Handbook.pdf

There are many theories about the development of group dynamics, but fundamental to all of them is the notion of groups as social systems. A system is composed of elements in in teraction. When group members interact with each other, they form a social system, with at tendant group dynamic p...

There are many theories about the development of group dynamics, but fundamental to all of them is the notion of groups as social systems. A system is composed of elements in in teraction. When group members interact with each other, they form a social system, with at tendant group dynamic processes. Group dynamics are the forces that emerge and take shape as members interact with each other over the life of a group. These dynamic forces are the product of both the here-and-now interactions of group members and what members bring to the group from the larger social environment. THE IMPORTANCE OF GROUP DYNAMICS An understanding of group dynamics is essential for effective practice with any type of task or treatment group. Failure to pay careful attention to group dynamics can lead to unproductive meetings and dissatisfied members. In extreme cases, such as the mass suicide at Jonestown, group dynamics gone awry can have serious consequences for individual members or the group as a whole (Galinsky & Schopler, 1977; Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallao, 2001; Smokowski, Rose, Todar, & Reardon, 1999). Moreover, with the increasing multicultural diversification of this society, these dynamics are likely to remain a major concern for group workers (Jones, 2000). Groups that do not consider racial, ethnic, and cultural variables may present significant consequences for racially and ethnically diverse members. Therefore, throughout this chapter we consider the impact of racial, ethnic, and cultural variables on group dynamics. To practice effectively with groups, social workers should be able to (1) understand group dynamic processes as they emerge during the ongoing interaction of group members, (2) consider the impact of these dynamics on members from different racial/ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds, (3) assess the impact of emerging dynamics on current and future group functioning, and (4) guide the development of group dynamics that facilitate member participation and satisfaction while simultaneously enabling the group to achieve its goals. CONCEPTUALIZING GROUP DYNAMICS Group dynamics can be conceptualized as falling within the following five domains: (1) communication processes and interaction patterns, (2) interpersonal attraction and cohesion, (3) social integration and influence, (4) power and control, and (5) culture. A concep tual framework of group dynamics is an important heuristic device for workers seeking to assess and understand how any group works. A conceptual framework enables workers to identify and understand group dynamics as they emerge during interaction. Since the 1940s, many scholars have attempted to conceptualize and categorize group dynamics. Some of the most notable include Bales and colleagues (Bales, 1950; Bales, Cohen, & Williamson, 1979), Cartwright and Zander (1968), Forsyth (1999), Hare, Blumberg, Davies, and Kent (1995, 1996), Lewin (1951), McGrath (1984), Nixon (1979), Olmstead (1959), and Par sons (1951). The conceptualization of group dynamics presented in this chapter is based on the work of Toseland and Rivas (2001), but it also draws heavily on the work of these scholars. The chapter gives special attention to racial and ethnic variations so that group work practitioners can develop and lead effective multicultural groups. Because group dynamics are not static over the life of the group, they change as the group develops; thus this chapter also includes a section on models of group development.  COMMUNICATION PROCESSES AND INTERACTION PATTERNS Communication processes and interaction patterns are fundamental group dynamics. They are the components of social interactions that influence the behavior and attitudes of group members. As a process, communication involves the transmission of a message from a sender to a receiver. According to Toseland and Rivas (2001), communication includes (1) the encoding of perceptions, thoughts, and feelings into language and other symbols by a sender; (2) the transmission of language and symbols verbally, nonverbally, or virtually; and (3) the decoding of the message by the receiver. Communication can be verbal, nonverbal, or virtual. Face-to-face group members experience both verbal and nonverbal communications, whereas members of telephone groups experience only verbal communications, and members of computer groups experience only virtual communication. Communication can also be synchronous (i.e., back and forth in real time) or asynchronous. Asynchronous communications occur in computer groups when members may respond to messages long after they are posted. Whenever group members are communicating, they are sending messages that have meanings. Effective leaders listen hard for the meaning in messages. In face-to-face groups, members are always communicating, because even if they are not communicating verbally, their nonverbal behavior is observable and communicating something. In telephone and computer groups, nonverbal communication is absent. The greater anonymity due to the lack of face-to-face contact in telephone and computer groups has important implications for the way members communicate in these groups. For example, it has been pointed out that salience of race and socioeconomic issues is reduced and greater privacy is afforded to stigmatized individuals (Schopler, Abell, & Galinsky, 1998; Smokowski, Galinsky, & Harlow, 2001). A discussion of telephone and computer groups can be found in Toseland and Rivas (2001). Although meaning is communicated in every message, it is important for workers to be aware that problems in sending or receiving messages and transmission problems can distort or obfuscate the intended meaning of messages. For example, the sender of a message may be unclear or ambiguous. The receiver of a message can suffer from selective perception or completely block out a message. Communication can also be distorted in transmission. Noise and other distractions within or outside of the meeting room (or on computers or tele phones) can cause distortions. Language barriers can sometimes interfere with effective communication in groups. Language often reflects social attitudes. It shapes thoughts and attitudes and guides thinking patterns and the expression of ideas. The roles that language plays in human interaction within the context of human diversity can encourage or discourage individual efforts and can influence whether groups and communities attain optimal health and well-being (Ander son & Carter, 2003). The use of standard English to communicate may unfairly discriminate against those from bilingual backgrounds. In particular, the bilingual backgrounds of many Asian Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans may lead to misunderstanding or alien ation (Sue & Sue, 1999). For example, Gray-Little & Kaplan (2000) point out that white Americans had a significantly higher rate of verbal participation in groups than did Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Mexican Americans of similar educational background. Because higher levels of participation may reduce attrition, yield greater changes in self esteem, and reduce questions about the value of involvement in groups, lower levels of verbal participation raise troubling questions about therapeutic outcomes for minority members of multicultural groups. When English is a second language, care should be taken to insure that members are able to understand what is being said in the group. In addition to accents and dialects that can sometimes interfere with clear communication, the meanings of many words are culturally defined. Thus care should be taken to clarify the meaning of mes sages in groups with members from different cultural and racial/ethnic backgrounds. The most effective way to ensure that the meaning of the sender is understood by the receiver is for the receiver to provide feedback about that meaning he or she understood. Thus statements such as “Did I understand you correctly?” or “Let me make sure I under stand what you are saying” help to prevent distortions in communication. Toseland and Rivas (2001) suggest that effective feedback should (1) describe the content of the communication as it is perceived by the member, (2) be given to the member who sent the message as soon as the message has been received, and (3) be expressed in a tentative manner so that it is clear that the feedback is intended to clarify the original message rather than confront or attack the sender. Interaction patterns are also fundamental group dynamic processes. Some common interaction patterns include (1) the maypole, in which the leader is the central figure and most communication occurs from member to leader or leader to member; (2) the round robin, in which members take turns talking; (3) the hot seat, which features extended interaction between the leader and a member; and (4) the free-floating pattern, in which all members freely communicate. Although much of the group dynamics literature on interaction patterns focuses on the degree of centralization of communication, in most therapeutic social work groups, group-centered rather than leader-centered interaction patterns are valued because they help to insure the full participation of all members. It has been pointed out that, even in task groups such as teams, reciprocal interdependence often warrants decentralized communication networks (Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999). Interaction patterns are affected by members’ proclivity to communicate. Some mem bers are more outgoing than others and take more opportunities to communicate. Interac tion patterns are also affected by verbal and nonverbal cues. Praise and other supportive comments, eye contact, and other expressions of interest tend to elicit more communication. The status and power relationships within the group also affect interaction patterns. Higher status members tend to communicate more than lower status members. Interpersonal attrac tion and the emotional bonds that form between members also influence interaction pat terns. For example, members of subgroups tend to interact more with each other than with other group members. The size of the group also affects interaction. In general, the smaller the group, the more chance there is for each member to communicate. Physical arrange ments can also have an important impact on interaction patterns. Many factors, such as how chairs are arranged, whether a conference table is used, the size of the room, and whether the environment is comfortable and private should be considered. Workers may want to reduce communications from talkative members or encourage re served members to talk. Pointing out interaction patterns is often sufficient to bring about change, but other methods may also be used. For example, reserved group members may benefit from go-rounds because they are expected to speak when it is their turn. Selective at tention, clues, and reinforcement also can be used to change interaction patterns. By ac knowledging and praising selected communications, workers can draw out reserved mem bers. By directing communication to others, workers can reduce the communication of dominant members. Giving members specific roles or tasks, changing seating arrangements, and asking members to break into subgroups are other methods that can be used to change interaction patterns. Subgroup formation occurs naturally in all groups, because members do not all interact with equal valence. Interpersonal attraction, emotional bonds, and interest alliances are stronger among some members than others. Subgroups can take the form of dyads, triads, or cliques. Also, there can be isolates, who are not attached to subgroups, and scapegoats, who receive negative attention and criticism from the group. Subgroups usually are not a problem in groups unless such a strong alliance is formed among subgroup members that it threatens to supersede their allegiance to the group as a whole. An important process in group work is changing the way individuals accept and inter act with each other. This change can be accomplished by helping members to increase their personal honesty and to become more aware of their own attitudes and feelings toward peo ple who are different from them. Groups can be structured so that minority members feel comfortable without having their values ignored, minimized, or challenged. Developing norms that celebrate and embrace diversity are one way to accomplish this objective (Han & Vasquez, 1995). INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION AND COHESION Interpersonal attraction contributes to subgroup formation and to the level of cohesion of the group as a whole. Several factors contribute to interpersonal attraction. Proximity in creases interaction among people, which, in turn, often increases attraction. Therefore, just the physical act of meeting together helps to form bonds among members. However, proximity alone is usually not sufficient for interpersonal attraction to occur. In research done al most half a century ago, Newcomb (1960, 1961, 1963) showed that interpersonal attraction is fostered by similarity (i.e., we tend to like people who are similar to us). We can also be attracted to people who are dissimilar to us if they complement our personal qualities in some way (Forsyth, 1999). Other factors also contribute to interpersonal attraction—for example, acceptance and approval. Thus, group members who are accepting and positive and those who praise others for their contributions tend to be viewed as interpersonally attractive. Reciprocity also fre quently operates in these situations, so that positive accepting behavior begets positive, ac cepting responses. Compatibility in member expectations also tends to promote interpersonal attraction. Members are often attracted to those who engage in group interactions that meet their ex pectations. For example, if high disclosure is expected, a member who discloses deeply is more likely to be found to be interpersonally attractive than a member who is reserved. Sim ilarly, members who fulfill the unmet needs of others in the group will also frequently be found to be interpersonally attractive. For example, if the group desires a strong leader, the member who demonstrates strong leadership capacities is generally viewed as interperson ally attractive by the other members of the group. Group cohesion is the sum of all the forces that are exerted on members to remain in the group (Festinger, 1950). Interpersonal attraction is just one of the building blocks of group cohesion. In addition to interpersonal attraction, other factors contributing to cohe sion include (1) satisfaction of members’ needs for affiliation, recognition, and security; (2) resources and prestige that members believe will be garnered through group participation; (3) expectations about the beneficial consequences of the work of the group; and (4) positive comparison of the group with previous group experiences (Cartwright, 1968). Groups satisfy members’ needs for affiliation, recognition, and security in many ways. Individuals who are lonely or isolated, for example, often find that groups provide opportu nities for socialization that are unavailable to them in other contexts. People are also at tracted to groups that recognize their accomplishments, that foster their sense of compe tence, and that build their self-esteem. Similarly, when members’ contributions are valued and when they feel that they are well liked by the other members of the group, they are more likely to place a high value on participating in the group. For example, leaders may provide an overwhelmed African American single father with culturally relevant parenting informa tion or referrals. Here, the sharing of relevant cultural information validates unique multi cultural parenting needs, informs mutuality, and reinforces cohesion of the group. Access to resources and prestige also tends to make groups cohesive. Groups that give members access to resources they might not otherwise have are attractive. Members may de velop new contacts with high-status members who might also help them outside of the group. Being a part of a group that has the power to make important decisions can raise member’s status and prestige within the sponsoring organization. Cohesion is enhanced when members feel that they are working on important issues that they can influence. Con versely, when members feel that their input is being ignored or that it is ineffectual, they are not likely to feel strongly connected to the group or the people in it. Members tend to compare their experiences in a group with their experiences in other groups. When studying cohesion in groups, Thibaut and Kelley (1959) found that members’ continued desire to stay in a group was based on the satisfaction derived from participating in the group compared with other alternatives, what they called the “com parison level for alternatives.” Thus members who are satisfied with a group and who do not think that they will be more satisfied participating elsewhere will tend to remain com mitted to the group. Members’ reasons for being attracted to a group affect how they act in it. For example, members who are attracted to a group primarily because of the prestige it brings to them are not likely to initiate controversial or difficult topics that might affect their status in it. Simi larly, members who join a group primarily for the opportunity it provides for social interac tion tend to engage in more off-task conversations than those who join a group because of the important work it is charged to accomplish. The level of cohesion in a group also influences members’ behaviors in many different ways. After reviewing the clinical and research literature, Toseland and Rivas (2001) noted that high levels of cohesion have been associated with many beneficial group-member be haviors, such as greater (1) perseverance toward group goals, (2) willingness to take respon sibility for group functioning, (3) willingness to express feelings, (4) willingness to listen, and (5) ability to use feedback and evaluations. High levels of group cohesion have also been associated with positive outcomes. These include (1) greater satisfaction with the group experience; (2) higher levels of goal attain ment by individual group members and the group as a whole; (3) greater commitment to the sponsoring organization; (4) increases in members’ feelings of self-confidence, self-esteem, and personal adjustment; and (5) higher levels of meeting attendance and an increased length of participation. Despite the many beneficial aspects of high levels of group cohesion, it can also have some negative consequences. For example, high levels of cohesion can lead to dependence on the group. This can be a particular problem in support and therapy groups in which members have severe mental health or substance abuse problems and poor self-images. Co hesion can also lead to a level of conformity that detracts from the work of the group. For example, members may remain silent rather than share helpful information, ideas, and thoughts because they believe these may be contrary to what the majority wants to hear. Conformity can become pathological when members’ fears of losing status or being ostracized prevent them from voicing innovative but unpopular ideas or from raising the possibility that negative consequences may result from actions being contemplated by the group. Janis (1972, 1982), for example, noted that pathological cohesion is one ingredient of groupthink. The members’ striving for unanimity and acceptance within the group can become so great that it overrides their motivation to think independently and to realistically appraise alternative courses of action (Janis 1972, 1982). Thus, while promoting group co hesion, workers should strive to preserve members’ individuality. Workers can do this by guiding groups to develop norms that encourage the free and open expression of ideas and opinions and that value the expression of divergent opinions and ideas. SOCIAL INTEGRATION AND INFLUENCE Social integration refers to how members fit together and are accepted in the group. Norms, roles, and status are group dynamics that promote social integration by influencing how members behave. These dynamic processes set out members’ places within the group. They lend order and familiarity to group processes, helping to make individual member’s behav iors predictable and comfortable for all. Norms, roles, and status help groups to avoid ex cessive conflict and unpredictability, which can, in turn, lead to chaos and the disintegration of the group. Groups cannot function effectively without a fairly high level of social integra tion of members. Social integration helps to build unanimity about the purposes and goals of the group, helping the group move forward in an orderly and efficient manner to accom plish work and achieve its goals. Many years ago, Deutsch and Gerard (1955) postulated two forms of social influence: normative influence and informational influence. Normative influence is the desire to meet other people’s expectations and to be accepted by others. Informational influence is accept ing and being persuaded by information provided by others. Too much conformity and compliance, resulting from the strong social influences of norms, roles, and status hierarchies, can also lead to groupthink. This can have negative consequences for group productivity because members’ individual creative and intellectual contributions are suppressed. At the same time, a certain amount of predictability, confor mity, and compliance is necessary to enable members to work together to achieve the goals of the group. Thus it is important for group workers to understand and manage the norms, roles, and status hierarchies that are associated with social integration and influence so that a balance can be achieved between too little and too much conformity. Norms are shared beliefs and expectations about appropriate ways to behave in social situations, such as a group (Toseland & Rivas, 2001). Norms are rules about what consti tutes valued, preferred, and acceptable behavior within the group. Norms can be overt and explicit or covert and implicit. A group leader who states that the group will begin and end on time and then follows through on that rule each week is developing an explicit group norm in an overt fashion. In contrast, a covert, implicit norm might develop for members of a couples group to avoid any discussion of their sexual satisfaction with their partner or of infidelity. The norm is “we don’t talk about those kinds of things in this group.” Norms also vary by the extent to which they are perceived to be binding on all mem bers of the group. When a norm is highly binding, violating it often means severe sanction. Norms also vary by degree of salience for individual members. Some members may perceive norms whereas others may not perceive them at all, and some members may perceive that a particular norm is more binding than other members do. Norms develop slowly in the group as members experience what is valued and pre ferred behavior through group interaction. Therefore, it is important for workers to be cog nizant of the development of norms, especially in the beginning, and to help the group avoid developing norms that will reduce member satisfaction or prevent the group from achieving its goals. Workers can share perceptions about group norms and suggest ways in which norms could be changed to promote the growth of the group and its members. Roles are shared expectations about the functioning of individual members of the group. Whereas norms are shared expectations about appropriate and valued behavior by all members of the group, roles define how individual members are expected to perform with respect to the work of the group. Roles help to insure a division of labor when working on group goals. Members can take on many different roles in a group. Many years ago, Benne and Sheats (1948) developed a typology of group roles that included (1) task roles, such as the coordi nator and the information seeker; (2) socioemotional roles, such as the encourager and the harmonizer; and (3) individual roles, such as the aggressor and the help seeker. Special attention should be given to norm development in culturally diverse groups. Es pecially when minority members are significantly underrepresented, conscious and uncon scious group dynamics of mainstreaming and devaluation of differences can undermine needed therapeutic work (Han & Vasquez, 1995). Being the only racial/ethnic minority, gay, or female can be isolating and may make it difficult to relate to others in the group. Minor ity members may question their own judgment. They may also feel inferior or pressured to agree with the majority. For these reasons, minority members may derive less benefit from the group (Fenster, 1996). It is helpful for the group to have some members who take on roles that facilitate task accomplishment and other members who take on roles that meet members’ socioemotional needs. Thus members who keep the group on task, who are empathic, and who inject humor all help the group develop in a positive fashion. Members who take on other roles, such as monopolizers, jesters, scapegoats, or aggressors, can be problematic for the effective func tioning of the group. Leaders should take the time to analyze the roles that members play in the group and help members to take on roles that promote social integration and that sup port effective group functioning. Status refers to the ranking of importance of members of the group relative to each other. Status is determined by the prestige, power, position, and expertise members bring with them to the group and by the contributions members make to the work of the group. Because a group member’s status is measured in relationship to other members, it may change when other members join or leave the group. Status is also determined by the situa tion. Members’ status may change depending on the extent of their contributions to various aspects of the work of a group. For example, when a group is focused on health issues, the status of a group member who happens to be a nurse may increase. Status hierarchies have a good deal of influence on social integration within groups. For example, low-status members are the least likely to conform to group norms and to perform up to role expectations because they have less to lose by deviating from expected behavior. Therefore, low-status members have the potential to be disruptive of productive group pro cesses. The leader should provide opportunities for low-status members to contribute to the group so that they can become more socially integrated and achieve a higher status. Me dium-status members tend to conform to norms and roles so that they can retain their status or achieve a higher status. High-status members generally conform to norms and role expec tations when they are establishing their position, but they have more freedom to deviate from established norms once their high-status positions are established. Thus high-status members can be an important force in changing norms that are counterproductive for achieving group goals. Norms, roles, and status are important components of the social influence that groups have on members. The well-known early studies by Sherif (1936), Newcomb (1943), and Asch (1952, 1955, 1957) clearly demonstrated that the views of individual group members are influenced by majority opinion. Members with minority points of view, however, can also influence the majority. In a series of experiments, Moscovici and colleagues, for example, showed that a small number of vocal and persistent confederates were able to have some influence on the views of the majority who held differing opin ions (see, e.g., Moscovici, 1985, 1994; Moscovici & Lage, 1976; Moscovici, Lage, & Naffrechoux, 1969). Forsyth (1999) has pointed out that those with minority opinions are more likely to be heard if they (1) offer compelling and consistent arguments, (2) are assertive about the im portance of listening to their opinion, (3) appear confident rather than rigid or close minded, (4) are flexible and able to grant small concessions to the majority, and (5) confront majorities that are not certain about their positions. Therefore, members with minority opinions can have an important voice when their arguments are well reasoned and persua sive, especially in groups in which open-mindedness is a valued norm. POWER AND CONTROL Power and control are often uncomfortable subjects for social workers, who frequently pre fer to talk about their work in terms of empowerment, facilitation, mediation, mutual aid, partnership, or relationship building. Despite this, the power of the designated leader of a group is undeniable. There are at least two types of power, attributed power and actual power. Attributed power comes from the perception of people within and outside the group about the worker’s ability to be an effective leader. Attributed power comes from such sources as professional status, education, organizational position experience, boundaries be tween worker and member roles, fees paid for group participation, and so forth. Actual power refers to a worker’s resources for changing conditions within and outside the group. French and Raven’s (1959) classic analysis suggests that leaders can draw on seven power bases: (1) connection power—the ability to draw on the resources of influential peo ple and organizations; (2) expert power—having the knowledge to help the group achieve a particular goal; (3) information power—possessing information that is needed by the group; (4) legitimate power—holding an official position and the authority, rights, and privileges that go with that position; (5) reference power—being liked and admired by group mem bers; (6) reward power—the ability to offer social or tangible rewards; and (7) coercive power—the ability to sanction, punish, or deny access to resources, rewards, and privileges. The power and control of group leaders are especially visible in early group meetings, when members direct most of their communications to the leader rather than to each other. Still, the power of leaders should not be underestimated at any point in the life of a group. In a series of laboratory experiments, Milgram (1974) showed that people will follow orders given by authority figures even after they are given cues that following orders might cause harm. Although questions have been raised about the validity of Milgram’s experiments (Forsyth, 1999), a good deal of evidence from other research supports his pioneering find ings. Attention should also be paid to the roles of power and powerlessness in multicultural groups. In the multicultural encounter, leaders must be aware of how they manage feelings, perceptions, and attitudes about power and authority in relation to their own group status. A lack of personal and group understanding of power dynamics on the part of the leader can affect group process and outcome. This absence may provoke certain feelings of alien ation and anxiety for minority group members and send a message that they are not compe tent to join in the group process. It is important that group leaders not only develop self awareness but also promote empowerment and self-empathy to reduce the internalization of feelings of a devalued and powerless ethnic identity for all members (Hopps & Pinder hughes, 1999; Jones, 2000). A certain amount of power and control is needed in groups to maintain orderly and ef ficient group meetings and motivated members. Leaders, for example, can use power and control constructively by helping the members to overcome motivational problems. Mem bers can lose motivation for many reasons, but three of the better known reasons are social loafing, free riding, and the sucker effect (Levi, 2001). “Social loafing” is a term used to de scribe a reduction in individual motivation and contributions when working in a group rather than alone (Latané, Williams, & Harkins, 1979). Those who think their contribu tions are not important and who know they will receive their share of the rewards regardless of their level of input have been called “free riders” (Sweeney, 1973). There is also the ”sucker effect,” in which good performers slack off so as not to be taken advantage of by those who are less talented or less motivated (Johnson & Johnson, 2000). Leaders can set up incentive systems and use other power and control mechanisms to help avoid these motivational problems. For example, social loafing and free riding can be avoided or undone by increasing a member’s personal stake in the group. To do this, leaders can help members to perceive the meaningfulness of the task, how they will personally bene fit from being actively engaged, and how their active engagement will benefit others. Making the group smaller, clarifying group rules, setting high standards, being a role model, helping members to believe that their fellow group members are capable and willing to con tribute, and helping the group as a whole to feel that it is efficacious are some other ways to reduce social loafing and free riding. Power and control are often associated with the designated leader, but to insure the ac tive involvement and commitment of members, it is essential for designated leaders to share power and control as the group progresses. This principle recognizes that members also can have power and control over each other. Toseland and Rivas (2001) suggest that this can be done by (1) encouraging member-to-member rather than member-to-leader communica tions, (2) insuring that members have input into the agenda for group meetings and the di rection the group will go in future meetings, (3) supporting indigenous group leaders as their attempts at leadership emerge during group interaction, and (4) encouraging attempts at mutual sharing and mutual aid among group members. Members can also be empowered by encouraging them to take on leadership roles in subgroups that work on specific tasks be tween meetings, by recognizing their special skills and talents, and by praising and reward ing them for their active involvement in the work of the group. Early studies of group leadership emphasized the benefits of democratic leadership as compared with autocratic and laissez-faire leadership (Lewin & Lippitt, 1938; Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939). Over the years, leadership studies have become more sophisticated. Transactional models of leadership that emphasize rewards, punishments, cost–benefit ratios, and the coercive power of the “carrot and the stick” were developed. These models have largely been replaced with charismatic and transformational leadership models (Bass, 1995; Conger & Kanungo, 1998; House & Aditya, 1997; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). The components of transformational leadership include (1) vision, (2) inspiration, (3) role modeling, (4) intellectual stimulation, (5) meaning-making, (6) appeals to higher order needs, (7) empowerment, (8) setting of high expectations, and (9) fostering collective iden tity (Conger, 1999). Transformational leadership models emphasize the role of the leader as a charismatic role model who helps members to overcome self-interest and perceive larger group and or ganizational goals ( Alimo-Metcalfe & Alban-Metcalfe, 2001; Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1994). Transformational leaders encourage member autonomy and individuality in pursuing group and organizational goals. They encourage members to question assumptions, to ap proach problems and old solutions in new ways, to reframe problems as opportunities, and to be creative and innovative problem solvers (Alimo-Metcalfe & Alban-Metcalfe, 2001). Transformational leaders use their power bases, but they do so while inspiring members with visionary leadership as to what is possible and appealing to members’ altruistic motives to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group and the organizational spon sor (Bass & Avolio, 1994). They are focused on inspiring and empowering members rather than on inducing compliance (Conger, 1999). A recent study of 47 work groups suggests that transformational leadership is associated with empowerment of members, cohesiveness, and perceived group effectiveness (Jung & Sosik, 2002). Other literature suggests that the most effective leaders are charismatic individuals who promote safe, welcoming group envi ronments that avoid the extremes of aggressive confrontation of members or passive abdication of leadership to aggressive group members (Kivlighan & Tarrant, 2001; Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallo, 2001). CULTURE The culture of a group is defined by the values, beliefs, customs, traditions, and preferred ways of doing business that are implicitly understood and shared by all group members. Deeply held beliefs and assumptions that define a group culture emerge through interaction over time. The values, preferences, and interpersonal styles of individual members that come from their ethnic, cultural, and racial heritage, previous life experiences, and genetic disposi tion have to be blended together before a group culture develops. As members meet, they ex plore their value systems and interpersonal styles, searching for a common ground on which to relate to each other. Valuing members from diverse backgrounds involves facilitating an exploration of their ethnic and racial heritages and experiences, their attitudes about them selves, and how these attitudes and feelings affect their functioning. It also involves leaders’ actively generating a set of group norms that are consonant with the cultural values and per spectives of all group members (Tsui & Schultz, 1988). As a result of this process, a com mon set of assumptions, values, and preferred ways of doing business emerge, forming the group’s culture. Levi (2001) views culture as having three levels of depth. On the surface level are sym bols and rituals that display the culture of the group. At a deeper level, culture is displayed in the styles and approaches that group members use when interacting with each other. For example, the way conflict or competition is handled in a group says much about its culture. The deepest level of culture consists of core ideologies, values, and beliefs held in common by members of the group (Levi, 2001). The culture of a group is also determined, in part, by the sponsoring organization, the community, and the larger society. Groups take on some of the dominant values and traits of these larger social systems. The influence of these systems depends on the nature and extent of their interactions with the group. When a group is dependent on an organization for its sanction and its resources, it is particularly likely to take on the dominant culture of the or ganization. For example, a team or a governance committee is more likely to take on the culture of an organization than is a self-help group sponsored by the same organization. Similarly, a sports team sponsored by a neighborhood community center is more likely to take on the cultural values of the larger society than is a gang that meets in a private loca tion. Multicultural differences are also salient interpersonal factors that have significance for the group culture. Traditionally, group processes have reflected the European and American values of individualism, independence, competiveness, and achievement. These values are different from the values of humility and modesty that are dominant in some other cultures. A potential consequence is the worker’s insensitivity to group members with other racial/ ethnic backgrounds. This insensitivity has the potential to negatively affect group dynamic processes in the whole group. Racially and ethnically diverse groups tend to have their own cultural attributes, values, and experiences because of their unique histories. Cultural experiences of group survival, so cial hierarchy, inclusiveness, and ethnic identification influence the way members interact with one another in the group. Members’ expectations and goals in a multicultural group vary widely. They significantly influence the dynamics of the group (Hopps & Pinderhughes, 1999; Matsukawa, 2001). To be effective with all group members, the group leader should be sensitive to racial/ethnic and socioeconomic differences, should understand the effect of these differences on group dynamics, and should translate this knowledge into culturally sensitive modes of program development and service delivery (Davis, Galinsky, & Schopler, 1995). A distinct culture tends to emerge more quickly in groups that are homogeneous. When members share similar values and life experiences, their unique perspectives blend more quickly than in groups with diverse membership. For example, a caregiver support group made up of the spouses of frail veterans tends to form a distinct culture more quickly than does a caregiver support group made up of both spouses and adult children who are caring for frail older persons who have not all shared military service. Conversely, heterogeneous groups include multiple opportunities to provide and receive diverse feedback (Merta, 1995), to develop more knowledge and understanding of oneself and others (Avila & Avila, 1988), and to develop the skills needed to relate to people with different backgrounds (Fenster, 1996). However, if facilitated inappropriately, heterogeneous multicultural groups run the risk of reenacting oppressive dynamics of invalidation, disempowerment, lack of empathy, and mutuality (Han & Vasquez, 1995). Therefore, it is important that group lead ers be informed, attuned, and adept at processing the roles of race, culture, ethnicity, and power (Pinderhughes, 1989). Once a culture has developed, members who endorse and share in the group culture feel at home, but those who do not feel isolated and alienated. For the isolated member, the group is not a very satisfying experience. Isolated members are more likely to leave the group because it does not meet their socioemotional needs. Feeling misunderstood and left out is demoralizing and depressing. More extreme feelings of alienation can lead to rebel lious, acting-out behavior. For subgroups that are not part of the dominant culture, feelings of isolation are often equated with feelings of oppression. Subgroups that feel repressed are likely to rebel in various ways against the norms, roles, and status hierarchies that have been established in the group. By providing individual attention to isolated members and by stim ulating all members to consider values that transcend individual differences, leaders can fos ter the full participation and integration of all group members into the life of a group. GROUP DEVELOPMENT As groups develop over time, group dynamic processes evolve. Many attempts have been made to conceptualize these changes in stage models of group development. There is, for example, the well-known model by Tuckman (1963): (1) forming, (2) storming, (3) norming, and (4) performing. There is also the widely used model by Garland, Jones, and Kolodny (1976): (1) preaffiliation, (2) power and control, (3) intimacy, (4) differentiation, and (5) separation. For a more complete list of some of these models, see Toseland and Rivas (2001). Beginning stages of group development are characterized by the formation of group dy namics. At first, members interact tentatively, establishing norms, roles, and status hierar chies, and a group culture slowly emerges through interaction. Before cohesion can develop, social integration of members must occur. At first, the interaction is tentative and cautious, with little conflict. Then, as members become more comfortable and emboldened, conflict and resistance can occur. Members want to become a part of the group but at the same time maintain their own identity and independence. While becoming socially integrated, mem bers explore and test roles, and they challenge developing norms and status hierarchies. Encountering some conflict is normal, and dealing with it is an important skill for a group worker. Conflict resolution strategies can be found in many sources (see, for example, Forsyth, 1999, or Toseland & Rivas, 2001). For instance, if racism is perceived in the early stages of group development, cross-cultural issues can be frightening to explore. Anxiety ex perienced by group members often fosters stereotypical thinking and ego states that are rep resentative of less mature development. Group members often look to the group leader to resolve the group’s discomfort. In this case, group leaders should promote interpersonal skills in ways that build mutual connection and create norms that facilitate an exploration of these difficult issues. The middle stages of groups are characterized by an emphasis on work. Energy devoted to developing cohesive group functioning and comfortable norms and productive roles in earlier group meetings gives way to productive interaction during the middle stage of the life of a group. Words such as intimacy, performance, and problem solving are frequently used in models of group development to convey the emphasis in the middle stage on work and goal achievement. The ending stages of group development focus on the completion of remaining tasks. Evaluations of the work of the group are conducted, and ending ceremonies are planned. Task groups finish their business, make decisions, and produce the results of their efforts. Therapeutic groups help members to reduce their emotional attachment to the group. They also focus on methods for maintaining positive changes made during the group after the group ends. While accomplishing these tasks, norms and roles may change, and the group’s culture matures. Stage models of group development are helpful in providing guidance to workers about what might occur as a group develops. At the same time, each group is unique. Many fac tors affect a group’s development. Structural characteristics, such as whether a group is time limited or has an open or closed membership, have an important impact on development (Galinsky & Schopler, 1989). Similarly, the capabilities of group members and the support of the sponsoring organization can also affect group development. Therefore, workers should not assume that all groups follow the same developmental pattern. Stage models of group development are good heuristic devices for understanding how group dynamics may evolve over time, but the actual unfolding of group dynamics in a particular group can only be ascertained by careful observation or by using one or more of the measures described in the following section. MEASURING GROUP DYNAMICS The measurement of group dynamics is essential in understanding the behavior of individu als and of the group as a whole. Over the past two decades, several reviews have critically examined group process and outcome instruments (Delucia-Waack, 1997; Fuhriman & Barlow, 1994; Fuhriman & Packard, 1986). These instruments have been described as use ful in analyzing group therapy processes, group climate and therapeutic dimensions, and interactions among group members. In this section, we present a brief sample of group dynamics measures to acquaint group leaders and researchers with currently available stan dardized procedures for understanding group process. Our selected descriptions are in tended to be introductory, thus permitting readers to choose measures, review them in fur ther detail, and apply the most suitable instrument for their group work needs. Forsyth (1999) describes a variety of observational methods available to the group work practitioner. Some practical measurement methods that involve observing and record ing of individual and group behaviors include participant observation and structured obser vational measures. One useful measurement system is interactional process analysis (IPA), developed by Bales (1950). IPA is a structured coding system for classifying behaviors among group members and is delineated by task and socioemotional activities. Forsyth (1999) notes that IPA is valuable because it reports the frequency of occurrences of behavior of group members and “makes possible comparisons across categories, group members, and even different groups” (p. 33). Group cohesion, engagement, and level of trust can be measured with the Group Cli mate Questionnaire (MacKenzie, 1983), a brief 12-item measure consisting of three scales: Engagement, Differentiation, and Individuation. The Group Cohesiveness Scale (Budman, Soldz, Demby, Davis, & Merry, 1993) explores group connectedness and openness to self disclosure and consists of six subscales (Withdrawal, Interest, Trust, Cooperation, Ex pressed Caring, and Focus) and one global scale (Cohesiveness). Another recently developed instrument is the Groupwork Engagement Measure (Macgowan, 1997, 2000). It consists of a 37-item scale comprosed of seven dimensions: group member attendance, contributions, relations to members and to worker, contracting, and working on own and other members’ problems. There are also tools to measure therapeutic group factors and group session outcomes. The Therapeutic Factor Scale (Butler & Fuhriman, 1983), for example, examines the exis tence of therapeutic factors across group sessions. It is based on the work of Yalom (1995), a leading scholar in group psychotherapy. Important group therapeutic factors delineated in this model include catharsis, insight, interpersonal learning, and cohesion, all essential di mensions of group dynamics. Other scales for measuring group outcomes include the Group Sessions Rating Scale (Getter, Litt, Kadden, & Cooney, 1992), practical for assessing the use of various therapeutic interventions by both group members and facilitators of counseling and psychoeducational groups; the Individual Group Member Interpersonal Process Scale (Soldz, Budman, Davis, & Demby, 1993), for analyzing group interactions along 21 group process dimensions; and the Interpersonal Relations Checklist (Shadish, 1986), a 66-item self- or observer-related behavioral checklist that assesses group members’ knowledge and skills in understanding emotions, thoughts, and behaviors. A variety of comprehensive scales measure a range of group dynamic processes simulta neously. These include the Group Emotionality Rating System (GERS; Karterud & Foss, 1989), the Hill Interaction Matrix (HIM; Hill, 1977), the Member–Leader Scoring System (Mann, Gibbard, & Hartman, 1967), the Hostility/Support Scale (Beck, 1983), the Client and Therapist Experiencing Scales (Klein, Mathieu-Coughlan, & Kiesler, 1986), and the Sys tematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups Scale better known as SYMLOG (Bales et al., 1979). The GERS is a coding system for group functioning based on the work of Bion (1961). GERS includes five rated group dimensions of emotionality: Fight, Flight, Depend ency, Pairing, and Neutral. The GERS is a conceptually driven rating system with high reli ability and validity, though its utility is questionable in deriving a detailed process analysis of one session when used alone. It has been recommended in combination with qualitative methods such as hermeneutics. The HIM is a behavioral coding scheme that measures the therapeutic quality of ex changes among group members (Hill, 1965). The HIM comprises four process instruments, including the HIM-SS (statement by statement), HIM-A and B (predicting an individual’s be havior in a group), and HIM-G (examining group interaction). Another group dynamics as sessment package, the Member–Leader Scoring System, is used to code the verbal interac tions of group leaders and members in small groups. It has been used to understand the leader-to-member and member-to-leader exchanges in therapy, educational, and training groups (Cytrynbaum & Hallberg, 1993). The main focus of this group process system is on how group members relate to authority. The Hostility/Support Scale is a group process analysis measure designed to assess whether statements made in the course of group interaction are negative or supportive to ward the person being addressed. The instrument was developed to identify changes from group periods of tension, criticism, and conflict to ones of mutual support and encourage ment in psychotherapy groups. In conjunction with the Hostility/Support Scale, the Client and Therapist Experiencing Scales measure both therapist and group member exchanges, in cluding engagement and involvement in the group process and facilitative responses made by group therapists toward group members. A well-known group dynamics assessment system is SYMLOG, a measurement method for assessing norms, roles, and other dimensions of group as a whole (Bales, 1980; Bales et al., 1979). This measurement system allows for graphical representation and quantification of group observation data. SYMLOG can be used as a self-report measure or as an observa tional measure. Polley, Hare, and Stone (1988) have developed a group practitioner’s hand book with examples of applications of SYMLOG for educational and therapy settings. For a more comprehensive discussion of methods to measure group dynamics, see the previously described review articles or books by Forsyth (1999) and Toseland and Rivas (2001). CONCLUSION In this chapter, we have presented a conceptual framework to help guide, organize, and re fine thinking about group dynamics in social work practice with treatment and task groups. We have conceptualized these dynamics as falling into five domains: (1) communication pro cesses and interaction patterns, (2) interpersonal attraction and cohesion, (3) social integra tion and influence, (4) power and control, and (5) the overall group culture. Although an understanding of group dynamics is essential for effective practice with in dividuals and communities, it is our belief that focused attention to the dynamic processes that occur in groups is what distinguishes group work from other forms of social work prac tice. In the case of treatment groups, it is also important to remain cognizant that group work is not just working with a collection of individuals within a group context. We hope that this chapter has highlighted the power that group dynamics have to change the lives of people. Neglecting the therapeutic power of group dynamics greatly di minishes the ability of the worker to help members achieve their goals. Similarly, task groups, such as committees, teams, and boards of directors, are not merely collections of in dividuals. The synergy that is created when people come together to work in these groups transcends the collection of individual efforts. The group takes on a life of its own, and the group dynamic processes that result have an impact far beyond what the collection of indi viduals working alone could accomplish by themselves. Looking to the future, we believe that more attention will be paid to group dynamics in virtual groups. It is becoming easier and less costly for people to meet over the telephone us ing teleconferencing capabilities and through chat rooms, bulletin boards, and other forms of computer-mediated groups. (See Meier, Chapter 28, this volume, for detailed information on this subject.) Because there are no visual cues in telephone or computer groups, and be cause communication may be asynchronous in computer groups, dynamic processes are somewhat different in these groups than in face-to-face groups. Although some work has al ready been done to elucidate the dynamic processes in virtual groups, more work is needed as these groups continue to become more popular in our culture. It is clear that culture, ethnicity, and race affect the dynamic processes that develop and evolve in groups. In this increasingly multicultural society, it is imperative to examine in greater depth the impact of culture, ethnicity, and race on the groups in which we all partici pate. This priority is in keeping with a long and rich tradition within social group work practice of bringing together and fostering understanding and mutual respect among people from different backgrounds.