Sociology Syllabus PDF

SOCIOLOGY SYLLABUS PAPER– I FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 1. Sociology - The Discipline: (a) Modernity and social changes in Europe and emergence of sociology. (b) Scope of the subject and comparison with other social sciences. (c) Sociology and common sense....

SOCIOLOGY SYLLABUS PAPER– I FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 1. Sociology - The Discipline: (a) Modernity and social changes in Europe and emergence of sociology. (b) Scope of the subject and comparison with other social sciences. (c) Sociology and common sense. 2. Sociology as Science: (a) Science, scientific method, and critique. (b) Major theoretical strands of research methodology. (c) Positivism and its critique. (d) Fact value and objectivity. (e) Non- positivist methodologies 3. Research Methods and Analysis: (a) Qualitative and quantitative methods. (b) Techniques of data collection. (c) Variables, sampling, hypothesis, reliability, and validity. 4. Sociological Thinkers: (a) Karl Marx- Historical materialism, mode of production, alienation, class struggle. (b) Emile Durkheim- Division of labour, social fact, suicide, religion and society. (c) Max Weber- Social action, ideal types, authority, bureaucracy, protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. (d) Talcolt Parsons- Social system, pattern variables. (e) Robert K. Merton- Latent and manifest functions, conformity and deviance, reference groups (f) Mead - Self and identity. 5. Stratification and Mobility: (a) Concepts- equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion, poverty and deprivation (b) Theories of social stratification- Structural functionalist theory, Marxist theory, Weberian theory. (c) Dimensions – Social stratification of class, status groups, gender, ethnicity and race. (d) Social mobility- open and closed systems, types of mobility, sources and causes of mobility. 6. Works and Economic Life: (a) Social organization of work in different types of society- slave society, feudal society, industrial /capitalist society. (b) Formal and informal organization of work (c) Labour and society. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  SOCIOLOGY SYLLABUS 7. Politics and Society: (a) Sociological theories of power (b) Power elite, bureaucracy, pressure groups, and political parties. (c) Nation, state, citizenship, democracy, civil society, ideology. (d) Protest, agitation, social movements, collective action, revolution. 8. Religion and Society: (a) Sociological theories of religion. (b) Types of religious practices: animism, monism, pluralism, sects, cults. (c) Religion in modern society: religion and science, secularization, religious revivalism, fundamentalism. 9. Systems of Kinship: (a) Family, household, marriage. (b) Types and forms of family. (c) Lineage and descent (d) Patriarchy and sexual division of labour (e) Contemporary trends. 10. Social Change in Modern Society: (a) Sociological theories of social change. (b) Development and dependency. (c) Agents of social change. (d) Education and social change. (e) Science, technology and social change. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  SOCIOLOGY SYLLABUS PAPER–II INDIAN SOCIETY: STRUCTURE AND CHANGE A. Introducing Indian Society: (i) Perspectives on the study of Indian society: (a) Indology (GS. Ghurye). (b) Structural functionalism (M N Srinivas). (c) Marxist sociology ( A R Desai). (ii) Impact of colonial rule on Indian society : (a) Social background of Indian nationalism. (b) Modernization of Indian tradition. (c) Protests and movements during the colonial period. (d) Social reforms B. Social Structure: (i) Rural and Agrarian Social Structure: (a) The idea of Indian village and village studies- (b) Agrarian social structure - evolution of land tenure system, land reforms. (ii) Caste System: (a) Perspectives on the study of caste systems: GS Ghurye, M N Srinivas, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille. (b) Features of caste system. (c) Untouchability - forms and perspectives (iii) Tribal communities in India: (a) Definitional problems. (b) Geographical spread. (c) Colonial policies and tribes. (d) Issues of integration and autonomy. (iv) Social Classes in India: (a) Agrarian class structure. (b) Industrial class structure. (c) Middle classes in India. (v) Systems of Kinship in India: (a) Lineage and descent in India. (b) Types of kinship systems. (c) Family and marriage in India. (d) Household dimensions of the family. (e) Patriarchy, entitlements and sexual division of labour. (vi) Religion and Society: (a) Religious communities in India. (b) Problems of religious minorities. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  SOCIOLOGY SYLLABUS C. Social Changes in India: (i) Visions of Social Change in India: (a) Idea of development planning and mixed economy. (b) Constitution, law and social change. (c) Education and social change. (ii) Rural and Agrarian transformation in India: (a) Programmes of rural development, Community Development Programme, cooperatives, poverty alleviation schemes. (b) Green revolution and social change. (c) Changing modes of production in Indian agriculture. (d) Problems of rural labour, bondage, migration. (iii) Industrialization and Urbanisation in India: (a) Evolution of modern industry in India. (b) Growth of urban settlements in India. (c) Working class: structure, growth, class mobilization. (d) Informal sector, child labour (e) Slums and deprivation in urban areas. (iv) Politics and Society: (a) Nation, democracy and citizenship. (b) Political parties, pressure groups , social and political elite. (c) Regionalism and decentralization of power. (d) Secularization (v) Social Movements in Modern India: (a) Peasants and farmers movements. (b) Women’s movement. (c) Backward classes & Dalit movement. (d) Environmental movements. (e) Ethnicity and Identity movements. (vi) Population Dynamics: (a) Population size, growth, composition and distribution. (b) Components of population growth: birth, death, migration. (c) Population policy and family planning. (d) Emerging issues: ageing, sex ratios, child and infant mortality, reproductive health. (vii) Challenges of Social Transformation: (a) Crisis of development: displacement, environmental problems and sustainability. (b) Poverty, deprivation and inequalities. (c) Violence against women. (d) Caste conflicts. (e) Ethnic conflicts, communalism, religious revivalism. (f) Illiteracy and disparities in education. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] Sociology Foundation 3.0 CSE 2024 S IA Topic: Unit 1(a) P U v el Le Handout: 01 Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] Sociology- The Discipline a) MODERNITY AND SOCIAL CHANGES IN EUROPE AND EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY. SOCIAL CHANGES IN EUROPE Today, all of us believe in a system where everyone is treated equally by the law, but back in the Middle Ages, there was neither the concept of equality nor the concept of law. Europe had gone through a long chain of events and intellectual currents which not only transformed European society but also brought the concept of Modernity. ORIGIN OF INTELLECTUAL IDEAS Intellectual ideas /currents: defined as those that led to the changes in the ideas and thinking. RENAISSANCE (1400-1600) For 1000s of years, church had been telling the people of Europe that their lives on Earth were inconsequential and they should only worry about going into heaven when they died. As a result, most S European peasants, artisans, and even Kings spent IA their entire lives trying to follow Vatican law (the rule of church). This devotion to the church left little time for Europeans to do anything else. P lU Medieval Art & Literature was all about church & salvation. However, the Church’s ve domination of European culture soon ended when the Renaissance began, and humanism spread throughout the land. Le Renaissance was the period of artistic, scientific, and cultural growth for the people of Europe. Artists and scientists worked hard every day to improve their lives and the lives of the people around them. This movement ushered in the era of Humanism, individualism, and secularism: set of philosophies that stood against the medieval writers & artists who mostly used religious themes in their writing and art works. Humanism: a philosophy which questioned the teachings of catholic church and concentrated on the significance of human activity, learning, and bettering oneself which spawned individualism. It emphasizes that the rights and responsibilities of each individual person are more important than the spiritual destiny of the soul. Scholars began to believe that what we do with our time on earth is more important than what we do in the afterlife. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  Secularism: came as a challenge to Vatican law. Secularism was the act of living and customs written and created by people without the use of religious texts to guide them. It was the first-time people started following laws that were written by humans for humans. Individualism: Many educated scholars that lived during the Renaissance used Humanism to come up with their own ideas that might upset members of the church. MIDDLE AGES (Before Humanism) RENAISSANCE (After Humanism) Centered around GOD Centered around Individual Restricted individual expression Rebirth of Individualism. The spirit of individualism incited the Protestant revolt Protestant Reformation: was about reforms in catholic church. Characterized by Christian view of Humans Philosophy that people are rational beings as sinful became popular. Faith in God weakened & dignity of mankind restored. Celebration of divine agency Contribution of individuals in science (Galileo Galilei), arts (Leonardo Da Vinci), & literature (Shakespeare) was recognized. Medieval art & Architecture: Renaissance Art & Architecture: Focused on Focused on religious theme Human, its anatomy, like Jesus. expressions, nature, Saints, and and everyday life. scenes from the Expressive S Bible. faces Faces were Individuality in IA similar and faces and emotions. serious without Nude images P emotion. and individual lU People fully portraits. clothed Used Perspective (A technique to ve 2D figures with one color introduce depth/3 Dimensional) Background (mostly gold). Author’s signature Le No signature of artists. Thereafter, we saw birth of: Renaissance Art & Literature: In Architecture, painting, literature and scripture, the focus was less on religion and church, and more on human centered world. o Renaissance Art characterized by Realism, perspective and Individualism. Education had become increasingly secular and split into different subjects (birth of humanities) Scientific Renaissance These 3 implied nothing but contribution of humans in different fields. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] Scientific Renaissance Renaissance Art & Literature Nicholas Copernicus came up with Artists developed their abilities developed Heliocentric theory to counter geo- techniques like perspective to add realism to centric theory proposed by Church. their painting (unlike one dimensional religious art). Leonardo Vinci began studying anatomy to gain a better understanding of how the human body work (Catholic church did not encourage the study of human body). E.g. Monalisa. This marked the beginning of Scientific Renaissance/Scientific Revolution: A Michaelangelo’s statue of Biblical period characterized by developments in hero DAVID is a declaration of the mathematics, physics, chemistry, perfection of the human form. astronomy, biology or emergence of modern science which transformed societal views about nature. Kepler: planets orbit earth in an Cartography became popular as individuals elliptical manner. started to become more curious about the world Galileo Galilei: built and used his own around them. telescope to support Copernicus. Declared heretic by church authorities. S Newton IA demonstrated the universal law of gravitation and the fact that universe P was one huge uniform system. lU Francis Bacon: emphasized that Shakespeare: Hamlet (written just after knowledge can be gained by experiencing renaissance) celebrated the mankind. ve the world i.e. make observation, collect data, conduct experiments (empiricism). Le This was Baconian method or Inductive method of scientific investigation. Basically, one starts with specific observation and then goes on to make generalized statement. The inductive method of inquiry was in opposition to the dogmatic teaching of church because it assumes that only Francesco Petrarch wrote poems called religious knowledge is true and can be Sonnets about a girl called Laura. used to derive truths; the church uses deductive reasoning. Niccolo Machiavelli: wrote the Prince as a guidebook for politicians and rulers. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  Rene Descartes He found no evidence of soul (something that catholic church emphasized on). He emphasized on the thinking aspect of human being, a man who thinks and doubts. In effect, the evidence of thought proves the hypothesis of existence. Their ideas developed into scientific method (long procedure for gathering and testing ideas). Don’t worry Guys. We will deal with Scientific method in UNIT 2. In conclusion, scientific revolution involved questioning traditional beliefs about the working of the universe through observation, reason and experimentation. Greater knowledge of the world & weakened superstition encouraged learning and the search for better and newer ways of doing things. Scientists like Copernicus and Galileo had explained that the world did not work exactly the way church explained it. But scientific revolution was not a complete rejection of the previous knowledge. Galileo, Newton, Copernicus, Kepler, used Aristotle and Ptolemy’s theory for their own S heliocentric theories, that made the Sun the center of the Solar system. IA P lU ve Le ENLIGHTENMENT (1700-1800)-The Age of Reason An intellectual movement in which thinkers applied reason to fix anomalies in governance, economy, and science to make the world better for humans. These philosophers, inspired by Scientists like Newton & Galileo, observed natural laws which were superior to religion and state. They believed that just like universe was governed by some established laws, so is society. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that promoted the power of human reason to to solve all human problems, including unfair government, regressive economy or any social issue. Philosophers of this time believed that reason & laws of nature could be applied to even make society better. While the Scientific Revolution focused on the physical world, the Enlightenment attempted to explain the purpose of government, and describe the best form of it. The most influential Enlightenment thinkers were Thomas Hobbes, John Lock, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Thomas Paine and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Reason. Karl Marx was highly influenced by enlightenment thinking. Thomas Hobbes: He really begun the divorce of political thought from theology by simply no longer speaking of God in matters of statecraft. He focused on a form of governance which can cater to the needs of humans (human centric governance). According to him, Humans in their original state of nature were greedy, selfish, and cruel. In his book, Leviathan, Hobbes states that life would be a state of constant warfare without a strong government to control man's natural impulses. He supported absolutism (a system which placed control of state in the hands of individual/absolute monarch). However, he rejected Divine Right Theory of government. Thus, people enter a social contract to give up their freedom in exchange for protection for all. The subject could never rebel and the monarchs had the right to put down any S rebellion by any means possible. IA John Locke: Locke believed that humans could be reasonable and P moral and all men have natural rights of life, liberty, and property. lU People voluntarily give government some of their power through a ve “social contract” in order to protect their “natural rights” of life, liberty, and property. If not protected, the people have a right to revolt, if necessary. Le Hobbes, on the other hand, did not believe in revolutions, and supported the idea of absolute monarchs. Montesquieu: He believed human rights are best protected when we have separation of power into 3 branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. o Each branch would check the other branches, thus preventing despotism and preserving freedom. Montesquieu was critical of French Monarchy because all power was concentrated in one person. o His theory of the separation of powers greatly influenced the framers of the United States Constitution. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  Voltaire: He challenged the authority of Catholic church and advocated freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and separation of church and state. o He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government ("I do not agree with a word that you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it). o Voltaire thought that religion crushed the human spirit because it exploited people’s ignorance and superstitions. His most famous anti- religious statement was “écrasez l’infâme” (“crush the horrible thing”). People began to question divine right monarchies. Rousseau: believed that government should be run according to the will of the majority, which he called the General Will, which would always act in the best interest of the people. Rousseau gave the people of France the concept of democracy through his book Social Contract. o He criticized the tyrannical rule of the kings of France and held them responsible for bringing the country to the brink of revolution by their despotic and arbitrary acts. Adam Smith: Scottish enlightenment was a part of European Enlightenment. o He wrote Wealth of Nations (1776) and believed in Laissez- Faire (free market) economy without government intervention. E.g. Free trade with no Tariff S is something he would support. IA o He also believed that free market economy should rest in the hands of self-interested individuals (or P capitalists). He attacked mercantilism and lU supported Capitalist system where the law of supply and demand would determine prices. ve o He saw market as a ‘positive force’, as a source of order, harmony, and integration in society, characterized by an ‘Invisible hand’ (indirect benefits Le accrued to the society with the operation of free market economy) that shaped the market for labor and goods. David Hume: Scottish Enlightenment philosopher in his book ‘Enquiry concerning human understanding’ questioned the existence of God and developed ‘science of man’. o He emphasised on empiricism and scepticism. It was never reasonable to believe in miracles. A miracle is anything that violates laws of nature (like law of gravity). Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] Mary Wollstonecraft: Many Enlightenment thinkers held traditional views about women. In her book Vindication of the rights of woman, she demanded equal rights for women. o She believed that the men who thought that the power of kings over mankind was wrong were hypocritical not seeing the power of men over women as the similar relationship. Although Philosophers like Rousseau argued strongly for education but said that girls should be educated on how to be helpful wife & mother. o She urged women to read and enter male dominated field to bring change in society. Enlightenment should apply to both men & women. In conclusion, The Enlightenment stands as the moment the West withdrew from religion and superstitions and found its faith in REASON. The Scientific revolution & the enlightenment lead to many political and social revolutions throughout the world….. Starting with American Revolution (1776) and then French Revolution (1789) REFER THE FLOWCHART FOR SUMMARY: S IA P lU ve IMPACT OF ENLIGHTENMENT ON FRENCH SOCIETY: To understand the impact of Enlightenment on Europe, specifically France, we need to Le understand what the pre-enlightenment French society (Old European order) looked like. Well, the Old European order was stratified on the bases of Estates. This system of stratification in Feudal European societies was based on status, privileges, and restrictions, wherein, higher status and privilege was enjoyed by people who belonged to first and second estate, and the restrictions were imposed on people belonging to third estate. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  This old order was soon to be overthrown by the revolutionary forces fueled by economic, social, political and intellectual causes. THE CAUSES OF FRENCH REVOLUTION: Economic causes: o First and second estate paid no taxes and all the taxes were borne by third estate (Regressive Taxation) o heavy layout of Soldiers, system of mercantilism which restricted trade, o Increased debt due to 7 years war and American revolution, Famine/poor harvest, and o excessively extravagant lifestyle (madame deficit). Political causes: o Absolutism, o Undemocratic Estates General (Read the explanation below), o Nepotism, o No freedom to common men S Intellectual causes: IA o Age of reason, o Growth of new ideas as to how the state should run led to summon of the Estates General-> 3 Estates met and voting was conducted. P lU Brief Summary of French Revolution TYPE OF REPRESENTATION ve THE ESTATES GENERAL RARELY MET. Each Estate had one vote. Le Ist & IInd Estate always used to outvote IIIrd Estate, Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] Declaration of the National Assembly Proposals: Rights of Man & Citizen: Constitutional Monarchy Law of Clergy: religion to be subordinated to Natural rights are liberty, state property, security and Nationalization of confiscated lands of Church resistance to oppression. and Lords(socialism/communism) Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen Men are born & remain free, Law is expression of General will) Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen applied to all people irrespective of Class Citizen S IA Old French P Society New French lU Society Centralization of Power ve Decentralization of (Absolutism) Power (National Assembly) Religion was Le sacrosanct Secularism Nepotism in Merit system appointments to office Capitalism Feudalism Republic Estate system Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (Post 1750s) At least as important as political revolution in shaping of sociology was the Industrial Revolution, which swept through many western societies, mainly in the nineteenth and early Twentieth century. Industrial Revolution: was a fundamental change in the way goods were produced, from human labor to machines. The efficient means of production and higher level of production triggered far- reaching changes to Industrialized societies. Material issues: The new industrial capitalism, although improved the quality of life, led to creation of urban centers, population boost and problems such as exploitation, housing, health, slum development etc. which became issues/subject matter of sociology. Conditions of labor: degradation of labor, wrenching of work from protective guild, village, and family (mass of Indian handicraftsmen ruined as a result of the influx of machine-made goods of British industries. Transformation of property: Transformation implies shift of property from Land to capital, landlords to capitalist. Urbanization: new cities became repositories of misery and inhumanity (traffic, S pollution, poverty, overcrowded slums of new IA industrial working class, bad sanitation, emotional deficit, blasé attitude, normless- P ness, and increase in the crime rate). Technology and factory system: large lU scale migration, Bureaucratization of work, clockwork, product of labor belonged to factory owner, machines dominated work etc. ve Counter-Enlightenment (Conservatives): Le It was a reaction to enlightenment, French revolution, and Industrial revolution posed by Counterrevolutionaries like Louis De Bonald & Joseph De Maistre. They deplored revolutionary changes brought about by French revolution and yearned for a return to the peace & harmony of the Middle-ages wherein God was considered the source of society. In contrast to individualism of the enlightenment, they believed that society had existence of its own. They opposed everything that undermined traditional beliefs like the monarchy, patriarchy, community living, traditional monogamous family and the Catholic church. Basically, the conservatives tended to emphasize social order. This conservative reaction provided the basis for the development of classical French Sociological theory. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  Saint Simon: Like a conservative, he wanted to preserve society as it was. In addition, he was a positivist who believed that study of social phenomenon should employ the same scientific techniques as were used in natural sciences. Auguste Comte: Like a conservative, Comte was greatly disturbed by the anarchy that pervaded French society and was equally critical of enlightenment and the revolution. o He argued that intellectual disorder was the cause of social disorder. The disorder stemmed from continued existence of earlier idea systems (theological and metaphysical) in the positivistic age. o Only when positivism gained total control would social upheavals cease. This was supposed to be an evolutionary process (not revolutionary since revolution would create more disorder). o He believed that sociology has distinctive ability to discover laws of social life and to develop reforms to patch up problems within the system. Therefore, he developed Positivism (positive philosophy) to combat negative philosophy of French revolution and enlightenment. Emile Durkheim like a conservative, he hated social disorder. The disorders like industrial strike, disruption of ruling class, church-state discord, rise of anti Semitism weakened collective consciousness and resulted in social pathologies This forced him to devote his life to study of social order. He S believed social disorders could be reduced by social reforms. IA Therefore, French Sociology has been an uncomfortable mix of both Enlightenment (empiricism) and Counter-Enlightenment ideas (emphasis on social order). P lU Karl Marx ve o He was concerned with growing economic inequalities, exploitation of labor, & death of creative individual Le because of Industrialisation. o For human beings, work is a means of self-expression and development of one’s potential. However, in capitalism work ceases to fulfil this requirement. o Work is transformed into a repressive activity o Individual gets alienated from the end-product of their creation. o He can no longer own them as his creations. Sum it up: Conservatives were concerned with social disorder or breakdown of equilibrium and believed that progress would be gradual. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  Radicals viewed modernity as the source of Alienation, frustration, disillusionment, growing social inequalities and deepening of social cleavage, and believed that progress will not be smooth. Revolution by working class is the only solution. Pre-cursors to Sociology: Sociology Borrowed methodology and theoretical perspective from these disciplines. The Philosophy of history: Basic assumption of this philosophy was that society must have progressed through a series of steps from a simple to complex stage. Its contribution to Sociology was the notion of development and progress. The Biological theories of evolution: Darwin’s ideas about organic evolution had a dominant influence on early sociological thought. It was assumed that society evolves naturally just like a human body and each part play a specific function (Writings of Spencer, Comte, and Durkheim reflect liberal use of this perspective). Surveys of social conditions: when methods of natural sciences were applied to the study of human affairs, the issues considered ‘natural phenomenon’ began to be seen as a social problem that could be now studied and redressed. One of the methods was social survey that could be used to classify, measure and find solutions to social problems. In fact, Comte believed that intellectual change or progress in knowledge can solve all social ills. Basically, the intellectual and Material issues led to social disorder(social ills) in European society.The conservative (evolutionism) and radical reaction(revolution/socialism) to this social disorder , along with scientific attempt to discover the laws governing social order gave an ideological base to the development of sociology. This period of history, often described as a period of ‘great transformation’, laid the grounds of socio historical factors such as S urbanization, poverty, rights, unemployment, hunger, which broadened the dimensions of study IA of society and led to a need for its systematic study. Sociology, as a discipline, emerged to understand the challenges and social ills associated with modernity. P Modernity lU ve Markers of modernity Unintended consequence of Modernity Le Secularization: process of loss of religious Corruption, immorality, normlessness, beliefs, institutions, and ideology materialism, blasé attitude, Fundamentalism, communal tensions due to relative deprivation between communities, hate speech, and social media etc. Nation states: A political unit of modern World War, Hyper-Nationalism, society ruled by legal rational authority. World Authoritarianism : Curbing of press, freedom, now made of separate societies, each with its and intolerance. own state. Capitalism: Brought about industrialization Marx saw the harm caused by modern and promised mass production. industrial society, and believed that capitalism would lead to inequality, Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  Alienation, Degradation of work, slum formation, For human beings, work is a means of self- expression and development of one’s potential. However, in capitalism work ceases to fulfil this requirement. The industrial unit divides the work of production into small fragments; it compartmentalizes jobs such that each individual repeatedly performs the same differentiated and narrowly specialized task. Neo-Colonialism, Americanisation, Progress: To be modern is to believe that we Envy/relative deprivation: In a world of can continually surpass what has come before equality where everyone can achieve what (wealth, knowledge, technology, political they deserve, there is a constant feeling of why arrangement. Modernity has sharpened the do we not have more? If success is based on power of intellect and has given us comforts merit, why do we remain mediocre? through technological and administrative innovations. Alienation: Modernity has separated us from one another and from ourselves, left us restless and enraged. Science: We have replaced gods with social & global inequality, world war, equations. Science has given us mastery over holocaust, Global warming, dangers of our lives, puzzles of nature, and even death It nuclear risks, risks of genetic engineering, S is only a matter of time before we work out coronavirus, increasing crime rates. IA how to be immortal. Development and progress sanctioned by science has uprooted people from their P natural surroundings and has resulted in the lU displacement of countless people from their land. At the same time, it has alienated ve communities from the resources that are crucial to their very existence. Le Science does not simply downgrade tradition, it positions scientific knowledge against everyday experience and received knowledge. In the process it gives a special position to the technocrat, the specialists. Marginalizes non-western/minority forms of knowledge: E.g. Ayurveda, Yoga, Traditional Knowledge. Individualism: Loss of control of traditions & Suicide Rate: Suicide rate of advanced customs over individual lives. Individuals societies are up to 10 times as high as those make their own identities, choices rather than in traditional societies. Modern people are not being defined by families and tradition. only more in love with success, they are far Achieved status becomes more important more likely to kill themselves when they fail. than ascribed. Class identities take over caste, gender, race, and religion. We choose Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  whom to marry, what job to pursue, what gender to be, where to live etc. Democracy Hegemonic idea of democracy ranking few democracies as flawed creating global inequalities within democracy, Majoritarianism. The modern belief in progress has been undermined and there has been a movement away from science and rationalism towards religion and mysticism. Conclusion: Modernity came as a solution against the old order which was indulged in traditional belief system. However, Sociology emerged as a discipline to study the new problems caused by the modernity itself. Hence, Modernity and the subject matter of sociology are two sides of the same coin harmoniously linked with each other. S IA P lU ve Le Peter Wagner: All the Three Marx, Weber, Durkheim believed that modernity would lead to identical developments all over the world in the spheres of society, econoy, polity, an culture. Multiple Modernities (S.N. Eisenstadt) is against the notion that Europe is at the epicentre of the modernizing process and that all societies will reflect similar modernization traits. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  SOCIO 2024 Foundation MODERNITY & ORIGIN OF SOCIOLOGY SUMMARISED INTELLECTUAL MODERNITY ISSUES WITH FORCES MODERNITY 1. The Philosophy of History 2. Biological Theories of Evolution 3. Surveys of social condition. Humanism & Anarchy/social RENAISSANCE disorder M Secularism I Loss of faith & CONSERVATIVES/ STRUCTURAL Science, empiricism, D Scientific revolution logic religion FUNCTIONALISM D Reign of terror, L Democracy, church-state Counter- Feminism, Free discord,, industrial Enlighte SOCIOLOGY E Enlightenment market economy, strike, rise of nment nation state, anti-semitism, high S French Revolution A individualism suicide & divorce IA RADICAL/ rates G MARXISM E P Degradation of Mass production, lU Industrial Revolution work, S urbanisation, concentration of ve Bureaucracy wealth, poverty,, exploitation Le Later on, we will explain all these issues associated with modernity in detail Sociology Foundation 3.0 CSE 2024 Topic: Unit 1(b) (c) Handout: 03 Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION Sociological imagination: Sociological imagination, coined by CW Mills, is an ability to see the context which shapes individual’s decision making/suffering. It involves moving away from thinking in terms of the individual and their problems, focusing rather on the social circumstances that produce those social problems. The issue with liberal democracies is that there is a strong tendency to see human behaviour in terms of individual characteristics, abilities, & choices. Basically, we consider an issue as Personal trouble of an individual. However, this tendency makes us blind towards larger social structures which are working to produce such issues at a great scale. Basically, what seems to be a personal trouble is actually a Public issue or may even become a public issue. Personal Trouble: Any individual suffering or choice concerning individual. Public issues: forces which are outside of the personal control of an individual. While we are certainly an individual making our own decisions, those decision, in part, are shaped by the context (family, friends, our country, and the world as a whole) we live in. Personal Trouble Public Issue Sociological Imagination 1 Person’s joblessness Unemployment of employment crises require us to think S may seem personal millions is a public beyond personal shortcomings and to trouble issue. consider the underlying social forces IA that created it. Economy is structured in such a P way that corporate success is measured by ever-increasing profit lU margins, which can be achieved through laying off employees, ve downsizing, transferring jobs from high wage to low wage areas, and Le otherwise eliminating the amount of human labor needed to produce a product or deliver a service. You will realise it is a social issue (public issue). 1 Person’s obesity Obesity of millions is a SI enables us to see the underlying may seem personal public issue. social forces. Obesity is a product of trouble the industrialization of the food chain, which since the 1970s has produced increasingly cheap and abundant food with significantly more calories due to processing. As Pollan argues, trying to find a processed food in the supermarket without a cheap, calorie- rich, corn-based additive is a challenge. 1 Couple’s divorce When divorce rates Women empowerment has enabled Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] may seem their increase in a society, it is women to assume roles in the public personal trouble a public issue sphere at par with men, leading to lesser dependence on men. Durkheim believed Feminism weakened social cohesion of family. 1 person losing life to When millions lost their A strata in our society does not enjoy COVID may be a lives, it is a public issue. health and social security benefits, private trouble has poor working conditions without (Genetic disorders or sanitation facility which leaves them co----) vulnerable to COVID. Engels called this Social murder. 1 Person’s Suicide is When 8 million suicides In a modern Industrial society, social a personal trouble take place every year, it cohesion is weakened due to increased is a public issue. individualism. 1 Person’s choice to When the body types join Gym to build become model of ideal muscles or to get size bodies, it is a public zero personality. issue. 1 Woman’s choice to When billions are Personal experiences of women work as housewife working as housewife, it Women’s lack of education, lack of may be her personal is no longer a choice. maternity leave, gender pay disparity, choice domestic violence, female infanticide are rooted in patriarchal structures. Sociological imagination is an awareness of the relationship between individual (Biography) and wider society (History). While larger social forces influence individual lives, there are many ways in which our individual lives can affect society as well. This tells us that process works in both directions. S SI is a tool to emancipate us on what is going in society. IA It allows us to better identify and question various aspects of society and change those aspects of society, as opposed to passively living within it. P lU If you take Mills' stance, you'll start to believe that every problem faced by an individual has roots in society as a whole and is faced by many others. ve 1(b) Scope of the Subject & Comparison with other Social Le sciences When sociology emerged as a discipline, it faced two issues: How will it study the issues already studied by different disciplines. E.g. Capitalism was studied by economists, state was studied by political scientists. What methodology (approach to study) will be adopted in order to study the issues. Scope of sociology briefly means what sociology can study and how it is different from other branches of knowledge which are already dealing with common issues. There is no one opinion about the scope of sociology and Two different schools emerged out of this debate. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] Synthetic Formalist French/British/American Intellectuals- Mainly German Intellectuals- Ferdinand Comte, Emile Tonnies, George Simmel, Von Weise and Durkheim, Morris Ginsberg Max Weber. Argues that Sociology can study everything Rejected Socio-centrism, and argued that under the sun. They are engaged in scope of sociology should be limited in celebrating Sociology(Socio- nature and should mainly deal with the centrism) because they believe sociology is dynamic human behavior or multiple forms synthesis of all the social of relationships that human enters into. sciences and hence can study everything Sociology should deal with problems not which is being dealt by any other social science. dealt by other disciplines. Durkheim: Sociology has 3 branches: George Simmel: Sociology should study Social morphology (concerned with various forms/patterns of human geographical or territorial basis of interaction that make society. Behavior of life such as volume and density of human may be unique in content, but can population, forms of migration, sex be categorized as a form of interaction: ratio etc.) 1) Conflict and cooperation Social physiology (concerned with 2) Subordination and Super ordination every part of social life like economic 3) Centralization and decentralization. organization, social organization, E.g. School, Factory and Prison may seem political and cultural organization) to be different institutions, but sociologists General Sociology: deals with can find similar interactive forms theories which could explain (Subordination/ Super ordination etc.) in these institutions. Morris Ginsberg: Sociology has 4 Ferdinand Tonnies: sociologists should branches: study societies, specifically, based on the Social Morphology: studies quality & degree of intimacy shared by the quantity of population members. He also divided society on the Social Control: Laws, rules, basis of forms of relationship. Two kind S customes, regulations that controls of societies are IA behavior of people in societies. 1) Gemeinschaft (community) Social Processes: studies different 2) Gesellschaft (association). type of interactions like co- With advent of Industrialization, society P operation, competition and conflict moved away from community feeling(we) to lU Social Pathology: deals with social association(I). E.g. Family to Friends. problems like poverty, crime and ve population Von Wiese: Sociology should confine itself to the study of fundamental social processes like Le 1) Associative process: concerning cooperation, accommodation, assimilation etc. 2) Disassociative process: concerning conflict, competition etc. Max Weber: Sociology should study Social action and exclude non-social action (reflexive action) from its subject matter. Social action may be defined as any action of an individual, which is meaningful, driven by certain motive, and done by taking into account behavior of others. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] Scope of Indian Sociology & how it changed with Globalisation: We will cover this when we study Indian Sociology. Sociology and Psychology Psychology Sociology Psychology specializes in internal states of Sociology looks at individual in relationship mind. It Studies individual’s intelligence, to external forces. Like how personality is learning, memory, reflexes, nervous system shaped by different structures of society. and reaction time, hopes and fears. E.g. Family, religion, culture, caste and AR Radcliffe Brown calls Psychology as class. AR Radcliffe Brown calls Sociology study of Mental systems. as study of Social systems. E.g. Family, Religion, Caste, class etc. Traces the cause of Personal troubles to Traces the cause of personal troubles to personality type or mental systems. E.g. larger social structures. E.g. Feminism has Divorce is caused due to depression and led to increasing divorce rates. This is frustration. Sociological Imagination. Alcoholism : would be treated as a personal Alcoholism: Why men consume alcohol problem that can destroy individual’s more than women? What are the unintended physical and emotional health. consequences of alcoholism? Domestic Suicide: A psychologist would study why violence, divorce, child abuse, violation of Individual commits suicide. laws and crime rate Suicide: A Sociologist would study why suicide as a phenomenon exists in society and why rate of suicide (Suicide rate) vary across groups. E.g. Why married individuals have lower suicide rate vis a vis Single individuals? Psychoanalysis: tells us that all people are Micro Sociology informs us that individual born with certain biological drives like sex, self consists of both Impulsive self & a Social aggression, and superiority complex. These self. S drives come in conflict with laws, norms etc. A person’s behaviour is an outcome of the George Herbert Mead: Believes Self consists IA inner conflict between these drives and of both I and ME. I is an impulsive Self but social norms. ME is a Social self which regulates itself P Sigmund Freud believed our personality is purely according to social context. made up of 3 structures: Robert Merton: gave the concept of lU ID,: Instinctual, impulsive aggressive Reference Individual to suggest that (Completely unconscious) Individuals emulate other individuals in the ve EGO: controls the ID, rational process of Anticipatory socialisation. decision maker Le SUPEREGO: Moral decision maker, conscience. It controls behaviour in accord with society’s rules. Gerth & Mills suggest that concept of Role bridges the gap between sociology and psychology. Weber’s theory of Social action, Phenomenology & Ethnomethodology is all about the study of meanings and motives of an individual. Micro Sociology brings Sociology close to Psychology and this shows how disciplines are not in conflict mode, rather they are in relationship of “give & take” (harmony). Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] SOCIOLOGY and HISTORY Sociology is the product of historical and social changes in Europe. Marxism & Structural Functionalism developed in a specific period of time as a reaction to social evils associated with French and Industrial revolution. Therefore, Sociology is definitely rootless without History. History, on the other hand, would have remained fruitless without different theoretical perspectives which developed to explain historical events in a unique fashion. History Sociology History puts its emphasis on A sociologist focus on social history, process of chronology of events & description of writing history, models and categories used to those events. depict historical events. Conventional history has been history Sociology helps us understand social order and of kings and battles fought between conflict through study of religion, interpersonal them for territorial expansion and relationships, authority structures, inequalities, growth (Study of Up). Historians inter-relationship between communities. give narration of a class Basically Sociology gives narration of masses. History provides raw Sociology provides perspectives to explain data/facts/chronology of the Historical Events. This is called events, & contribution of Historiography. For example, let us study personalities to those events. E.g. different interpretation to French Revolution. 1) French revolution is seen as a Marxist Interpretation: They see revolt by Third estate against French revolution as ‘bourgeois First estate which established revolution’ since it involved class modern ideas of equality, struggle between landowners and middle fraternity, and liberty. class and established bourgeois 2) Socio-religious reform dominance of politics. movements and personalities The Revisionist view(Alfred Cobban): are described by Historians Rejected Marxist view since Majority of chronologically with the middle class was lawyers, contributions. professionals, and state officials-far from S being industrial class. Daniel Mornet described French IA revolution as ‘conspiracy of enlightenment intellectuals’. P Similarly, we have multiple perspectives on lU Indian History. Socio-religious reform can be seen as Indian ve Renaissance since it empowered men to question religious values and bring the western Le values of equality to Indian soil. Socio-religious reform movements can also explain how few men from upper caste got enlightenment before any other men/women from lower caste. This explains the darkness of Indian enlightenment. Colonial Historiography: When history is written from the perspective of Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  Britishers to justify their colonial British rule. What we know of Indigo riots, Deccan riots, Tribal revolts is from the commission established by Britishers. Subaltern(bottommost rank) HistoryIt is a shift from the activities of the political elite towards consciousness of voiceless sections- peasants, workers, women and the like. This movement that goes by the name ‘subaltern studies’ changed the narrative of Indian history, particularly the history of the Indian national movement. E.g. Ranjit Guha, David Hardimann, Ambedkar, and Phule. Phule unfolded History of shudraatishudra communities in his book Ghulamgiri where he drew attention to exploitation of women, shudra, and atishudra in the name of religion. Ambedkar believed the role of dalits are not acknowledged in the making of Indians society. History explains evolution of Historical Sociology is more of comparative in society from traditional to modern nature and develops theories based on evolution ideas and institutions. E.g. French of societies. E.g. The comparison between Revolution led to modern ideas of France before and after revolution would lead republic, equality, and liberty etc. to a generalisation called as ‘Modernization process’ or it may even turn out to be an evidence to ‘Class struggle (Karl Marx: Historical Materialism)’. Sociologist cannot generalize without detailed historical research S IA Historical Sociology also deals with origin and evolution of social phenomenon E.g. Nationalism, Totalitarianism, capitalism, P democracy, social movement, war, power. lU Barrington Moore: Social origins of dictatorship and democracy ve Hannah Arendt: Origins of Totalitarianism History studies differences in Sociology studies similarities in different events. E.g. How is Russian events. They look for a Pattern. Le Revolution different from Chinese E.g. Theda Skocpol in her book “states and revolution? social revolutions” believed that Chinese, Russian, and French were marked by simultaneous occurrence of state breakdown (defeat in international war) and peasant revolution at the same time (domestic rebellion). What is sociology today, that is history for tomorrow and hence history is past sociology & sociology is present history. Therefore, connection between History and sociology is logical and purposive. Charles Tilly in his book “as Sociology meets History” vindicates it. Philip Abrams said,’ Sociology is deeply historical by its very nature’ Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] SOCIOLOGY & ECONOMICS Whereas an economist defined the central problem of the age as one of securing the most efficient allocation of goods, the problem that concern sociologists was about how a sustainable social order could be created out of disintegrating fragmented life. Economics Sociology Neo-classical economics and Marxist Economic Sociology : Karl Polanyi economics : On Market: On Market: Market is embedded within and need to be Market to be an institution detached from understood as a part of the larger social the society which is self regulating. structure. On Human nature: On Human nature: Homoeconomicus model/rational choice Embeddedness entails that actors are social theory explains man as money chasing beings, rather than economic beings, their animal/self interested individual/rational/ preferences can only be understood and utility maximizing individual. "interacts in interpreted within relational, institutional, society without being influenced by society and cultural contexts. It simple means that individual economic behaviour is shaped by social forces. The large investment in the advertisement Industry is directly linked to the need to reshape lifestyles and consumption patterns. The language used by economists to The language used by Sociologists to explain describe a phenomenon is maths, a phenomenon may not be mathematical or modelling, and statistics. E.g. Law of statistical. However, it definitely stands Demand. valid. Thorstein Veblen discussed Status Goods and Conscpicuous consumption which clearly violate Law of demand and gives sociological insights on human economic behaviour. S IA How do you explain an Individual who would want to have everything latest despite no utility? Romantic ethics(to seek novel entity) P promote the spirit of consumerism (Colin lU Campbell) and economists cannot mathematise this romantic ethics. ve Economics would consider productivity Feminist Economics, on the other hand, central to the workplaces outside home. would consider home as the primary unit linked to the productivity outside. If women Le was not working at home, men would not have been earning outside. Housework, which is taken for granted, is highly functional for the growth of economy outside. Sociological analysis can help women raise issues related to Wage for housework. E.g. 1972 Selma James ran Campaign for Wage for housework. Of lately, the issue has gained significance in India as well. It explains education as a human capital But if we look at education just in economic investment: You pay and you get returns return, it is a failure. How else do we explain (skilled and salary). unemployment & job losses? Education as a social phenomenon is studied carefully to see if it is functional to society or it is serving certain section only. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] SOCIOLOGY & SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY Social Anthropology Sociology Emergence lies in attempt of the European Emergence of sociology can be mainly scholars, with the opening up of geographical attributed to the attempt to explain spaces, to study the pre-literate societies. issues associated with great transformation. Anthropology deals with the study of non- Sociology studies modern & complex modern simple societies: in all their aspects, societies, & therefore they often focus on as wholes often thought of as exotic, parts of society like Bureaucracy or barbaric, uncivilised. It was used to reveal religion or caste or a process like Social the otherness and to justify the superiority of mobility. the west over non western,E.g. AR Radcliffe Brown study on Andamanese. Evans Pritchard on Nuers. Characterised by long field work tradition & Characterised by survey method and ethnographic research methods. Quantitative data using Statistics and Anthropologists entered the field to record Questionnaire mode. the lifeways of Trobrianders, Zulus, and sociologists would compile information Zunis, on urban life in the West from census data, interviews and questionnaires. In the initial days, we had metropolitan division of labour between sociology and social anthropology (Satish Deshpande & Patricia Uberoi) which was reproduced in S academic structures and syllabi in India. However, today the distinction between a simple and complex society itself needs major rethinking. India itself is a complex IA mix of tradition and modernity, of village and city, of caste and class. P Similarities: lU Anthropologists have expanded their field studies to modern and urban settings while sociologists have also ventured out to the studies of rural and simple societies. ve We see anthropological studies of state and globalisation which are very different from the traditional subject matter of social anthropology. Le Today, the sociologists have begun to extensively employ qualitative methods, while anthropologists also began to profusely use quantitative methods along with qualitative methods. Frazer “social anthropology as that branch of sociology that deals with primitive societies, its origin and evolution. E.g. Andre Beteille once said When an Indian studies a ‘tribal’ village he is an ‘anthropologist’ and when he studies a ‘nontribal’ village he is a ‘sociologist’; or, when he studies a village, tribal or non- tribal, he is an ‘anthropologist’ Radcliffe-Brown social anthropology is a ‘comparative sociology’. Ghurye believed that Sociology must include an anthropological course on: o Comparative study of culture o Comparative study of social institutions of pre-literate, ancient-civilized and modern societies Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected] 1 c) Sociology and Common Sense Many people claim that sociology is nothing but the application of common sense. But equating any science with simple common sense could not be further from the truth! For the founding fathers like Auguste Comte, society has to be studied scientifically in order to understand it and solve its problems. By systematically testing common sense beliefs against facts, sociologists can sort out which popular beliefs hold true and which do not. To accomplish this, sociologists use a variety of social science research designs and methods. Common Sense Sociology Based on ‘Naturalistic’ and Sociological Imagination explains how ‘Individualistic experiences’. Makes an seemingly personal troubles are some individual think of an event as a how a consequence of/related to the Personal trouble/personal choice etc. larger public issues (social structures). Simone De Beauvoir argues,’ You are not born woman, rather you are made one or you become one’. Based more on opinions, assumptions, Andre Beteille argues Rigorous data rumors, stereotypes, and superficial collection, careful records of observation. It is taken for granted observation(classification), Verifiability of (unreflective) and rarely questioned. data, statistical analysis, generalization based However, it lacks validity, is biased, on facts (theory development), and testing of unreliable and subjective. theory on ground contradicts the common sensical notions of the world. Comparison is also a scientific research method since , just like an experimentation, it seeks to decipher relationship between two or more variables. For example, Marx compared Capitalism S with Pre-capitalist societies (Feudalism, IA Ancient society etc.) to generalize how the history is all about class struggle (Conflict between two classes). P Common sense is particular, Sociological knowledge and theories are localized (passed on from one universally applicable (with few lU generation to another), temporal and exceptional case studies). E.g. Theories spatial. How temporal? For example, like Structural Functionalism & Concepts ve just 200 years ago in the USA, it was like Reference group are universally valid. common sense that only white men Le were capable of participating in society. It was common sense that Slavery was right, and women and LGBT shouldn’t be allowed to vote. Today, the exact opposite is common sense. Individual does not have ability to Sociologist has the ability to look for look for a pattern between different pattern between seemingly different social institutions or phenomenon. institutions. E.g.Oliver Cox says race is E.g. A common can tell us how is colored caste. Erving Goffman calls caste and race different, but he cannot Boarding school, mental asylum, Prison, tell how both of them are similar. and cult as total institutions. Individual does not have ability to Andre Beteille argues that there are two explain how a social institution fundamental preoccupations of sociology performs a function to maintain the which separates it from commonsense: society. Searching for interconnections among the different domains of society and, Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  The systematic use of comparison Individual does not critically analyze Sociologist would question commonsense common sense knowledge. It is highly and ‘taken for granted’ notions, and he unreflective. might as well ask, how is it common? Marx showed that poverty is the result It may be common sense knowledge of appropriation of surplus value by that cause of poverty is lack of capitalists. education or the sins of past life. Sociology helps in realizing that it is only It is common sense that housework is because of housework that capitalism is unpaid and workplace is paid functioning. All the units in society are connected. This knowledge helps in questioning this patriarchal system that had made the housework for women as something ‘natural. E.g. Selma James ran the campaign on wage for housework in 1972. Common sense suggests capitalism Weber’s research suggested that develops due to technological capitalism developed due to Religion advancements, (Protestantism). It may be a common sense that a Marxist would suggest that it is the cause of crime is lack of education or values of capitalism (material success) unemployment. that is the cause of increasing crime rate or it is the capitalist who are criminals. It is common sense knowledge that more the country is developed, less is Data tells us that America has higher the crime. crime rate than India, and Urban India S has higher than rural India. IA It is common sense knowledge that browsing facebook, twitter, tinder is a Sociological research tells us that it is part of leisure. also a work that we are not paid for. P lU Basically, what distinguishes Sociology from a common sense is not an exclusive phenomenon to explore but a different way to look at the same phenomena. ve Therefore, Sociology is involved in the process of ‘defamiliarisation’ – looking at society in new ways and realizing that ‘this is not the only way we could do things’. Sociology ‘Broaden horizons’ (Zygmunt Bauman). Le However, Anthony Giddens that sociological knowledge also becomes part of common sense knowledge. E.g., Have you guys heard these terms? Role model? Vote bank? Role conflict? These are sociological concepts and now they have become part of your common sense. Another Branch of Sociology (non-positivism) believes that common sense knowledge is important to build sociological theories. Unless we understand social action of people, we would not be able to realize why people behave the way they do. Max Weber believed that Sociologist should study social action/human action to understand meanings and motives behind their action. Had he not studied social action of Protestant (a Christian sect), he would not have developed this theory that capitalism has its origin in religious values (specifically protestant values). Don’t worry. Non positivism is to be covered in Unit 2. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: +91-8826486658, +918826496658, | Email: [email protected]  Sociology Foundation 3.0 (2023-24) Handout – 04 Unit 2 Sociology as Science 2. SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE (a) Science, scientific method and critique. Science is a body of knowledge different from religion and magic because it has 6 components: 1) TESTABLE: Since scientific knowledge is closely tied to empiricism, it is easily testable and may even be falsified in the event of contradiction. That way, scientific knowledge/theory is always provisional. Science advances not by proving theories true, but by proving them false and revising them.  If we say all swans are white: it can be falsified if we find black swan.  Einstein’s theory of Relativity: Nothing travels faster than light. According to current thinking in quantum theory, possibly subatomic particles travel faster than light. This is subject to experimentation & hence provisional and falsifiable.  Earth is 8000 years old. Can we falsify it? Carbon dating can help us to see if anything is even older than this.  Basically, if a scientific theory can be proven wrong, it is strength of the theory, not weakness. Of course, not all justified theories are falsifiable in principle. But you need strong reasons for such infalsifiable beliefs. 2) EMPIRICAL : rejects circumstantial, testimonial and speculative evidence like religion and magic. S 3) CUMULATIVE: knowledge evolves and is built on previous knowledge/ theories. E.g. IA Galileo performed experiment to establish Copernicus theory. 4) OBJECTIVE: Researcher should be detached and research should not involve values, opinions, or biases of the researcher. P 5) REPLICABILITY: If your study’s findings can’t be replicated (reproduced) by the other lU scientists, it increases the odds that the original findings were simply due to chance. 6) THEORIES based on logic & causal relationships. ve Robert K Merton talks about norms governing scientific communities Le (CUDOS)  Communalism: entail that the scientific results are the common property of the entire scientific community. E.g. Darwin didn’t patent his theory of evolution  Universalism: means that all scientists particulars (race, gender) are irrelevant to their ideas.  Disinterestedness: means Scientists shouldn’t act for personal gains, rather they should act for benefit of scientific community and society.  Organized Skepticism: Means scientific claims must be exposed to critical scrutiny before being accepted. Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060| Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: [email protected] The above 6 features + CUDOS forms the 7 important features of Science. How do we acquire knowledge of the unobserved?  Inductive Reasoning  Deductive Reasonng Inductive Reasoning It was developed by Francis Bacon. It moves from specific to general. It begins with specific observations or real examples of events, trends, or social processes, and then progresses analytically to develop generalizations and theories.  E.g. All observed Swans are white (specific statement). Therefore, All Swans are white (General).  All tigers observed so far has been stripy. Therefore, all tigers are stripy.  The sun has always risen in the east in the morning. Therefore, sun will rise in the east tomorrow morning. Basically, we are assuming future will be like past. Hypothetico-deductive method: it is impossible to prove a scientific theory true by means of induction, because no amount of evidence assures us that contrary evidence will not be found. Karl Popper developed this method  hypothesis/theory  Collect data and perform experiment.  see if the results match those predicted by hypothesis. If a theory makes a prediction, and the prediction is not borne out, then theory is proven false, S Einstein’s theory of relativity says nothing travels faster than speed of light. If we fail to IA observe anything that travels faster than light, then theory is correct. But if we observe something that travels faster than light, then theory fails. P Basically, what was explained in the last paragraph was that the scientific statement/theory lU should be testable. If it is not testable, it can not be proven either right or wrong. ve An example of how deductive reasoning is applied within sociology:  Hypothesis: Racism & Patriarchy has impact on level of education among Blacks Le & women.  Next step would be data collection and experiment to see whether this hypothesis is right or wrong. Experiment can be done through any method.  In this case, Interview of Professors accused of Racism can be done.  Professor’s responses (and lack of responses) were tracked (data collection) and the researchers were able to prove their hypothesis true.  They concluded, based on their research, that racial and gender biases are barriers that prevent equal access to graduate-level education across the U.S. SCIENTIFIC METHOD It is simply a logical approach to explore the world through experiments and observations rather than through abstract/metaphysical reasoning. Bacon should be acknowledged since he believed that knowledge could be gained only be observation, data collection, and experimentation (empiricism). This was in opposition to Office Complex 6, 3r