies and is replaced by Chernenko before his reforms had taken effect Theme 1 Communist government in the USSR, 1917–85 3 9781471837913.indb 3 6/3/15 5:28 PM  1a: Establishing Communist Party control, 1917–24 Overview Lenin abandoned democracy altogether during Russia’s Civil War, and the new government became increasingly Russia experienced two revolutions in 1917. The first led centralised and authoritarian. Lenin’s victory in the Civil to the downfall of the Tsar – the head of the royal family. War did not lead to the restoration of democracy. Rather, The second led to the creation of a radical new form Lenin outlawed rival political parties and by 1921 had of government which promised freedom and equality created a radically new kind of government: a one-party for Russia’s working people. In order to achieve this, state. However, it was highly centralised and authoritarian, revolutionary leader Lenin constructed a new government. and therefore nothing like the free and democratic society At first, Lenin promised a democratic government, which that he had promised in 1917. would be based on the support of all working people. Lenin’s first actions were truly popular, reflecting long- This chapter examines the creation of the communist one- standing desires of Russia’s workers, peasants and party state through the following sections: soldiers. However, Lenin’s new government was also 1 Background to the Bolshevik Revolution ruthless, and from the very start it terrorised its opponents. 2 Lenin’s state, 1917–18 Moreover, for Lenin, democracy was less important than his 3 The impact of the Civil War, 1918–21 desire to maintain control. Therefore, when his party lost 4 1921: Crisis and reform elections Lenin disregarded the results. 5 Conclusion: Lenin’s legacy. 1 Background to the Bolshevik the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) and the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), both of which Revolution were committed to overthrowing the Tsar, liberating the people of the Russian Empire and ending poverty. Before the revolutions of 1917 Russia was ruled by However, neither group were able to organise effectively a series of all-powerful emperors. Tsar Nicholas II, due to the Tsar’s political police, who routinely spied Russian Emperor from 1894 until 1917, was widely on these groups and arrested and exiled their leaders. regarded as more repressive than other European rulers. Inspite of repression, Tsarism was rocked by the 1905 Repression was widespread and the vast majority of the Revolution, a series of revolts that almost led to the Tsar’s subjects were impoverished and had no political overthrow of the Tsar. Political compromise and renewed rights. For example, hundreds of miners who protested repression ensured the survival of the regime until the for higher wages at the Lena goldmine in 1912 were First World War. brutally massacred by the Tsar’s troops. The Tsar’s empire extended beyond Russia and included the Ukraine, The First World War Georgia, Finland and Estonia. Russia entered the First World War in 1914. While the government was strong, the economy was Russia’s economy was incapable of providing the food weak compared to that of Britain, Germany, the USA and equipment necessary to fight the war. Additionally, and other major powers. Russia had very little modern the Tsar was an incompetent wartime leader. By early industry. Indeed, by 1913 only 2.4 million of Russia’s 140 1917 economic chaos, military defeat and political million people worked in large factories. Nicholas II’s mismanagement led to the February Revolution: a popular government tried to encourage economic growth, but it uprising in Petrograd, Russia’s capital city that overthrew was only partly successful. What is more, even in periods the Tsar and set up a Provisional Government. of economic growth, the population as a whole remained extremely poor. The Provisional Government Political repression and massive economic inequality led Following the February Revolution, the Provisional to the growth of underground opposition to the Tsar. Government introduced a series of reforms. The Around 1900 the two largest opposition parties were Tsar’s despotism was replaced by a liberal system, 4 Paper 1 Russia, 1917–91: from Lenin to Yeltsin 9781471837913.indb 4 6/3/15 5:28 PM  which included freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and freedom of religion. Additionally, Note it down the Provisional Government promised democratic Using bullet points (see page ix), make notes on the key elections to form a new government. However, the features of Russia prior to 1917. As this is background you Provisional Government continued to fight the First do not need a great deal of detail. Rather write a single World War. bullet point on the key political, economic and social Lenin, a radical member of the RSDLP, argued for features of the period. Additionally, summarise the impact of a second revolution. Following his return from exile the First World War on the Russian Government in a single in April 1917, he demanded an immediate end to the bullet point. First World War and the redistribution of land to the peasants. These demands were summarised in the slogan ‘Peace, Land and Bread’. As the Provisional Lenin’s ideology Government continued to fight in the war and Russia’s Lenin seized power because he believed that a global economic problems grew worse, Lenin’s message became revolution was necessary to replace capitalism and increasingly popular. imperialism with socialism: a new social system that would allow all people to be genuinely free and equal. By October 1917 Lenin and his followers the Bolsheviks This view was based on a Marxist view of history. had enough support to overthrow the Provisional Government. Lenin and Trotsky (see page 7) seized the The Marxist view of history moment and organised a coup d’état, which allowed the Bolsheviks to take power. Karl Marx was a German philosopher and revolutionary, who lived in the nineteenth century. He became famous Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, 1870–1924 Vladimir Ilyich Lenin is one Between 1899 and 1903, Lenin played a leading role in of the most famous the foundation of the RSDLP – which became Russia’s revolutionaries of all time. most influential Marxist party. Lenin became leader of the Born in the late nineteenth Bolshevik faction of the RSDLP. Lenin, like many Russian century, he is remembered radicals, wanted to transform Russia. He wanted to destroy as the man who led the the royal family, end the power of the Russian Church and first successful communist create a modern nation, which embraced cutting-edge revolution. Lenin’s early life science and industry. In so doing, Lenin hoped to improve was troubled by radical the lives of millions of working Russians who lived in poverty. politics. Aleksandr, his Between 1903 and 1917 Lenin spent a great deal of time in older brother, was exile. He was a brilliant writer and organiser, but he also had executed in 1887 for the a reputation for being manipulative and for getting his way attempted assassination by scheming within the RSDLP. of Tsar Alexander III. Following this, Lenin’s family were Lenin’s personality affected his approach to politics. He shunned by their community. As a student Lenin joined a could be extremely pragmatic and therefore willing to radical socialist movement; this led to his expulsion from sacrifice important principles in order to safeguard his university for protesting in favour of student rights. In spite power. He enjoyed arguing with his colleagues and getting of this he continued to be involved in revolutionary politics. his own way. He also had a reputation for experiencing fits Even as a young man, Lenin was a natural leader and of rage – in fact his outbursts were so frequent towards the therefore tended to play a leading role in the underground end of his life that his colleagues suspected he was mentally radical groups he joined. As a result he was targeted by the unstable. Finally, Lenin despised ‘sentimentality’; therefore police and in 1897, like many Russian revolutionaries, he he felt little sympathy for the suffering of others and was was arrested and exiled. prepared to use violence and terror to achieve his goals. Theme 1 Communist government in the USSR, 1917–85 5 9781471837913.indb 5 6/3/15 5:28 PM  for arguing that the workers should rise up and destroy capitalism in a revolution. Marx’s view of revolution was 2 Lenin’s state, 1917–18 based on his theory of history. Marx argued that history Lenin’s new state changed over time. Initially, he had progressed through a series of stages, as Table 1 shows. embraced a radically democratic state. However, by the Table 1: Marx’s four stages of history. summer of 1918, the revolutionary state was much more authoritarian. Primitive Humans lived in a simple society where Communism they hunted and gathered. There was no government and all people were Note it down essentially equal. Using the 1:2 method (see page x) make notes on the Classical In ancient Greece and Rome society was following topics: slavery divided into masters and slaves. Society How did Lenin justify his new state? became more sophisticated, but was deeply unequal. How was Lenin’s new state structured? How powerful was Lenin’s state between 1917 and 1918? Feudalism During the Middle Ages, society was How democratic was Lenin’s state between 1917 and controlled by noble families who owned the land and controlled the lives of the 1918? peasants who worked for them. Capitalism Following the Industrial Revolution, power passed to people who owned the Creating a ‘soviet-state’ new factories. Workers, the proletariat, In October 1917, Lenin seized power on behalf of the were essentially powerless due to their soviets – small democratic councils that had emerged extreme poverty. spontaneously in every town and village across Russia after the February Revolution. Between February and Marx argued that progress from one stage to another October 1917, the soviets played a key role in governing occurred due to class conf lict. For example, at the end Russia. Additionally, the local soviets sent representatives of feudalism the new capitalist class overthrew the old to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which met feudal lords and established a new kind of society based on in June 1917 to discuss Russia’s future. Lenin and other industry rather than on the control of land. Marx argued senior Bolsheviks argued that the All-Russian Congress that the English, American and French Revolutions were of Soviets, which met for a second time in October, examples of the victory of capitalism over feudalism. should become the basis of the new Russian Government. Indeed, the October Revolution formally handed power Marx believed that capitalism would also come to an end. to the All-Russian Congress. However, as the All-Russian He argued that, following a workers’ revolution, capitalism Congress was too big to meet regularly they elected the would be replaced by socialism in Europe’s most advanced Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom) to govern economies. Lenin believed that the chaos produced by the Russia on a day-to-day basis. First World War provided an opportunity to overthrow capitalism across Europe. Sovnarkom The state and revolution Sovnarkom was essentially the new Russian cabinet. The first Sovnarkom was made up of 13 People’s Commissars. Marx’s writings did not contain a clear indication of how a Lenin was elected Chairman of Sovnarkom, and other revolution would be carried out, or what socialism would Commissars included Leon Trotsky (see page 7), who look like. Indeed, Marx’s writings were contradictory. In was head of the People’s Commissariat of Foreign some places, Marx argued that a revolutionary government Affairs, and Joseph Stalin (see page 8), who was head of would be more democratic than a capitalist government; the People’s Commissariat of Nationality Affairs. however, he also famously wrote about the ‘dictatorship All of the new Commissars were revolutionaries. The of the proletariat’, which would use its power ruthlessly to vast majority had supported Lenin since 1903. Many destroy the power of capitalists. Lenin seems to have taken had worked with him in exile, and all had supported the both of these ideas seriously. Bolshevik seizure of power. 6 Paper 1 Russia, 1917–91: from Lenin to Yeltsin 9781471837913.indb 6 6/3/15 5:28 PM  For the first few months, Sovnarkom had little real power. Leon Trotsky, 1879–1940 The October Revolution had occurred in Russia’s capital Before 1917 Trotsky was city, Petrograd. At first, it did not give Lenin control of already a revolutionary Russia’s other major cities or the vast rural areas that made hero due to his role up the majority of Russia’s territory. Senior figures from in the failed 1905 the former government still had a great deal of power and Revolution. Trotsky refused to recognise Bolshevik authority. For example, and Lenin disagreed in late November General Dukhonin, Chief of Staff of violently about politics the Russian army, refused a direct order from Lenin to stop fighting and begin peace negotiations. Equally, the before 1917. However, Russian State Bank and State Treasury went on strike following the February immediately after the revolution, denying Lenin’s new Revolution they worked government the funds that it needed to operate. closely together until Lenin’s death. Trotsky Initially, Sovnarkom was also extremely disorganised. played a leading role This is evident from Lenin’s early appointments of in the October Revolution and in the first years of Russia’s People’s Commissars. For example, in the first few Communist Government. He also led the Communist’s Red days of the new government, Stalin’s Commissariat for Army to victory in the Civil War (see page 9). In spite of his Nationalities was, in reality, just a desk in the corner brilliance, he was not universally popular among Lenin’s of a room at the Smolny Institute, the building where followers. He was viewed as arrogant and unreliable. Sovnarkom was originally based. Additionally, he was viewed as a threat, and therefore Equally, Vyacheslav Menzhinsky’s Commissariat of other senior members of the Party plotted successfully to Finance was initially nothing more than a sofa with expel him from the Party and from Russia. a large piece of paper pinned to it bearing the words ‘Commissariat of Finance’. Lenin’s government would Lenin’s first government passed a series of decrees that need to fight a civil war before it had genuine control of were genuinely popular. Immediately following the the whole of Russia. October Revolution, Lenin gave a speech to the All- Russian Congress of Soviets. He proposed a series of How democratic was Russia in 1918? decrees which the Congress of Soviets voted to approve: Lenin and the Bolsheviks claimed that the new the Decree on Land (October 1917), which gave government was truly democratic. Lenin argued that peasants the right to seize land from the nobility and the new state was based on committees of working the Church people who participated in government on a day-to-day the Decree of Peace (October 1917), which committed basis. He claimed the soviet-state was more democratic the new government to withdrawing from the First than the systems in Britain, the USA and France where World War and seeking peace. people merely voted once every four or five years. This commitment to people power was also ref lected in the Lenin continued to publish popular decrees for the first title of the new leaders, who were known as People’s few months of the government, including: Commissars. Trotsky suggested this title in order Workers’ Decrees (November 1917), which to demonstrate the revolutionary nature of the new established an eight-hour maximum working day and government. In so doing, he deliberately used the terms a minimum wage that were associated with the government that took power the Decree of Workers’ Control (April 1918), which after the French Revolution. allowed workers to elect committees to run factories. Broad-based support These early measures allowed Lenin to establish control There is clear evidence that the new government was over Russia in two main ways. First, the decrees won genuinely democratic. For example, the first decrees were popular support for the regime from workers, peasants genuinely popular and ref lected what the majority of the and soldiers. Second, ending the First World War gave the workers, peasants and soldiers wanted. Equally, in 1918 revolution what Lenin called ‘breathing space’ in which to Russia was not yet a one-party state. According to the begin to rebuild the economy and to start constructing a Constitution of 1918, Sovnarkom was responsible to the new government. Congress of Soviets – which contained representatives Theme 1 Communist government in the USSR, 1917–85 7 9781471837913.indb 7 6/3/15 5:28 PM  Joseph Stalin, 1878–1953 Prior to the October Christian priest. However, after reading the work of Marx, he Revolution Stalin abandoned the Church in favour of revolution. was one of a Stalin was one of the first members of the revolutionary number of dedicated RSDLP in Georgia and from 1906 was a regular at RSDLP revolutionaries who Party Congresses, becoming known to Lenin. Stalin was not spent long periods regarded as an outstanding speaker or as a gifted intellectual, in exile due to their but was respected as a capable administrator. Lenin valued political beliefs. Born his loyalty. Consequently, he became part of Lenin’s inner in Gori, Georgia, then circle and played small but important roles in the October part of the Russian Revolution and the Civil War (see page 9). Stalin was highly Empire, the young ambitious and once in power his desire to dominate the Party Stalin trained as a and punish his opponents became evident. of many political parties including the Bolshevik’s main Assembly by force after only one day, claiming that it rivals, the Mensheviks, and the Socialist Revolutionaries posed a threat to the power of the soviets. (SRs). What is more, a faction of the SRs supported the However, Lenin was also willing to disregard the soviets. new government and some SRs initially had junior roles in In March 1918, Lenin approved the Treaty of Brest- the new government. Litovsk, which gave away a significant proportion of One of the reasons that there was broad-based support for Russian territory to the Central Powers in order to end the new government in Petrograd and Moscow was the Russia’s involvement in the First World War. The treaty belief that it would become a coalition government was extremely unpopular and therefore the Bolsheviks representing all of Russia’s main socialist parties. Indeed, lost the soviet elections across Russia in April and May moderates within the Bolshevik Party, such as Zinoviev 1918. In order to retain power, Lenin refused to recognise and Kamenev, argued that Lenin should form a coalition the results, arguing that the elections had not been fair. government and work with other political parties. However, Moreover, Mensheviks and the Socialist Revolutionaries when Bolshevik moderates were unable to persuade Lenin were expelled from the soviets. Lenin demanded new to compromise they resigned in protest. As a result, by elections, but quickly postponed them due to the outbreak November, Lenin’s new government was dominated by of the Civil War. Nikolai Bukharin, the official people who wanted the Bolshevik Party to govern alone. Bolshevik Party theorist, argued that ‘formal democracy’, by which he meant elections to the soviets, had to be Additionally, there was genuine support for a Bolshevik- abandoned in order to win the Civil War. As a result of the dominated government among the workers of Petrograd abolition of the Constituent Assembly and Lenin’s refusal to in the early days of the revolution. For example, the recognise the results of new soviet elections, Lenin was able Petrograd Trades Union Council, which met on to consolidate Bolshevik power. However, it became more 31 October, and the First Conference of Female Factory difficult to argue that the new government was democratic. Workers, which met on 5 November 1917, both gave their full support to the new Bolshevik Government. They supported Lenin’s early decrees and the courage the How democratic were the early Bolsheviks had shown by overthrowing the Provisional decrees? Government in the October Revolution. Many of Lenin’s early decrees were extremely popular. However, it could be argued that Lenin was forced to be The Constituent Assembly democratic, because, in the early days, the new government In January 1918, there was a clear indication that Lenin had very limited power. Therefore Lenin was forced to allow was turning against democracy. Specifically, Lenin refused the peasants to seize land, and the workers to take control to recognise the results of a nationwide election held in of their factories. In this sense, rather than extending November 1917. The election created a Constituent the rights of Russian people, the early decrees merely Assembly with a Bolshevik minority, which met for the authorised what was already taking place. first time in January 1918. Lenin closed the Constituent 8 Paper 1 Russia, 1917–91: from Lenin to Yeltsin 9781471837913.indb 8 6/3/15 5:28 PM  3 The impact of the Civil War, too. The SRs and Mensheviks wanted a more democratic type of socialist government, and anarchists wanted to 1918–21 abolish government altogether. Britain, France, the USA and Japan also sent troops to fight the new government. Some The Russian Civil War (1918–21) allowed Lenin to countries feared that a successful revolution might spread, establish communist control over the whole of Russia. while others wanted to gain territory. Moreover, it radically changed the nature of the Bolshevik Party (renamed the Communist Party in 1918), and the The first signs of military conflict emerged in January 1918 new government. The Civil War led to the creation of as General Kornilov organised an anti-Bolshevik army in the a ‘party-state’ and, as a result of the Civil War, the state Don region. SRs and liberals set up a rival government in became increasingly authoritarian and centralised. Omsk, Siberia, while other SRs based in the city of Ufa tried to revive the Constituent Assembly. A full-scale civil war broke out in the summer of 1918, with the enemies of the Note it down Bolsheviks gaining significant ground in the first six months of 1919. Following the failure of anti-Bolshevik forces to This section focuses on the transformation of Lenin’s capture Petrograd and Moscow, Russia’s new capital city, in government during the Civil War. Using a mind map (see the summer of 1919, the Red Army began to win the war. page x), make notes on the following topics: Changes to the government The Red Army extended communist power by winning Reasons for government changes victories against Nestor Makhno’s anarchist army in Nature of the government by 1921. the Ukraine, against Alexander Kolchak’s authoritarian government in Siberia, and against Anton Denikin’s army in the Crimea (see Figure 1). The Russian Civil War From the start, Lenin’s revolutionary government faced Government during the Civil War serious opposition. Lenin described the war as a battle Lenin’s primary objective during the Civil War was to between the Communist Reds and the reactionary Whites, ensure the survival of the new government. Lenin was but in reality the war was more complex. The Bolsheviks willing to do whatever was necessary in order to win. As a had opponents on all sides. Senior members of the Russian result of the Civil War, government changed in two ways: army wanted to re-establish Tsarist rule, while others wanted a military dictatorship or a democratic system like France Lenin’s government became increasingly centralised. or America. The new government had radical opponents The Communist Party became increasingly powerful. Key BRITISH, FRENCH BRITISH Foreign armies of intervention Czech White armies and their Legion leaders BRITISH, FRENCH, Land under Bolshevik AMERICANS control, 1919 Murmansk RUSSIA