Handouts-Ethics PDF

1 CHAPTER 1: MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS When classes were suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, you have been staying at home most of the time. In the television, social media, or in print you see different ways by which people display their behavior. Some might b...

1 CHAPTER 1: MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS When classes were suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, you have been staying at home most of the time. In the television, social media, or in print you see different ways by which people display their behavior. Some might be appealing to you; others may make you feel disgusted. But why such reactions? What makesyou happy when you like a Facebook post; and sad when the post seems not right? LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. define ethics and morality and differentiate them; 2. Identify the nature and purpose of morality, and 3. differentiate between moral and non-moral standards. Activity Take a deep breath and say the word ―morality‖ in your mind three times. Then, on a separate sheet of paper write a one-sentence description for each picture using your understanding of the word morality as the guide of your judgment. Source: www.cbc.ca/news/ Source:www.businesstalentsolutions.com/the-five-meeting- etiquette-offenses/ Source: www.top5.com/reviews/best-travel-purses/ Analysis:Why do you think doing right actions is important? Ethics Ethics is the philosophical study of the nature of good life, of right action, and of duty and obligation to do good. It is a sub-branch of philosophy under Axiology, a philosophy concerned with human values. Hence, ethics is the philosophical study of morality we call moral philosophy. It consists of universal beliefs or principles about what goodness is. Ariola (2018) enumerated four ethical principles that can be found across cultures: a.) non- killing principle; b.) non-lying principle; c.) non-stealing principle, and; d.) principle revolving sexual conduct. Examples of issues that are ethical in nature includes honesty, freedom, and love. From this, we can say that ethics is theoretical as it tries to critically reflect on the nature of goodness or of the ideals of what‘s moral and what‘s not. Standards that govern professional practice are also ethical principles. Physicians and nurses are some of the many health professionals who give frontline services in this COVID-19 pandemic. The reason why they risk their lives in the name of their professions is because they are ethically- bound to the life-giving oath that they have taken.  2 Morality Morality on the other hand is about the rules that govern the promotion of human goodness so that individuals and the society may flourish (Pojman, 2005). Morality then speaks of norms (Pojman, 2005) or rules of human conduct. If ethics is theoretical, morality is practical and most of the time relative. What we believe to be moral in our culture may not be for the other. Religion also influences our view of morality. For example, Muslims consider eating pork as haram or forbidden because the Holy Quran says that pork is impure while for Catholics, a fiesta is incomplete without lechon baboy. Although law and morality should go hand- in-hand, it is not always the case. Law is a system of rules in a specific country enacted by its ruling agency and once violated a corresponding punishment is given. Cheating during a quiz may be morally unacceptable but you can‘t be put to jail just because you let your classmate copy your answers. Hence, what is immoral may sometimes be not illegal Why be ETHICS AND MORALITY ethi cal? Morality is about what is right and wrong—some things are right, others ` are wrong. Morality is the code or rules Morality is, as Socrates said, ―How we in which our actions are judged against ought to live.‖ It is therefore important that we shared values. Ethics are principles study Ethics so that we would be able to align that form those moral codes (Boone, our thinking, feeling, and action to what is 2017). good and beneficial not only to ourselves but to a much larger community as well. For Boone (2017), Ethics helps us understand the world by providing structure to it through the standards, virtues, and rules that it provides that guide our behavior; he explains why it is important for us to act ethically with these points: 1. Acting ethically is a requirement for life. Ethics help us choose the best way to act so that the things that we do will not be aimless, pointless, and random; hence, we live a life that is happy, productive, and purposeful. In this time of pandemic, you have a moral obligation to yourself to keep your mind and body healthy by following certain health measures. 2. Acting ethically is a requirement for society. Kindness matters; it helps unite the society. As members of a much wider community there are roles to play and rules to follow. Ethics helps build relationships that keeps the society from falling apart. That is why, people are advised to stay at home in order to save other people‘s lives during this pandemic. If a Manila-based worker wants to go back to his province, he needs to see his plan according to a much larger scheme of things before deciding and not just according to his individual needs. One must do his or her part in making everyone safe and  3 avoid the risk of viral contagion by not travelling; it is in this sense that the Balik/HatidProbinsya Program of Senator Bong Go becomes problematic. 3. Acting ethically has a religious purpose. Because we need incentives to act morally, religion provides such reward. Acting according to the norms of religion would make you take hold of the promise of an eternal reward, doing otherwise would entail an after-life suffering. That is why, for some people, doing what is right would mean following the commands of the holy text of their religion. In 2021, the Philippines will celebrate its 500 years of being Christianized. Christianity was signalled in the country when Magellan and his troops first landed in Homonhon Island, Eastern Samar. Our country is the only predominantly Catholic nation in the Asian region. In the present COVID-19 situation, it was featured in the news that President Duterte said to shoot all those who would violate the lockdown rules. Is his statement morally upright based on the teachings of Christianity? 4.Acting ethically is for the benefit of oneself. The golden rule, ―Do unto others what you want others do unto you‖, means that kindness begets kindness. Even when one behaves appropriately because of self-interest, surely good things will follow. For Eastern philosophy, a good act brings good karma. We have this proverb “Ang susisakaligayahan ay ang pagigingmapagmapasalamat”. That is why, you feel happy when you pack food for our COVID-19 frontliners because you feel grateful for their heroism. That feeling of happiness is a personal gain yet it benefits not only yourself but others as well. 5. We act ethically because humans are basically good. This is the major claim of moral philosophy. Humans are naturally good and they try to behave accordingly. Do humans act accordingly because they have to, or do they pursue an ethical life because there are acts that in themselves are naturally good and worth pursuing? What do you think? The Purpose of Morality Living ethically assures that everyone will flourish. Although morality may restrict our freedom, acting morally upright brings greater freedom to do good to oneself and to others. Pojman (2005, p.7) enumerates these purposes of morality: 1. To keep society from falling apart Photo E 2. To ameliorate human suffering 3. To promote human flourishing 4. To resolve conflicts of interest in just and orderly ways 5. To assign praise and blame, reward Source: https://aconversationinethics.wordpress.com/ and punishment, and guilt  4 The Nature of Moral Principles To lead a moral life, one follows moral principles. These are practical guides that govern our actions and these principles have these traits or characteristics (Pojman, 2005): 1. Prescriptivity. As what the word ―prescribe‖ means, moral principles are imperatives, they give commands. For example, ―Do not steal‖ or ―Love your enemies.‖ 2. Universalizability. Moral principles must apply to all relevantly similar situation. If cheating is prohibited in a certain exam, then in all kinds of exam, cheating must not be tolerated. The key here is consistency. Just like the golden rule, do not do to other people all the things that you don‘t want to be done to you. 3. Overridingness. Moral principles take precedence over other principles or one moral principle may take over another. For example, civil disobedience may be morally upright when it is done with a higher cause. That is why, going to rallies during the Martial Law or in the present Anti-Terrorism Bill mañanitarallies are considered right even when they mean social disobedience because they serve a greater purpose and that is to defend human freedom. 4. Publicity. Moral principles should be known by all who should follow them; they shouldn‘t be a secret because we use these principles to give commands, to assign rewards or punishment or to give advice. 5. Practicability. Moral codes should be workable and they should not lay a heavy burden to those who follow them. In other words, they could be done. If posting in Facebook your criticism about the government would mean terrorism, then the Anti-Terrorism Bill is impractical because turning a blind eye to what the government is doing is not a practice MORAL & NON-MORAL STANDARDS of democracy. Moral standards involve the rules Moral versus Non-moral Standards people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally right and Moral standards are principles that wrong, as well as the values they place have moral impact. They definitely point out on them. Non-moral standards refer to what is right and wrong, good or evil. Moral rules that are unrelated to standards provide a structure on how you are ethical considerations going to live your life and how you relate with (ourhappyschool.com, 2018). others in harmony as it outlines the values that you share with others to promote goodness to everyone, or the common good. That is why, not keeping your word, taking advantage of others, or tarnishing your friend‘s reputation in social media are seen as moral misconducts because they do not promote goodness. Rules about table manners, classroom procedures and routines, or dressing up for a party are considered non-moral standards because they are outside the scope of morality, they do not have ethical considerations and would not give a great dose of guilt when not followed. To violate a moral code with intention is to be immoral. An amoral act is neither moral nor immoral. Feeling angry is natural, anger is amoral; but the act of killing someone due to anger is another thing—it is immoral. By now, you shouldn‘t be surprised if in the preceding activity only the middle picture speaks about morality. Answering your phone in a meeting, although it is disturbing to others, does not mean immorality but stealing (the middle picture)does. To sleep during a classroom discussion does not have a great moral impact but the intention for doing so may convey a moral question.  5 ASSESSMENT Answer directly the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 1. Make a Venn Diagram on Ethics and Morality. Mention the similarities and differences of Ethics and Morality. 2. Describe the nature and purpose of morality. 3. Make a T-Chart on the differences between moral and non-moral standards. REFERENCES Ariola, M. M. (2018). Understanding the Self. Adfo Books. Boone, B. (2017). Ethics 101: From Altruism and Utilitarianism to Bioethics and Political Ethics, an Exploration of the Concepts of Right and Wrong (Adams 101). Adams Media. Pojman, L. P. (2005). By Louis P. Pojman - How Should We Live?: An Introduction to Ethics: 1st (first) Edition. Cengage Learning..  6 CHAPTER 2: THE MORAL EXPERIENCE In the first lesson, we have discussed how ethics and morality are defined. We also drew a line between moral and non-moral standards. These standards provide structure to moral experience. Have you ever asked yourself: ―Am I good?‖ ―If so, why am I doing things that are morally wrong?‖ ―If man is basically good, why do I have the tendency to do bad things?‖ ―Why should I consider others even when they are mean and uncomprehending?‖ These questions make you reflect critically to find out the goodness of your experience as a moral being; and that‘s what ethics is all about—to have a rational understanding of the goodness of your experience. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. identify the two elements of moral experience; 2. explain the nature of prohibited acts; and 3. describe the innate foundations of moral experience. Activity Below is a poem attributed to St. Teresa of Calcutta. Read and internalize the poem and answer the given question. The poem tells us to love others and forgive them with their wrong doings. In your overall life experience, is it easy to forgive? What makes you say it is or it isn’t? Source: www.pinterest.com/pin/1477812357801220/ Analysis: Based on your answer in the activity, how can you say that an experience is moral? The Moral Experience Without morality, we cannot promote the good. In Module 1, we learned that it is in your best interest to become morally upright. You and your actions make up moral experience. A moral experience has two elements: According to Thomas Hobbes (see the moral agent who is the doer of the Pojman, 2005), each of us has our own action and the moral act that comprises personal interests. Hence, in order to avoid the things done by the agent. Moral conflicts, the society must formulate contracts experience is seen in the different ethical frameworks called the moral theories.  7 or moral codes that must be adhered to so that everything will be in order; otherwise, there will be ―war against all.‖ Imagine if people can just do whatever they want without restrictions. They can fight over a slice of bread and kill each other. Your neighbor, without permission, can butcher your pig for the fiesta and you will take his cow as a form of revenge. Without morality, life will be in chaos. The moral experience has two elements: moral agent and moral act. The moral agent is the doer of the act—you. Only humans have the concept of morality. Non-human animals might have morally upright behaviors similar to humans (e.g. caring for the young) but they do not have the ability to reason out or judge their actions based on moral principles. These human-like moral behaviors of animals are called protomoralbehaviors (see Skutch, 2007). In this sense, the moral agent—humans—are believed to possess the capacity to make sound moral judgment through his reasoning ability. Moral acts are the things that moral agents do. These behaviors to be considered as moral acts should be inside the ethical domain or within moral standards discussed in Module 1. Each moral act has an object who receives the action, an intention that motivates the action, and the situation that provides the context of the action. For example, you stole your classmate‘s pen before taking the final exam because you have no money to buy one and you are in desperate need to take the test or else you will fail the course. The act is stealing. The object of the act is your classmate; the intention is for you to pass the course; and the situation is that you don‘t have the money to buy for a pen. The Nature of Prohibited Acts By their very nature, prohibited acts cannot be habitual and enduring, if they do, they cease to become prohibited (Skutch, 2007) and thus become a norm. For example, if stealing becomes habitual and enduring, then no one will produce a merchandize, save money in the bank, or hold on to earned wealth. People will live a hand to mouth existence like the primitive times. With that, it would be impossible to steal because there is nothing more to steal. Another, when lying becomes a norm, then telling the truth will be the odd thing to do. In reality, liars succeed in deceiving us because most people tell the truth than they lie. Hence, moral codes prohibit acts that in themselves cannot be sustained and maintained (Skutch, 2007). The Innate Foundation of Moral Experience There are two impulses or motives that the moral experience is anchored. First, those that are directed towards self-preservation and second, those that are directed to others. We said that a moral act has intentions. These intentions or motives urge us to perform acts that benefit ourselves and those that promote the welfare of others be it to our own blood or others who are unrelated to us (Skutch, 2007). Self-regarding motives or virtues 1. Prudence. The rational self-love; it forbids us to overly indulge with pleasure without thinking of the future (Skutch, 2007). Prudence is doing the right thing at the right time, with the right person, with the right intention and at the right degree.  8 2. Temperance. It‘s standing firm to have only what is enough despite great enticement or opposing drive and works together with prudence (Skutch, 2007). In Filipino, we call it pagtitimpi. 3. Fortitude. Perseverance even in the face of Anybody can challenges so to achieve a very important goal. become angry—that 4. Patience. It is not acting on impulse. It is about taking time to think through a certain act before doing is easy. But to be it. Pope Francis said in Amoris Laetitia, ―Being angry with the right patient doesn‘t mean letting ourselves be always mistreated, tolerating aggression or allowing other person and to the people to use us. Patience takes root when I recognize that other people also have the right to live right degree and at in this world.‖ the right time and Other-regarding motives or virtues Altruism is the act of helping others. Altruism for the right and all other-regarding virtues can all be called as purpose, and in the benevolence. The fact that we become happy when we are able to help others unselfishly may, at the right way—that is surface, seem a selfish act. However, if you look deeper, you would see that benevolence is not difficult. derived from self-interest because both exists ARISTOTLE separately on their own and does not require each other in order to exist. Moreover, it is only when one has reached a high self-awareness that he is able to become mindful about the needs of other and satisfy them (Skutch, 2007). Simply put, one must gain himself first before he can deny it. That is why, even if it is hard for you to forgive someone who has done you wrong, you take time to reflect on your experience and pattern in out because it is innate for a person to be benevolent. ASSESSMENT On a separate sheet of paper, answer directly the following questions. 1. Enumerate and discuss the elements of moral experience. 2. Explain the nature of prohibited acts. 3. Describe innate foundations of moral experience using your personal experience. REFERENCES Pojman, L. P. (2005). By Louis P. Pojman - How Should We Live?: An Introduction to Ethics: 1st (first) Edition. Cengage Learning. Skutch, A. (2007). Moral Foundations: An Introduction to Ethics (1st ed.). Axios Press.  9 CHAPTER 3: THE MORAL DILEMMA Since we have already tackled what a moral experience is, we now go with your experience of coming to a choice of what and how to act when two opposing actions that are morally relevant come together. This is more than just answering the question: “Sino ba ang pipiliin ko, ang mahal ko o ang mahal ako?” In your life, you were presented with many choices to decide on a single matter. Choosing morally appropriate action can be difficult but because you are a moral agent, you need to be critical and bravely choose what is best not just based on self-interest but on the common good. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. describe the nature of moral dilemmas; 2. find out the levels of dilemmas; and 3. explain the nature of moral reasoning. Activity Look at the pictures below. Imagine yourself that you are working for the government as a law enforcer and at the same time you have a strong belief as a Christian in the sanctity of life and that your education made you learn that every person with an alleged crime has the right to fair trial. Source: https://rappler.com/nation/duterte-orders-troops-shoot-kill-coronavirus- Source:https://twitter.com/yomyomf/status/739613683769217024 quarantine-violators Will you follow the walking order of the President or will you stick to what you have learned in church and in school? Why? Analysis:Why do you think people have difficulty in making a decision that is significant to his moral standing? Moral Dilemma Sometimes choosing is a hard thing to do. Just like in the activity, orders coming from powerful persons that you are working for might not be aligned with the beliefs of your religion or with what your education says. Not following orders from your boss might make you lose your job. Setting aside your ideals might also give you a gnawing conscience. As moral agents, encountering moral dilemmas is not an uncommon experience. Read this excerpt adopted from Morrow (2018, p. 14):  10 “Dear Abby,” the long-running advice column, printed the following letter in 1981: Dear Abby: I needed some Scotch tape, so I looked in my son’s desk for some and noticed the beginning of a letter my son had written to his girlfriend. It read, “I am only interested in being stoned, spending money, and sex.” I read no further. My first impulse was to confront him with this, but he would say I had no right to go snooping through his desk. I don’t think I should go on ignoring this. I would appreciate some advice. He is eighteen-and-a-half. BEWILDERED FATHER The father is torn between maintaining his son‘s privacy and in making sure that his child‘s well-being is protected. Not only that, he thinks he cannot do both at the same time and would need to choose only one act. If he keeps quiet about what he read from his son‘s desk, his son might continue his vices. If he doesn‘t, it would entail that he does not have respect for his son‘s privacy. If you‘re in the position of this confused father, what will you do? One is in moral dilemma when he is in conflict between two moral principles to which he feels committed and no matter what he will choose something bad will eventually happen (Pojman, 2005; Kowalski, 2011). Why are we experiencing moral dilemma? For MacNiven (1993), moral dilemmas happen because the moral principles that control our thoughts and actions have broken down and can no longer guide us; unless we have an adequate way to solve our moral dilemmas, our moral system will continue to fail. Sometimes we solve moral dilemmas by ranking the priorities of our personal obligation. If the father thinks that his top priority is to protect his child from his vices, then he will talk to his son about it even when that means breaching his son‘s privacy. In other times, we consider a more general obligation, our obligation for the greater good. If following the order of the President to kill people is just a matter of taking orders as a job then it does not come from a universal principle that promotes the common good but only for self-interest; so, you will refuse to shoot people dead even when it means losing your job.  11 However, not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas. Choosing what color of dress to wear in a party, deciding on what snacks to have or where to book your next weekend getaway are not moral dilemmas. Moral dilemmas are those conflicting choices under the scope of moral standards. Levels of Moral Dilemma 1. Individual or Personal Level. This involves making moral judgment and eventually come up with a sound moral decision that concerns the individual life of a person. It does not bear a great impact to the society at large. For example: A woman was about to deliver her first born. However, her pregnancy was ectopic and she only has this chance to have a baby. Because of complications, she was rushed to the operating room unconscious. The doctors talked with her husband and said that they can only save one life, the mother or the baby. If you were the husband, whose life would you want to save? 2. Organizational Level. This is about the moral dilemma of a person in an organization. Workplaces, business establishments, schools, and other organizations have regulations, procedures or even values that may challenge the moral principles of a member of that organization. For example:One teacher believes that students should get the grade that they worked for and frowns at the practice of mass promotion. When the school year ends, she submitted the grades of her class to the principal. The principal asked her to change the grades of 10 of her students who got failing marks so that they can pass and move to the next grade level. If not, her teacher performance report will be affected. If you are the teacher, will you change the grades? 3. Systemic Level. This is in the level of society at large. Moral dilemmas concerning the different social institutions that affect the life of the whole society covers this level. For example: The President‘s war on drugs poses a systemic moral dilemma. Eradicating the sale and use of illegal drugs in the country is a good thing. However, the problem lies in the implementation of the war on drugs. The country also does not have enough budget to spend for the total rehabilitation of those involved in drug trade. But is killing the only solution? Moral Reasoning We said that a moral dilemma urges us to choose, to come up with a decision because we cannot perform all the morally relevant options. It is in this sense that we need to come up with a sound moral reasoning. But what is it? Moral reasoning is the art of showing that one claim is suggested by other claims, meaning, your contentions are backed up with moral principles and not just a mere opinion. That is why, one needs to be critical in making a sound moral judgement. In moral reasoning, your opinion does not matter unless you can prove it under a certain framework or a moral theory. A person who does morally sound decision does not do or say things without concrete basis. To do moral reasoning means to introspect. Moral reasoning is to see what your own values imply about a particular experience, to discover whether your values conflict with one another, and to think hard about it. It also means to evaluate what someone has already done or is about to do. Through moral reasoning we see the consequences of our action and  12 from these consequences we judge its goodness. We also reason according to the roles we play (e.g. as a friend; as a family member; as a leader) as these roles demand moral obligations (Morrow, 2018). When you think you cannot have a sound moral reasoning, it is best that you do not make any decisions yet until you are able to come up with a convincing moral conclusion. Be careful with your emotions as these may interfere with sound reasoning. That is why, you don‘t make a decision when you are overly happy or deeply sad. If you are a Christian and you would want to know how to make a sound moral decision, here is a method suggested from the works of St. Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits); you can check this on the Web: https://www.ignatianspirituality.com/making-good- decisions/an-approach-to-good-choices/an-ignatian-framework-for-making-a-decision/ ASSESSMENT On a separate sheet of paper, do the following: 1. Write your personal experience about having a moral dilemma. What happened? What were the options that you needed to choose from? What was your decision? How did you decide? Limit your story to three paragraphs only. 2.) Then, answer these questions and provide explanations to your answers. Limit your answers to each in exactly five sentences: a. In what level was your dilemma? b. Was your decision based on moral reasoning or a mere opinion? REFERENCES D.R. (2018). Moral Reasoning: A text and reader on contemporary ethics and moral issues. NY: Oxford University Press. Kowalski, D.A. (2012). Moral Theories at the Movies: An Introduction to Ethics. Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. MacNiven, D. (1993). Creative Morality. NY: Routledge Morrow, D.R. (2018). Moral Reasoning: A Text and Reader on Contemporary Ethics and Moral Issues. NY: Oxford University Press. Pojman, L.P. (2005). How Should we Live?:An Introduction to Ethics. CA: Cengage Learning  13 CHAPTER 4: FREEDOM AS BASIC REQUIREMENT OF MORALITY Now that you are always staying at home, it would be nice if you would talk to your elders about the way they lived during their younger days. Surely, music will never go out of the topic. Try asking your folks to sing to you Andy Williams‘ Born Free: ―Born free, as free as the wind blows; As free as the grass grows; Born free to follow your heart.‖ Is your definition of freedom the same as what the song says? Freedom is defined in many ways. Some say it is doing what you want when you want it. Others would claim that it is not unlimited. In the first module, we said that morality restricts our freedom only to experience greater freedom. What does freedom got to do with morality? LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. explain the view of determinism and how it becomes a threat to ethics; 2. explain the reason that only humans are moral beings; and 3. relate freedom with morality. Activity Even with the current pandemic, students from UP and other young people like you went to the streets to defend our freedom of speech and expression that can be curtailed when the Anti-Terrorism Bill is passed. Look at these photos. Source:https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/06/11/2020252/critics- can-question-anti-terror-bill-court-palace Based on your current belief of freedom, are these protests right? Why or why not? Analysis: Based on the activity, why do you think freedom is necessary to human life? The Case of Determinism Determinism is a model of thought that says that human beings, because of their genetic make-up and social experiences especially during their formative years, are ―programmed‖ to act according to these two factors. For determinism, we are already pre- determined or pre-destined to do what we are programmed to do without thinking about them or feeling sorry about them. If we are to consider this, ethics then becomes irrelevant. Why would you still do moral reasoning and come up with a sound moral judgment, which what ethics is, when your behavior is not of your own choice but only an answer to your programming? We become robots. For determinism, this means that we are not human beings, just human animals.  14 Deterministic views pose an issue on free will. It threatens ethics by suggesting that genes make ethics useless. Hence, it implies that moral advice, education, or learning experiences are also useless. More than that, the threat comes from the idea that we humans are just sophisticated animals, made to follow genetic instructions and can do nothing about it (Blackburn, 2001). Nuns vow to be chaste their whole life. If we take determinism so seriously, it would follow that, because human beings are genetically and evolutionarily programmed to copulate (or have sex), nuns will do everything just to getPhoto Claid. Therefore, it will be useless to make them have such vow because no one can. But nuns can! Homo sapiens: The Moral Creature Our brain has four lobes. The frontal lobe includes an area that functions for judgement. Our brains are designed to make decisions, to see alternatives and choose. Non-human animals have different brain structure than ours. Our manner of choosing is not based plainly on biological instincts as that of the other animals but with our ability to think about our actions and use our freedom to choose. Non-human animals also do not have free will. Hence, they are slaves of nature; they act according to how they are genetically programmed. Though they may show benevolent human-like acts called protomoral behaviors (see Skutch, 2003), these behaviors are not moral because they are not done with reason and with freedom but due to their DNA programming. Another thing that makes humans the only moral creature is culture. Non-human animals do not have a culture. Socio-cultural factors like history, beliefs, ideals, and worldviews shape our moral principles. Culture is a factor in shaping moral codes and these moral principles are themselves part of culture. That is why, we say that morality could vary from one culture to another. Remember, morality is how we ought to live. Let us not forget the word ―ought‖ in there because it is in having the freedom to choose that that ―ought‖ would require us to think hard about our actions and only humans among all other animals have that ability. Rationality is the capacity to think hard in order to make an upright decision. Both rationality and freedom are required in making moral acts and only humans have both; these two then make humans as the only moral creature. If human beings act according to their DNA- programmed instincts and not according to freewill, then there is no need for moral reasoning. They will not need the freedom and will to think and decide about what‘s right and what‘s wrong, will not ever experience moral dilemma, are not bound to make choices and hence, will have an existence similar to that of the birds, dogs, and other non-human animals or will live a brutish life. That is why, in teleseryes, a protagonist will confront a conscience-numbed antagonist with the line: “Hayop ka!”  15 Freedom We have been talking about freedom—but what really freedom is? Why would people risk their lives in this time of pandemic in going to streets to demonstrate for us so we can maintain our freedom of speech and expression that is threatened by the new Anti- Terrorism Bill? It goes to show that freedom is basically important. Here are some of the things people say about the different sorts of freedom: Phot oF Phot oG Google images These pictures above show how freedom is defined in the context of same-sex union, media and expression, and religion. In the light of ethics and morality, we will consider St. John Paul II‘s definition. Skutch (2007) identified two meanings of freedom in relation to morality: 1.) Freedom from prior determination. This means that we are not tied to the influence of any past (e.g. DNA- programming; early experiences; ex- girlfriend), and we use our free will. Free will means having a firm stand to make a choice without being hindered. 2.) Freedom to express one’s own nature. This can imply two things. A.) Being able to satisfy a particular desire without external obstacles like laws and customs as these desires are part of our total nature. It is being away from the things that stops us from expressing our total personality. For example, marrying someone you love based on your sexual preference. B.) Being able to satisfy our primary needs which, being an animal, are biologically-determined, without being hindered by our own attitudes. This is something internal. For example, being able to control your desire to steal for food and instead find acceptable means to feed a hungry stomach. We have previously learned that morality is about how we ought to live. John Paul II‘s definition of freedom relates with morality as it points out the capacity to do what should be done and not merely what is wished to be done. As we said, ethics is about coming up with  16 and executing a morally upright decision through moral reasoning. If we will just do whatever we want, then we become like irrational non-human animals that are slaves of passions and impulses. However, because of moral freedom, we are able to think hard about what‘s right and what‘s wrong and from there we are able to choose without being hindered to do what we ―ought‖ to do. Ethical freedom means being able to do what is good without being hindered and being able to hinder oneself to do evil. ASSESSMENT On pieces of paper, do the following activities. 1. Based on the post below, explain the view of determinism and how it becomes a threat to Ethics. 2. Why are humans moral beings? Explain. 3. Relate freedom with morality through a drawing or collage. REFERENCES Blackburn, S. (2001). Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. Skutch, A.F. (2007). Moral foundations: An Introduction to Ethics. VA: Axios Press  17 CHAPTER 5: WHAT IS CULTURE? All of us are born into a culture. It is something that is inherited from ours. It speaks of the way we communicate, the way we relate with others and the way we view things coming our way. Culture is embedded in us and we cannot escape form it. It helps define our moral behavior. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of the lesson, you are expected to: 1. articulate the definition of culture; 2. attribute facets of personal behavior to culture; and 3. feel proud of one‘s culture and express the desire to propagate it. Activity:Make a personal data containing your name, what you eat, your residence, your language, how you dress, your sports, your family, family celebrations and your arts and music. On a separate sheet of paper, answer the following questions: 1. What do my personal data speak of my personality? 2. How does culture affect my way of seeing things and relating with others? 3. What are my manifestations that I feel proud of my culture? Culture defined A simple definition of culture is that it is a way of life. It is characterized as the people‘s way of life which is shared by other people in a certain cultural region. It is not safe to assume that everyone in a given society shares the same culture or people who are far from each other can no longer share the same way of life. Culture occupies a large domain in the life of man. Everything a man does in his everyday living is dominated by his cultural orientation. From the way he pray to the way he carries himself in the social world is a manifestation of one‘s cultural heritage. With this, culture can be defined as the values, beliefs, behaviour and material objects that together form a people‘s way of life (Macionis, 2007). Culture encompasses a broad spectrum of an individual‘s social and personal life. Edward Tylor defined culture as that complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals, customs, traditions and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as member of society. Marvin Harris claims that culture is totally socially acquired lifeways of a group of people. It includes patterned of repetitive ways of thinking, feeling and acting that are characteristics of the members of a particular society or segment of society. Clifford Geertz defines culture as ideas based on cultural learning and symbols. It has been characterized as sets of control mechanisms from the governing of behaviour. Our membership to society is governed by the guidelines which are handed, twisted, revised, and taught across generations. Culture is far too complex and dynamic to be boxed in a single adjective. Possession of culture can be likened to an organizational membership. There are cultures existing within a big culture and there are cultures that remain despite the negative connotation and unfavorable effects to its members.  18 Characteristics of Culture Anthropologists, sociologists and behavioral scientists in the study of culture came up with a list of traits and characteristics shared by all cultures. 1. Culture is learned. We acquire knowledge that are passed on to us by our parents, primal adults and the people aroundus both directly and indirectly. Children absorbed the information given to them from the day they were born. This form of learning cannot be attributed to biological factors alone. Cultural leaning, then is based on the ability or human capacity to use symbols that do not have a direct or natural connections to the things they represent. 2. Culture is collective or shared. Culture is social in nature and not by any means to be defined as a private or personal values of property.The knowledge one has now is a product of accumulation of bits and pieces within a society or culture. We become enculturated to the society and society to which we belong. We pass knowledge across generation. As generations learn and pass the knowledge of society, the knowledge is absorbed through society and thus continue to be shared within that society. 3. Culture is transmitted orally and in writing. Sharing and learning of culture can be done either consciously or unconsciously, within generations or across generation in unlimited ways. Oral transmission of culture is potent through the life cycle of man. Even among societies with no structure of formal instruction or education, it is a mode of learning and bringing up the young. Written transmission is relatively modern. With writing, learning and cultural transmission became precise, extensively complicated, highly symbolic, and heavily cumulative. 4. Culture is symbolic. Culture operates within a realm of symbol construction and symbol usage. It is learned, shared and transmitted using a complex set of symbols used to communicate called language. It can be oral or written, gestures, hand signs, body language, facial expressions. Culture is transmitted through the aid of language. It enables us to recall knowledge encountered in the past giving us a notion of time. On the other hand, we use symbols to communicate our emotional condition. Symbols we use and see are bound by the culture to which they were formed. 5. Culture is holistic and integrated. Parts of culture are intricately connected to one another into a holistic entity. For Durkheim, culture is a product not of a single individual but of a collective. A collective consciousness or awareness exists beyond the individual. Various elements of the culture tend to fit each other for smoother and better adaptive process. This means that elements within the culture need to function harmoniously, otherwise strain or frictional conflict occurs. Culture is patterned by specific dimension of social life such as economic and political activities.  19 6. Culture is adaptive. Cultural adaptation is the evolutionary process that modifies the social life of the people in the given natural environment. It is an adjustment strategy people utilize or employ to respond to the changes in the natural or social environment, or the method used to react properly with respect to stimuli that are available. The strategy could be biological, technological or socio-behavioral in nature. 7. Culture satisfies needs. Culture defines the activities of man. It is likewise within a culture where these activities can be gratified. Gratification refers to the granting of a quality of life or lifestyle for personal or social gratification. Culture has the capacity to satisfy and grant the needs – biological and social, of people. It allows the smooth and efficient interaction among members of the society for the satisfaction of the needs. There may be differences in the steps we all follow and the people we interact before we reach our goal, but the origin of the gratification will be the same. 8. Culture is compulsory. Being a member of a society also means that you become a subject of the society to which you are born and socialize. One learns culture by conditioning. Conditioning can be the observance of reward and punishment given an act. Compulsory in this sense of the word does not mean it is permanent and immovable. Culture changes and is in flux. 9. Culture is dynamic. No culture is static and permanent. Since membership to culture is continuously changing by the influx and changes in and among members; people move in and out of a culture. Cultural communications is transforming at fast pace by the technological development happening, concepts and ideas are being modified and transformed with respect to occurring events and changing political environment, the overall culture is constantly changing. 10. Culture is cumulative. Every time the transmission of knowledge is conducted through socialization, accumulation occurs-from old to new. The cycle happens repeatedly and every time, knowledge is accumulated and transformed. Knowledge that was formed and developed within a particular culture is a process of transmission from one generation into another, through sharing and cultural learning sharing. 11. Culture interacts and undergoes transformation. All human cultures and societies interact to other cultures which are either related or totally distinct from one another. This contact could either result to copying or borrowing of some aspects of one culture resulting to the transformation of one culture or both. Interaction can happen in the form of domination or colonialism. A dominated society is forced and the subjected to the culture of the defeated and this may result to the acceptance of the dominant religion, political authority, educational system, and even the way of speaking and thinking.  20 The Influence of Culture in Moral Development Culture is one‘s person‘s social heritage that has been passed from one generation to the next basically through the relationships that binds the society together. It necessarily says on what are things a member of the society must do, what to do, and how to do things. It teaches and conditions members on how to relate and live with the other members of the society and even to people outside of their own culture. Culture functions to mold and establish a social identity that brings people as well to the knowledge of common objectives which member would try to achieve. Culture, indeed, provides norms, customs, laws, and moral demands that are to be followed. In general, culture plays a vital role the development of the human person. In every aspect of the human person, the cultural background can be very visible. Culture has an essential influence on the moral development of the human person since morality is just one of the cultural aspects. Culture influences the moral development of the people through the following points: 1. Culture is always social and communal by which the relationship of the people towards one another. And their experience as a people are the culture‘s meadow. It is in this relationship and communal experience that culture influences the moral development of its members. It is important to note that morality as principle is promoted because primarily of the relationship within the community. Laws and rules and standards of attitudes and behaviors are set and promulgated by the community to promote the relationship that binds them together as a people. 2. Culture defines the normative principles and behaviors of the society. It defines which particular principle and behavior that should be kept that would serve the best interest of the community. There would be a definition on what are the principles also that should not be promoted or rejected. These defined normative principles and behaviors inform and indoctrinate the members as they live and relate with the community. These would shape also the kind of moral judgement a person has, which is most of the time congruent to the general moral judgment. 3. A culture as best exemplified in the experience of the people, develops restrictions and sets boundaries and limitations as they liver and relate with one another. These would create an atmosphere of promoting the welfare of the community. Indeed, anyone who tries to step beyond these is subject to punishment or consequences set by the community embedded in the culture. 4. Culture helps in generating the character and identity of its people, it also includes the moral character. Culture conditions the mind- the way people think and the way we perceive the world and their relationship with one another. If a culture is aggressive, those who are in it become aggressive in their relationship with one another. Conversely, if a culture is unjust, the same may be developed among the people who are in it. 5. Culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups. They are the symbol of guidance and control. In many cultures, men always are most of the time looked up to as leaders overseeing the order of the community. They are expected to give guidance to the body. People submit themselves to the authority: be it patriarchal or matriarchal. By their very authority as they represent the populace, the members look at them as people  21 who promote and keep the set of rules and laws that govern the community. Their moral judgements are considered essential in moral issues of the community. In sum, culture is very significant in the development of the human person and in his moral development. It has a tight grip on the moral development of the people. It is the conditioning principle of the moral development of its members. Although it may not always promote what is good and just for all, it is certain that there are principles, attitudes and behaviors that actually hinder good relationships and violate the welfare of the others. There are aspects of culture that are difficult to eliminate, yet they should be subject to people‘s discernment that proper changes and modifications have to be done for the sake of the welfare and justice for everybody. ASSESSMENT: On a separate sheet of paper, answer as directed. A. Make an acrostic on the word CULTURE based on your learnings in this lesson. B. Unscramble the letters to make sense of the statement. Write your answersafter the number. 1. CELRTUU is known as the way of life. 2. Cultural learning is based on the ability to use BLMOSSY. 3. Culture is collective and ADEHRS. 4. Culture can be ADEMNRSTTT orally or in writing. 5.Culture operates within the AELMR of symbol construction and usage. 6. Parts of a culture are intricately connected to one another into a CHIILOST entity. 7. Cultural adaptation is the AEILNOORUVY process that modifies the social life of the people.‘ 8. The gratification of these needs is almost similar and ABCDEEILPRT. 9. Being a member of the society means one become a BCEJSTU of it. 10. No culture is ACISTT. C. Essay Cite ways by which you feel proud of your culture. Express your desire to propagate it. REFERENCES Abesamis, J.T., & Franco, M. (2014). Society and Culture A Liberal Approach to Understanding Humanity. Mutya Publishing House, Inc. Alata, E.J., & Ignacio, E.J. (2019). Building and Enhancing New Literacies Across the Curriculum. Rex Book Store.  22 Bulaong, O., et. al (2018). Ethics Foundation of Moral Valuation. Rex Book Store Lanuza, G., &Raymundo S. (2016). Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Rex Book Store Leaño, Jr., Roman D., et al. (2018). Ethics for College Students. Mindshapers Co., Inc. Riodique, F. (2016). Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Mindshapers Co. Inc. Retrieved June 1, 2020 from school.cms.k12.nc.us/beverlywoodES/Documents/Janjustice.pdf  23 CHAPTER 6: CULTURAL RELATIVISM All of us are born into a culture. As we grow, we meet other cultures and are oftentimes shaped by it.As bearers of culture, our task is to be tolerant of other cultures and see what is good in some and adapt the same in our lives. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of the lesson, you are expected to: 1. define cultural relativism; 2. recognize differences in moral behavior of different cultures; 3. evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism; and 4. appreciate the differences among cultures Activity: On a sheet of paper, in five sentences, give your own view about the racial discrimination being experienced by the colored men and women in the United States of America, in particular with the death of George Floyd. Introduction The recent event that shook human rights advocates in the world particularly in the United States of America was the death of George Flyod, a black American. His last words continue to haunt us today: ―Sir, I cannot breathe‖ brings to mind the deep-seated concept and understanding of being able to subjugate people because of their sex, color and religion. In the world today, we recognize that the many cultures of the world have their own beliefs, values and practices that have developed in particular, historical, social, material and ecological contexts and that it makes sense that they would differ from our own and that none are necessarily right or wrong, good or bad. Then, we are engaging in cultural relativism. Cultural Relativism defined Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgements using the standards of one‘s own culture. Its goal is to promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one‘s own culture. Using the perspective of cultural relativism leads to the view that no one culture is superior that another when compared to systems of morality, law, politics and etc. It is a concept that cultural norms and values derive their meaning within a specific social context. This is also based on the idea that there is no absolute standard of good and evil. Therefore every decision and judgment of what is right and wrong is individually decided in each society. It also means that any opinion on ethics is subject to the perspective of each person within their particular culture. Overall, there is no right or wrong ethical system. Cultural relativism is considered to be more constructive and positive conception as compared to ethnocentrism. It permits to see an individual‘s habits, values and morals in the context of his or her cultural relevance by comparing it to one‘s own cultural values and by deeming the most superior and greater of all.Anthropologists believe that all cultures are  24 equally legitimate expressions of human existence, to be studied from a purely neutral perspective. Cultural relativism and ethics Cultural relativism is closely related to ethical relativism. Ethical relativism views truth as variable and not absolute. What constitutes right and wrong is determined solely by the individual or by society. Since truth is not objective, there can be objective standard which applies to all cultures. No one can say if someone else is right or wrong. It is a matter of personal opinion and no society can pass judgement on another society. The advantages and disadvantages of Cultural Relativism ADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL DISADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM RELATIVISM 1.It promotes cooperation. 1.It creates a system that is fuelled by personal bias. We are so different from each other that we have many things to share. Every Every society has a certain natural bias individual has a different perspective to it because of how humanity operates. based on their upbringing, experiences People tend to prefer to be with others and personal thoughts. By embracing who have similar thought or feelings, so the many differences we have, the they segregate themselves to become cooperation creates the potential for a neighborhoods, communities and social stronger society. groups that share specific perspectives. When people are given the power to define their own moral code, then, they will do so based on their personal bias. 2.It creates a society where equality is 2.It would create chaos. possible. People who can follow their own moral In some cases, people rise by stepping code because there is no wrong or right on top of other people. For some, it is a would be allowed to pursue any life they sociable way of creating discrimination. preferred under the theory of cultural Today this is seen in the discrimination relativism. There is no real way to protect of women, the limited opportunities that the people in such a society, so each minority people face, and the violence person can be responsible to protect we all experience due to political themselves. It creates a system that oppression. emphasize that only the strongest can survive. Cultural relativism allows the individual to define their moral code without defining the moral code of others. Each man lives on his own. That separation creates equality because each person can set his/own definition of success. 3.People can pursue a genuine interest. 3.It is an idea that is based on the perfection of humanity. Today more than ever, people are  25 drawn to certain career options because Many people strive to do good every day they have no other choice. In cultural and most want to have the chance to relativism, you get to pursue your own seek happiness in some way. This makes interest without restrictions. You set the cultural relativism inviting. However, definitions of what you can have and people are not perfect. We are forgetful, what you cannot have. When done we lie, in other words, we backslide. earnestly, each person would get to Without a group moral code in place to focus on his/her strengths instead of govern decisions, anything could happen his/her weakness. when we experience these moments of imperfection. 4.Respect is encouraged by cultural 4.It could promote a lack of diversity. relativism. Cultural relativism promotes an As people are from different cultures, individualistic point of view, which at first they bring with them different ideas and glance seems to promote diversity but in their definitions of success are different reality it removes one from a society. The from the rest. Such a system promoted only standards that are in place are those the individual‘ definition instead of a which are set by then individual involved, group definition, a society can evolve which means everyone is pursuing one‘s because there is a natural level of own position of strength. Diversity cannot respect built into the process. One is be created when the emphasis of a given the right to pursue life in his own society in individualistic gain that can terms come at the expense of others. 5.It preserves human culture. 5.It draws people away from one another. Humanity is a very diverse set of Cultural relativism can both promote thoughts, traditions, ideas and practices. people coming together to share their Over time, the traditions of humanity are strengths and can encourage people to set aside so that a set of standards can draw apart from one another. Because be appeased. each person is uncertain of what codes and standards another is following, the Under the theory of cultural relativism, natural inclination for self-preservation such an appeasement may not be causes people to draw away. One might necessary. It wouldn‘t even be a desire to develop a close-knit community consideration. at first, but each demon causes people to back away instead of closing ranks. 6.It creates a society without judgement. 6.It could limit moral progress. We are so trained to judge others in The idea of moral progress makes one today‘s world that we don‘t even give it a more inclusionary than exclusionary. This second thought. Under the theory of inclusion is reflected in the laws and cultural relativism, judgment goes away. customs of the culture. In cultural The only person that judges you is relativism, everyone would be left to yourself. People who might disagree one‘s own choice without exception and with you are able to set their own codes there would be complete agreement in and standards for their own either choice. Within the society, either individualistic bubble. Instead of choice could be seen as a moral  26 worrying about others, you only worry progress, but in reality, it could hold about yourself. people back. 7.It can be excluded from cultural 7.It could limit humanity‘s progress. relativism. Cultural relativism is often seen as Under the theory of cultural relativism, progression but it is not always that way. each culture can be treated as an When the ability to judge one standard individual. Moral codes of a culture can from another is removed, then the be defined and an expectation comparative process of placing a current implemented that people follow it. society or culture is removed as well. No Although other cultures may not set up definition of success can be implemented such a restriction, and others might say because each is successful in its own such a restriction is not a form of cultural way. relativism, people in such a system can do what makes sense to them. You are focusing on the customs of a culture not the morality that is imposed upon those customs. 8.We can create personal moral codes 8.Cultural relativism can turn perceptions based on societal standards with ease. into truth. To determine if a decision is right or In the world of cultural relativism, that wrong, cultural relativism allows bias becomes a truth that can be acted individuals to consult with the standards upon. The decision to act becomes a of their society or culture. It is a simple righteous one because of the individual test to determine the course that a truth that the culture allowed through the person should take in such a bias it perpetrates. circumstance. By consulting with the moral code of the culture, one question must be asked: does the action conform to the cultural moral code? If the answer is positive, then the action is permitted. 9. It stops cultural conditioning. People tend to adapt their attitudes, thoughts and beliefs to the people they are with on a regular basis. This is a cultural conditioning and it prevents people from, having an individualistic perspective. Cultural relativism stops it. The advantages and disadvantages of cultural relativism presented above are based on the theoretical implementation of such a system. Originally proposed by Franz Boas in 18887, it is an idea that has never been implemented on a large scale. Moral standards make sense in a person‘s culture. By creating individualized cultures on a singular or larger  27 scales, it becomes easier to keep and embrace the traditions that humanity has developed with the passage of time. The call perhaps for us today is to be more multi-culturally literate. And we can do the same by: 1. Learn about other cultures. The first step to multi-culturalism is to know about cultures other than your own. For it follows that if we do not know others‘ culture, the less welcoming and tolerant we become. 2. Familiarize oneself with how discrimination and prejudice appear in one‘s own culture. We need to be able to spot and identify and confront patterns of discrimination and prejudice in our own lives. 3. As you are, so you will behave. The key to genuine multicultural literacy is core values, that is- what one really believes about people who are different from us. ASSESSMENT On a separate sheet of paper, answer the following activities. A. Complete the following statements. The three things that I realized from this lesson are… The two things that challenged me in this lesson are... One thing I want to ask in this lesson is … B. On a table write five of the advantages and disadvantages of cultural relativism that appeal to you. Provide an example from your own experience. C. Essay How do I show my appreciation of other cultures? REFERENCES Alata, E.J., & Ignacio, E.J. (2019). Building and Enhancing New Literacies Across the Curriculum. Rex Book Store. Lanuza, G., &Raymundo S. (2016). Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Rex Book Store Leaño, Jr., Roman D., et al. (2018). Ethics for College Students. Mindshapers Co., Inc.  28 CHAPTER 7: THE FILIPINO WAY We all are born into a culture. In our case, it is the Filipino culture. We had been brought up by this culture and the way we look at things and how we relate with one another speak volumes of who we are and what we had been through. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of the lesson, you will be expected to: 1. analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity in their own moral experiences; 2. evaluate elements that need to be changed; and 3. feel proud of one‘s heritage. Activity On a separate sheet of paper, fill up a T-chart on the strength and weaknesses of the Filipino. Introduction Our culture is a big reflection of our great and complex history. It is product of the interaction we had from the different people we have interacted with as a nation. A blend of the Malayo- Polynesian and Hispanic culture with the influence from Chinese, Indians, Arabs and other Asian cultures really contribute to the customs and traditions of the Philippines. Our culture is unique compared to other Asian countries and beliefs applied everyday in the life of the Filipinos reveal how rich and blessed the culture, we Filipinos have. One way to understand better our Filipino culture, it is proper and fitting that we take stock of ourselves by taking a look at our characteristics and see how these can strengthen the good in our cultural values and correct what is excessive in them and supply for their deficiencies. By asking ourselves these questions we will be able to see the light of the why and how of our being Filipinos: From whom do we draw our self-identity? Where do we find the deepest meaning in our lives? How do we react to suffering? How do we commit ourselves to our ideals of life? What is our view of the world in all its depth and hidden reality? 1. Filipino’s self-identity We are family-oriented. The anak-magulang relationship is of primary importance to us Filipinos. Ama, ina, anak are culturally and emotionally significant to us Filipinos who cherish our filial attachment not only to our immediate family, but also to our extended family (ninongs, ninangs, etc). This family-centeredness supplies a basic sense of belonging, stability and security. It is from our families that we Filipinos draw our sense of identity. 2. Meaning in Life We are meal-oriented. (salu-salo, kainan). Because Filipinos consider almost everyone as part of the family (parang pamilya), we are known for being gracious hosts and grateful guests. Serving our guests with the best we have is an inborn value to Filipinos, rich and poor alike. We love to celebrate any and all event with a special meal. Even with unexpected guests, we Filipinos try our best to offer something, meager as it may be, with the traditional greeting: Tuloy po kayo at kumainmunatayo.  29 3. Sufferings in Life We Filipinos are kundiman-oriented. The kundiman is a sad Filipino song about wounded love. Filipinos are naturally attracted to heroes sacrificing everything for love. We are patient and forgiving to a fault (magpapaka-alipinakonangdahilsaiyo). This acceptance of suffering manifests a deep, positive value of Filipinos‘ kalooban. 4. Life-Commitment We Filipinos are bayani-oriented. A bayani is a hero. We Filipinos are natural hero- followers. For all our patience and tolerance, we will not accept ultimate failure and defeat. We tend instinctively to always personalize any good cause in terms of a leader, especially when its object is to defend the weak and the oppressed. To protect this innate sense of human dignity, Filipinos are prepared to lay down even their lives. 5. World-View We Filipinos are spirit-oriented. We are often said to be naturally psychic. We have a deep-seated belief in the supernatural and in all kinds of spirits dwelling in individual persons, places and things. Even in today‘s world of science and technology, Filipinos continue to invoke the spirits in various undertakings especially in faith-healings and exorcisms. Characteristics of Filipino Culture To the student: On a piece of paper, attach a cut-out picture on the following characteristics of the Filipino culture. Beside it, write a three-sentence description of it. 1. The Filipino people are very resilient. 6. Filipinos have the longest Christmas 2. Filipinos are very religious. celebration. 3. Filipinos are very respectful. 7. Filipinos love art and architecture. 4. Filipinos help one another. 8. Filipinos are hospitable people. 5. Filipinos value traditions and culture. Filipino Family Values To the student: On a piece of paper, describe the following Filipino Family Values in the way you experience these with your own families. 1. Paggalang 5. Hiya 2. Pakikisama 6. Damayan 3. Utang naLoob 7. Compassionate 4. PagpapahalagasaPamilya 8. Fun-loving trait Weaknesses of the Filipino Character To the student: On a piece of paper, suggest one or two courses of action for every weakness of the Filipino character. 1. Passivity and lack of initiative 6. Lack of discipline 2. Colonial Mentality 7. Lack of self-analysis and reflection 3. Kanya-kanya syndrome 8. Ningas cogon 4. Extreme personalism 9. Gaya-gaya mentality 5. Extreme family centeredness  30 ASSESSMENT On a separate sheet of paper, do the following activities.. 1. Make an analysis of the song Ako ay Pilipino on the qualities of the moral identity of the Filipino. 2. Describe the elements of the Filipino way of living as described in Horacio de la Costa‘s ―Jewels of the Pauper.‖ 3. Create a poem/free verse/song, draw a symbol or make an essay on your pride as a Filipino and on your promise to propagate the Filipino culture wherever you may go. REFERENCES Abesamis, J.T., & Franco, M. (2014). Society and Culture A Liberal Approach to Understanding Humanity. Mutya Publishing House, Inc. Philippines, C. C. P. C. O. T., Catholic Church. Plenary Council of the Philippines, & Catholic Church. Bishops‘ Conference of the Philippines. (2004). Acts and Decrees of the Second Plenary Council of the Philippines. Penguin Random House. Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (2008). Catechism for Filipino Catholics. Manila: Phoenix Publishing House. Leaño, Jr., Roman D., et al. (2018). Ethics for College Students. Mindshapers Co., Inc.  31 CHAPTER 8: UNIVERSAL VALUES Embedded in our personality are universal values enshrined in our hearts by the Creator. These values are of paramount importance in one‘s life. These are what one cherish and treasure such that they provide motivation and guidance to one‘s actions. LEARNING OUTCOMES After undergoing the lesson, you are expected to: 1. describe human values; 2. explain that human values are necessary for human survival; and 3. strive to live a value-laden life Activity On a sheet of paper, draw a big circle with your name on it. Around your name, write the values that you cherish most in life. Universal Values Defined Values represent aspirations and goals: the motives and purposes we seek. They are emotionally charged. They give power to our ideas and understandings such that they constitute the driving force behind individual and group behaviors. The term is also used to designate the moral characteristics that are inherent in a subject such as piety, responsibility, secularism and respect among others.Universal, however is an adjective that is related to what belongs or which relates to the universe. The concept refers to the set of all things created and what is common to all its kind. These concepts enable us to approach the notion of universal value. Universal values are formed byimplied behavioral standards that are necessary to live in a harmonious and peaceful society. It is a notion that is associated with morality and ethics. All people have certain values that come from their depths and guide their actions. Because humans do not think all the same way, values can vary from one person to the next. However, universal values have to be socially shared. Universal values are acquired from family upbringing and education because the process of socialization involves the internalization of timeless concepts. Schwartz’s Concept of Universal Values The results of a 44 countries study conducted by S. H. Schwartz and his colleagues suggest that there are fifty-six specific universal values and ten types of universal values surveyed from a wide range of different cultural types. Below are each of the value types with the specific related values alongside: 1. Power – social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources 2. Achievement – personal success by demonstrating competence according to social standards 3. Hedonism – pleasure or sensuous gratification of oneself 4. Stimulation – excitement, novelty and challenge in life  32 5. Self-direction – independent thought and action – choosing, creating and exploring 6. Universalism – understanding, appreciation, tolerance and protection for the welfare of all people and for nature 7. Benevolence – preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one is in frequent personal contact 8. Tradition – respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion provide 9. Conformity – restraint of actions, inclinations and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms 10. Security – safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships and of self Interestingly, Schwartz tested an eleventh possible universal value which was spirituality or the goalof finding meaning in life, however, he found out that not all cultures seem to recognize it. UN Charter of Universal Values The values enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations (UN) states that respect for fundamental human rights, social justice and human dignity, and respect for the equal rights of men and women serve as overarching values to which suppliers of good and services to the UN are expected to adhere. The former UN Secretary General, Khofi Ann in a speech in Germany emphasized that certain fundamental values are essential to international relations in the 21st century and probably beyond. These are: progress, equal rights, human dignity, freedom, equality, solidarity, tolerance, respect for nature and shared responsibility. Basic Human Values The function of most of these basic values is to make it possible for every human being to realize or maintain the highest level or most basic universal values of life, love and happiness. Here are some of the basic universal human values: BASIC UNIVERSAL HUMAN VALUES DEFINITION 1. Happiness 1. reward for a religious life by an afterlife in paradise 2. ultimate value of religious people 3. Peace 4. basic condition for freedom and happiness 5. not just the absence of war 6. Love 7. feelings or experience of deep connectedness or oneness with another human being, any animal, plant, tree or unnamable  33 8. experience of something far beyond any comprehension and totally indescribable 9. may happen when one opens to the beauty and nature of other people or to the beauty and mystery of nature in general or even beautiful things 10. Freedom 11. experience of the unrestricted 12. independent of the social pressure of another 13. related with empathy, integrity, and respect 14. Safety 15. free of threat, fear and survival-stress 16. freedom form emotional fear, helplessness and anxiety 17. Intelligence 18. capacity for logic, understanding, self- awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity and problem solving 19. ability to perceive or infer information and retain it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment or context 20. Respect 21. comes basically out of the understanding that deep down the other person is the same as we are ourselves 22. the most basic principle of any social communication coming out of our perception, empathy and awareness that the other is basically as we are ourselves 23. Equality 24. originated from old French or Latin words as aequalis, aequus, aequalitas (even, level, equal) 25. right to claim equal liberties with others 26. absence of discrimination  34 27. Justice 28. proper administration of the law 29. fair and equitable treatment of all individuals under the law 30. needed to realize and maintain our highest human values of freedom, peace, love and happiness 31. Nature 32. understanding our physical dependence of nature 33. awareness of being a part of the whole system of the created world 34. Health 35. state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity 36. resource for everyday life not the objective of living 37. positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources as well as physical capacities ASSESSMENT On a separate sheet of papers, do as directed. 1. Write a cinquain describing any of the basic human values explained in the lesson. 2. Compose a diamante poem on any of the basic human values explained in the lesson. 3. Make a three-column chart on the eleven basic human values. On the first column fill it up with the 11 Basic Human Values. On the second column, relate how this value is being applied today. On the third column, make your personal commitment how you will live out these values in your daily living. REFERENCES Bulaong, O., et. al (2018). Ethics Foundation of Moral Valuation. Rex Book Store. Leaño, Jr., Roman D., et al. (2018). Ethics for College Students. Mindshapers Co., Inc. Quisumbing, L., &Baybay, M.L. (2009). Learning to Know for a Peaceful and Sustainable Future. UNESCOAPCEIU. Quisumbing, L., & de Leo, J. (2005). Learning to Do Values to Learning and Working Together in a Globalized World. UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training  35 CHAPTER 9: UNIVERSAL VALUES and HUMAN SURVIVAL A value is a universal value if it has the same value or worth for all. Universal values apply across the world (across country, culture and religion). LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to: 1. understand the ideas of universal values; 2. determine the process on the uncovering of the universal values; and 3. value the importance of universal values. Activity Write something about yourself in detail. What are the goals in your life? How do you set your goals in your life? How do you differentiate between right and wrong? What have been your achievements and shortcomings in your life? Introduction The term ―value‖ means something that an individual or community believes has a worth that merits it being pursued, promoted, or privileged. This can be a thing (money, food, art), a state of mind (peace, security, certainty) or a behavior that results from those things or states of mind (protecting innocents, telling the truth, being creative). A value is not the same as a desire. To desire something means wanting a thing without much reflection on it; that is, a desire might come from an instinct, urge, or physical need. A value may originate in a desire or a series of desires, but a value arises after reflection on whether or not the thing I desire is good. Philosophers focus on how we get from our desires to our values often by focusing on the word good. One philosopher, G. E. Moore (1873-1958), argued that the word ―good‖ cannot really be defined because there is no standard against which we can discover what goodness means. He called this inability to define evaluative terms ―the naturalistic fallacy‖ because it assumes that there is something in nature or in reality that evaluative terms can match. He argued that good was a non-naturalistic quality, because it cannot be verified by science (Baldwin, 2010). Every individual will value certain things, states of minds or behaviours as these relate to his or her upbringing and social context. Every community will privilege certain things, states and behaviours as a result of its geographical location, historical trajectory, or ideational background. To claim that there are universal values, however, means seeking to uncover something that applies across all persons and communities as a result of their very humanity. Such universal values might be derived from scientific investigation, social science testing, or philosophical reflection. They might also arise from more nefarious methods, such as imperial practices, ideological and religious proselytizing, or economic exploitation. To explore universal values, then, requires attention not only to the values themselves but the ways in which they have appeared in the current global order. Values are the subject of ethical investigation. Sometimes the terms ethics, morality and values are conflated into one subject. In English, it is common to use these terms interchangeably, but philosophers distinguish them in the following way. Values and morals are closely related,  36 though morals and morality, according to most philosophers, result from rationality, while values might arise from social contexts, emotional dispositions, or rationality. As noted above, a value is different from a simple desire, for the former is something that we want after some reflection upon whether it is actually a good thing. Ethics, on the other hand, is the study of morals, including their origins, their uses, their justifications, and their relationships. There have been efforts to articulate universal human values. Professor Hans Kung, a Catholic theologian who teaches at the University of Tubingen in Germany, helped to create a Parliament of World Religions which issued a Declaration Toward a Global Ethic. The Hindu spiritual leader Sri Ravi Shankar also issued a Universal Declaration of Human Values. Both of these documents emphasize values, and overlap in many important ways. How can we find universal values? There are many ways to investigate the existence of such values. Those approaches can perhaps be organized into three broad categories: scientific, historical, and dialectic. These categories can be represented by three different philosophers: Aristotle, Mencius, and Jürgen Habermas. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is considered one of the three great philosophers of Ancient Greece. From Macedonia, he moved to Athens as a young man where he became a student of Plato, another great philosopher (428-348 B.C.), who himself was a student of Socrates (470-399 B.C.), perhaps the greatest Greek philosopher of antiquity. Socrates did not write anything down, but interrogated the people of Athens about what they valued. In those interrogations, he would often raise more questions than answers, pointing out how established traditions do not really reflect what is good for the human person. Plato, who wrote many dialogues using the person of Socrates as his main character, argued that ethics and values should be understood through the idea of virtues, or the standard of excellence within particular activities as a guide for how to act. For example, being a good captain means ensuring that a ship does not crash, E4J University Module Series: Integrity & Ethics Module 2: Ethics and Universal Values 4 that its goods and people arrive safely at port, and that a ship remains seaworthy. When it comes to universal values, however, we are talking about what it means to be not just a good pilot but a good human being. Aristotle took Plato‘s main idea about the virtues and tried to ground it in empirical observations; hence, he took a scientific approach to finding out what is good and what is a universal value. Aristotle did this by comparing people to other non-human animals and comparing different political communities. So, for Aristotle, to understand the virtue of the human person means looking for those activities which the best people do and which make them happy. He argued that there are two activities that differentiate human beings from all other animals: humans think and humans live in political communities. We do know that other animals have some ability for critical reflection, such as other primates and dolphins. And, we know that some other animals live in what look like organized political communities, such as primates, dolphins, and even ants. But no other animals use language, giving humans the ability to reflect critically on what they are thinking and doing. The Greek word logos means both language and reason, and it is that word that provides Aristotle the key to finding the good and value for the human person. Humans are defined by the combination of these two sets of activities. Aristotle concluded that the best possible person is one who engages in two types of activity: critical reflection and political activity. He called the first set of activities the intellectual virtues and the second set of activities the practical virtues.  37 Aristotle believed that people need to be educated into the virtues. Individuals might desire many things which they believe will make them happy, such as wealth, food, drink, sex, or power. Each of these is important, according to Aristotle, but all of them, on reflection, need to be enjoyed in moderation in order to become truly valued. Only by using our rationality for thinking and creating a community in which thinking is encouraged, and in which education is valued, can universal values flourish (Shields, 2016). A second approach to discovering universal values is to focus on history and tradition. The Chinese philosopher Mencius (372-289 B.C.) lived at roughly the same time as Aristotle. Just as Aristotle was a student of Plato who studied under Socrates, so Mencius was a disciple of the great Chinese philosopher, Confucius (551- 479 B.C.). Some believe that Mencius studied under the grandson of Confucius, though this is disputed. Mencius is sometimes called the ―second great Confucian scholar‖, as he developed and improved upon the ideas of Confucius in important ways. Confucius, perhaps the most famous Chinese philosopher, argued for a moral theory based on virtues. One virtue in particular was the most important; ren, or benevolence to others. But this compassion was not directed at all people, but rather to those within certain social systems, beginning with the family. This means that being a good person means understanding one‘s place in society and understanding the traditions and rules that arise from that place. A central principle of Confucius is respect for one‘s elders. Universal or Core Ethical Values Trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, and citizenship — are six core ethical values. Using core ethical values as the basis for ethical thinking can help detect situations where we focus so hard on upholding one value that we sacrifice another — e.g. we are loyal to friends and so do not always tell the truth about t