GUIDE & HANDBOOK (MANUAL) - MEA.docx

MANUAL SUBSTANTIATION The purpose of this training program is to provide participants with an approach to the contribution of the human element, in the prevention of pollution in the marine environment, as well as to educate, stimulate and empower merchant marine officers on board ships, contribu...

MANUAL SUBSTANTIATION The purpose of this training program is to provide participants with an approach to the contribution of the human element, in the prevention of pollution in the marine environment, as well as to educate, stimulate and empower merchant marine officers on board ships, contribute to sound emissions in the environment and ensure compliance with pollution prevention measures taken for these purposes. This course has been designed in compliance with the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, as amended (STCW'78 Convention, as amended), Tables A-II/1, A-III/1, A-III/6, and thus establish a course to update the training the officers in charge of the navigation watchkeeping, who have been trained in accordance with the minimum specifications of Tables A-II/1, A-III/1 of the STCW Code. ENTRY REQUIREMENTS Enjoy good health, justified by means of a medical certificate. Submit evidence that you are taking or have completed the training in accordance with Tables A-II/1, A-III/1 and A-III/6 of the STCW'78 Convention, as amended and its STCW Code. COURSE CERTIFICATE Once the course has been successfully completed, the student must receive a course completion document for "Marine Environmental Awareness", in accordance with Regulation II/1, III/1 and III/6; Table A-II/1, A-III/1 and A-III/6 of the STCW'78 Convention, as amended and its STCW Code MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS In accordance with the facilities of E-SEA Learning, previously approved by the Panama Maritime Authority, the capacity is as follows: Classroom 1: (8) participants Classroom 2: (4) participants Classroom 4: (4) Participants DESCRIPTION The Marine Environmental Awareness Course provides participants with an approach to the contribution of the human element, in the prevention of pollution in the marine environment in accordance with Regulation II/1, III/1 and III/6; Table A-II/1, A-III/1 and A-III/6 of the STCW'78 Convention, as amended and its STCW Code, comprises 13 hours between theoretical and evaluation time. Competition: Ensuring compliance with pollution prevention requirements GENERAL OBJECTIVES Raising awareness and appreciation of the protection of the environment by avoiding pollution of the marine environment. TEACHING METHODOLOGIES The teaching strategy that will be used by the instructors are based in the competencies and objectives to be achieved, such: Cooperative Learning Case Study Master Class LEARNING RESOURCES During the development of the Crowd Control Course on passenger ships, the following learning resources shall be used: Slides. Videos Manual Other FACILITIES E-SEA Learning has (3) classrooms, well illuminated with suitable temperature, providing comfortable accommodation for the instructor and participants. EVALUATION CRITERIA To evaluate learning in this course, we have allocated the following moments for the assessment of the participants: Diagnostic Moment (optional, undocumented): at the beginning of the course, we will carry out a diagnostic evaluation, to verify the starting point of the topics to be addressed within the framework of the participants' previous learnings. Formative Moment: During the course, we have spent time applying formative assessment to verify the progress of participants during the process of developing learning situations, the processes, difficulties, and achievements of the learnings. Summary Moment: at the end of the course, participants will receive summary assessments that will allow us to certify the types of learnings that are determined in the objectives proposed in the course. Evaluation criteria considered during the training: The procedures for monitoring on board operations and compliance with the requirements of the MARPOL Convention are fully observed. Measures to ensure that a good reputation for the environment is maintained. APPROVAL CRITERIA Minimum Percentage of Course Attendance: 90%. Theoretical exam (including class evaluations during the course): 40%. Final practical exam: 60%. Total minimum approval percentage: 71%. The rating will be given on a scale of 1 to 100. Method Using to Evaluate Rating Weight Percentage Minimum Percentage to approve Theoretical Exams 40% 28.4 % Practical Exams 60% 42.6% Total 100% 71% INSTRUCTOR PROFILE The instructor in charge must comply with the following profile: A Merchant Marine Deck or Machinery Officer who has obtained a certification under the STCW'78 Convention, as amended and its STCW Code. The instructor must have approved the "Training for Instructors" course in accordance with Regulation I/6 of the STCW'78 Convention, as amended or specialization course, or Masters or Doctorate Degree in Higher Education. The instructor must have the current training course certificate for the type and level of training to be taught. BIBLIOGRAPHY International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, as amended (STCW´78 Convention, as amended) and its STCW Code. 2017 Edition. IMO Model Course 1.38. MARPOL Consolidated Edition Convention, 2017. Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA), 2017 Edition Resolution MEPC.177(58) – Technical Code 2008 of NOx Algalita Marine Research Foundation (AMRF) – www.algalita.org Green Award Foundation – www.greenaward.org Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) – www.ipcc.ch International Maritime Organization – www.imo.org International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) – www.itopf.com COURSE SUMMARY Thematics Units Duration Time (Hours) No. Denomination Theoretical Practical Knowledge, Understanding and Sufficiency 1 1. Introduction 1.1 Global context 1.2 Sustainable shipping 1.3 Raising awareness of the marine environment 1.4 Global assessment of the course 2. Personal opinions 3. The marine environment 3.1 Importance of the oceans 3.2 Marine ecology 3.3 Difference between coastal seas and open oceans 3.4 Particularly sensitive marine areas (ZMES) 4. Marine areas of the region 4.1 Describe a regional or local marine area of choice 5. The discharges to the sea 5.1 Environmental impact of oils, chemicals, wastewater, and solid waste 5.2 Pollution prevention measures 6. Shipping reputation 7. Air emissions, greenhouse gases 7.1 Environmental impact of greenhouse gases 7.2 Pollution prevention measures 8. Other air emissions 8.1. Environmental impact of engine emissions (SOx, NOx, PM) 8.2 Other air pollutants from ships 8.3 Pollution prevention measures 9. Introduction of invasive species including ballast water tanks 9.1 Environmental impact of species transfer 9.2 Pollution prevention measures 10. Other impacts on the marine environment 10.1 Environmental impact of noise under the sea 10.2 Environmental impact of anti-fouling paints 10.3 Environmental impact of ship recycling 11. Pollution prevention measures and anti-pollution procedures. 12. Personal commitments 12.1 Personal behaviors 12.2 Personal responsibilities 12.3 Officer's Responsibility 10.0 2.0 EXAM 1.0 -- SUB-TOTAL 11.0 2.0 TOTAL 13.0 SCHEDULE DAY/ PERIOD 1ST PERIOD 2ND PERIOD BREAK 3RD PERIOD 4TH PERIOD 1 1. Introduction 2. Personal Opinions 3. Marine Environment 4.Regional Marine Area 5. Discharges to the sea 6. Reputation of shipping industry 7. Emissions to air, greenhouse gases 2 8. Other emissions to the air 9. Introduction of invasive species from the ballast water 10. Other impacts to the marine environment 11. Pollution prevention measures 12. Personal involvement Written Exam 1. INTRODUCTION Marine environmental awareness represents the contribution of the human element to the prevention of pollution. Therefore, marine environmental awareness training brings together two important aspects of modern shipping: Care for the marine environment and the importance of human performance. The IMO Strategic Plan for the Organization for the six-year period 2010 to 2015 (A.1011(26)) seeks to enhance the environmental conscience of the shipping industry: "The mission of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) as a United Nations specialized agency is to promote safe, secure, environmentally sound, efficient and sustainable shipping through cooperation.” The enhancement of a sustainable environmental policy for the shipping industry remains a high-profile matter. The heightened concern at the impact of global shipping activities on the environment has given further impetus to efforts by the Organization to develop sustainable and environmentally conscious means of preventing pollution from ships, such as those aimed at reducing atmospheric pollution and addressing climate change and global warming; ensuring the preservation of aquatic systems; and preventing the introduction of harmful and polluting substances from ships into the marine environment. The Strategic Plan also addresses human performance: "As IMO strives for full compliance with its instruments, their effectiveness will come under scrutiny with each incident resulting from human error. The challenge for IMO is to place increased emphasis on the contribution of the human element to safer, more secure, and environmentally friendly shipping and continuously to improve measures aimed at enhancing human performance in the maritime industry". IMO identified strategic directions (SD) for the Organization and states in strategic direction 7.4: "IMO will focus on reducing and eliminating any adverse impact by shipping on the environment by increasing the emphasis on the role of the human element in environmentally sound shipping. This is exactly what this marine environmental awareness course aims to do. Marine environmental awareness training offers knowledge of the importance and diversity of the marine environment as well as understanding and awareness of the impacts of shipping activities on the (marine) environment. It offers insight into the background of IMO regulations and enhances compliance. The training also stimulates personal responsibility to use solutions that contribute to environmentally sound shipping. 1.1. General Objectives Those who have successfully completed the course will be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the importance of preventing pollution to the (marine) environment. This knowledge and understanding shall include, but is not limited to the following topics: concept of sustainable shipping complexity and diversity of the marine environment impact of shipping on the environment role of regulations, procedures and technical installations to protect the environment marine environmental awareness, personal responsibility role of human element to prevent pollution, proactive measures. Those who have successfully completed the course shall demonstrate the intention to: fully observe procedures for monitoring ship-board operations and ensure compliance with requirements for environmental protection act to ensure that the positive environmental reputation of shipping is maintained. 1.1. Global Context Shipping is responsible for the transportation of approximately 90% of world trade and is also one of the most environmentally benign forms of transportation when considering goods transported on a ton mile basis. However, ships continue to be large producers of CO2, SOx, and NOx emissions. Other pollutants such as wastes, persistent chemicals from anti-fouling, cleaning agents and lubricants are associated with the shipping industry to the potential detriment of the marine environment despite the growing awareness of environmental issues and corporate social responsibility with regards to shipping and the environment. Seaborne trade continues to expand, bringing benefits for consumers across the world through low and decreasing freight costs. Thanks to the growing efficiency of shipping as a mode of transport and increased economic liberalization, the prospects for the industry’s further growth continue to be strong. There are around 50,000 merchant ships trading internationally, transporting every kind of cargo. 1.2. Climate Change In the climate change debate shipping should be regarded as the best available solution to the global need for transportation. Shipping is the most energy efficient mode of transport and the backbone of global trade. Seen in light of the enormous volume of goods carried by ships, the CO2 emissions from shipping are small. The reason for this is that for many decades shipping - even without specific regulation on this issue - has had a strong market driven incentive to focus on reduction of fuel consumption. However, the Shipping Industry fully acknowledges the need for further reduction of air emissions from shipping in terms of emissions per unit of transport work, in particular in view of the projected growth in world trade and thus seaborne transportation and is of the opinion that the way to achieve environmental protection must be found in a holistic manner. To be successful, such an approach should take into consideration the availability of technology to reduce emissions, the need to encourage innovation and the economics of world trade. Reducing pollutants such as SOx and NOx may have a negative effect on CO2 emissions. A holistic approach to air emissions is therefore necessary to ensure an overall environmental improvement in the long term. Global warming is, by definition, a global problem and shipping is the most global of all industries. The demand for sea transportation determines the volume of shipping and is therefore the key factor that influences the overall Green House Gas (GHG) emissions from shipping. Many independent studies have been carried out to assess the total CO2 emissions from shipping. 1.3. Sustainable Shipping 1.3.1. Definition of Sustainability Defining sustainability is not straight forward but it is important for this project to establish a shared understanding of what is meant by the term, particularly when moving forward with a shipping framework that is entirely focused on the issue. In 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development developed a definition of sustainability that was subsequently incorporated into the Brundtland report (1987). It stated that: “Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Although this definition is widely accepted, the term sustainability is not limited to one concise definition. However, in the context of sustainable development, three key areas emerge, which are identified by the pillars of sustainability and include: the environment, the economics and the society This is often illustrated as the three P's: People, Planet and Profit. Sustainable shipping is then a balance between economic interests and preservation of the environment. The concept of environmentally sound shipping is part of sustainable shipping. Legislation, technical installations, and procedures are designed to prevent pollution from ships and minimize the impact of shipping to the environment. These can only be effective if people, the human element, have the right competences and attitude to comply with regulations and procedures and to use the technical installations in the proper way.   1.4. Sustainable Development Policies and Ideals Sustainable transport is recognized as one of the biggest challenges of the 21st century. It is recognized that whilst shipping is relatively safe and clean, compared with other transport modes, the industry does have a significant impact on the environment. As shipping is a global industry the impacts of increasing pollution and illegal discharges are felt world-wide. However, shipping is subject to less stringent environmental demands than those placed on land-based transportation and business. The precautionary principle, sustainable development policies and ideals, greater public concern about global environmental issues and pressure from other sectors all serve to reinforce the need for the industry to behave in a more sustainable manner. To an extent this is being achieved through the Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC) of the IMO using legislative instruments, codes and guidance. In general, therefore, significant progress has been made in terms of effective environmental management, with the consensus of the wider shipping industry, but much of it is reactive and based on a command-and-control philosophy. 1.5. Course Overview The aim of the course is to make trainees aware of their role: Marine environmental awareness represents the contribution of the human element to the pollution prevention. Therefore, marine environmental awareness training brings together two important aspects of modern shipping, care for the marine environment and the importance of human performance; Marine environmental awareness training offers knowledge of the importance and diversity of the marine environment and understanding and awareness of the impacts of shipping activities on the (marine) environment. It offers insight in the background of IMO regulations and enhances compliance. The training stimulates personal responsibility to use solutions that contribute to environmentally sound shipping. 2. PERSONAL OPINIONS – WORKSHOP This workshop is set up early in the course program to establish a starting point and assess the current knowledge of the trainees about the environmental impacts of shipping. It invites the trainees to become actively involved in the course and a feeling of ownership of the course content. It also enables trainees to relate their ideas and opinions to the ideas and opinions of other trainees. Trainees will have prior knowledge, ideas or experience with environmental aspects of shipping. In this workshop, trainees are asked to share this knowledge and their opinions about different aspects of the relationship between shipping and the environment. Trainees are divided in small groups of 4-8 participants and given an assignment. Different types of assignments can be used. One that works very well is asking the groups to make a list of the top-five environmental challenges for shipping and explain their respective importance. All groups present their results in a plenary session, so all trainees are aware of the results of the other groups. The plenary session gives instructors the chance to ask questions when things are not clear and to point out common themes between the groups. Instructors are encouraged to give trainees the chance to voice their opinions and to listen to the opinions of others. At this point in the course, little attention should be given to the correctness of arguments. It is important for the trainees to feel that their opinions and ideas are important, so they are more likely to share their opinions, thoughts and feelings during the rest of the course. The instructor should listen closely to the groups and the plenary presentations, because it will give him or her information about the current knowledge and awareness of the trainees. This will enable the instructor to emphasize certain information in his lectures later. 3. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS Every effort is to be made to conserve and protect the environment from marine, atmospheric and other forms of pollution, including office-based waste. The following types and sources of possible environmental pollution are recognized: Oil. Including oil and related products carried as cargo, fuel and oily waste. Chemicals, liquefied gases, and other noxious liquid substances carried as cargo in bulk and chemical waste. Paints and chemicals used for onboard maintenance, by their nature contain hazardous substances. Accordingly, the disposal of used or expired paints, chemicals and their containers must be strictly controlled to avoid unnecessary pollution. All containers will show hazardous information, and most will also include advice on safe disposal. This advice must be followed wherever possible. If there is any doubt as to the safe and proper disposal, the containers must be retained onboard until they can be landed ashore as waste. Dangerous goods. Including cargoes carried in bulk and packaged form as well as other packaged and containerized goods that may be hazardous to the environment if spilled or lost. Garbage, including bio and non-biodegradable waste. Sewage: To avoid pollution by sewage, the vessel’s sewage facilities must be in good operational condition and in compliance with the relevant MARPOL regulations. The Company is to be advised if the sewage system is inoperable. A survey of the equipment is to be carried out at intervals not exceeding five years. The USCG requires that the sewage system is approved by the relevant authority and that the vessel has on board a valid International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate. Reference is to be made to Annex IV of MARPOL for further information. Vessels calling US West Coast must also be aware of the “No-Discharge Zone” that is enforced by the Californian EPA Ballast water. This includes the possibility of aquatic organisms or water-borne pathogens being transported in ships’ water ballast. Anti-fouling paints and their effect on shellfish and other aquatic life. It has been proved that certain types of anti-fouling paints that include Tri-butylin (TBT) compounds can create adverse impacts on both the marine environment as well as indirectly on human health. These paints slowly leach out Organotin compounds which were found to be harmful to mollusks, crustaceans and fish. Modern vessels using anti-fouling systems now do not have Organotin (TBT) based paint and hence leaching of harmful compounds in water cannot take place. Cargo vapour emissions including their toxic effect on health, climate and plant life. Exhaust emissions, including gases and unburnt hydrocarbon particles and their contribution to smog, acid rain and the greenhouse effect. Ozone depleting substances, including CFCs and halon gases and their effect on global warming Noise levels from machinery and its effect on ships’ crews as well as on local populations. 3.1 Role of the oceans in human life Over 70% of the world's surface is covered with water – seas and oceans. On average, oceans are about 3,700 meters (12,237 feet) deep. They play a very important role for life on earth. Oceans provide food for people worldwide. For example, fish consumption is the most important source of protein for most Asians and for 1 out of 5 Africans. In addition, over 200 million people worldwide work in the fishing industry. Oceans affect global weather and climate by absorbing, storing, and transporting massive amounts of sun heat. Ocean currents regulate the global climate by transporting and redistributing heat across the globe. In addition, oceans absorb large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air and may form a buffer for the effects of human-induced global warming. Furthermore, together with rain forests, tiny algae in the oceans produce large quantities of oxygen (O2) that people breathe. Besides being ecologically important, oceans and coasts are economically important for the food industry and tourism. The oceans are also a major source of fossil fuels, providing 50% of the natural gas, and 30% of the crude oil we use worldwide. Furthermore, about 90% of all world trade takes place by ships sailing across the oceans. 3.2 Importance of the Oceans Marine environmental awareness starts with a (personal) connection with the marine environment. People on board ships use our seas and oceans to get from one place to the other or to transport goods around the globe. But the sea is much more. The sea holds vast amounts of life, regulates our climate, and produces 50% of the oxygen we breathe and huge amounts of fish we eat. The sea is worth getting to know in general, but especially because it is the working environment of seafarers. Therefore, they have a special relationship with and responsibility for the sea. A basic understanding of "how the sea works" is essential in understanding the environmental impacts of shipping on the marine environment. In addition, it will also help to understand the backgrounds of environmental regulations, like the regulations set out in MARPOL and other relevant IMO conventions. 3.3 Marine Ecology 3.3.1 Algae form the basis (primary production) Microscopic cells of green plants (algae) are at the basis of almost all sea-life. These single celled plants are part of the plankton in the sea. Plankton is like a soup of microscopic organisms that drift along with the sea currents. The plankton algae are therefore called "phytoplankton" (phyto = plant). These small algae are the primary producers in the sea, transforming carbon dioxide and water into glucose (sugar) by using sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis. It has oxygen as a by-product. In addition to glucose, primary producers build other substances such as proteins and fats. 3.3.2 Marine food chains The substances generated by phytoplankton are passed on to other marine animals in the food chain. In a food chain, plants are consumed by plant-eating organisms (herbivores), which in turn are consumed by animal-eating organisms (carnivores). A simple marine food chain starts with phytoplankton, which is eaten by microscopic animals called zooplankton (animal plankton). Zooplankton in turn is eaten by small fish, such as sardines, that filter the plankton. Larger fish, such as tuna, consume these small fish. In this example, tuna are the predators at the top of the food chain. Energy can also be transferred from phytoplankton to large predators via benthos; organisms living at or near the sea floor. For instance, mussels or worms filter zooplankton out of the seawater. These mussels or worms (benthic organisms) are in turn eaten by small fish, which are eaten by bigger fish, etc. 3.3.3 The 10 per cent rule Organisms use a large part of their energy for basic life processes, such as basic cellular processes, movement, breathing, eating and reproduction. About 90% of the energy of the ingested food is used up to fuel such processes, or lost in the form of heat. Only 10% of the energy gained from food is used to grow: to gain biomass. When an animal is eaten, it is the organic material from this 10% weight gain that is passed on to the next level in the food chain. Hence, as a rule, only 10% of the energy is passed on from one level in the food chain to the next. This means that in every step in the food chain, 90% of the energy is lost. This 10 per cent rule means that you need quite a lot of algae at the base of the food chain to produce one big tuna at the top of the food chain. Let's imagine the following food chain: phytoplankton – copepods (zooplankton) – small fish – tuna. To produce 1 kilo of tuna, it takes 10 kilos small fish to feed the tuna, which takes 100 kilos of copepods to feed the small fish, and finally 1,000 kilos of phytoplankton to feed the copepods. Because of this energy loss, food chains are in fact like pyramids. Many small organisms at the base of the food chain feed fewer large animals at the top. 3.3.4 Bacteria make food chains circular Food chains are not a straight line; they are circular, because nutrients are recycled. Here, bacteria play an important role. At every level of the food chain, waste is produced, such as faces and dead organisms. Bacteria break down the waste produced in the food chain, by which nutrients and carbon are released and can re-enter the food chain via the primary producers. Large amounts of bacteria are needed to get this job done. One ml of seawater contains over 1 million bacteria. 3.3.5 The role of viruses in marine food chains There are even more viruses than bacteria in the sea. These viruses also play an important role in the recycling of nutrients. That is because most marine viruses are pathogens of bacteria, phytoplankton and zooplankton. After viruses kill these organisms, bacteria break down the dead tissues, releasing nutrients and carbon that can be re-used. 3.3.6 Food chains connected in food web All the food chains in the sea relate to each other in more complex food webs. After all, most organisms eat more than one type of food and can be eaten by more than one type of predator. When one species becomes more or less abundant due to whatever reason, this is likely to have an effect on the abundance of other species in the food web. 3.4 Difference Between Costal Seas and Open Ocean The sea consists of areas with very different characteristics. The oceans can roughly be divided into open oceans and coastal seas. The coastal ocean is the shallow (<200 m) sea area above the continental shelf. These waters contain many nutrients, due to run-off from rivers. The open ocean is relatively deep – on average 3.5 km. It is a nutrient-poor environment. Besides availability of nutrients, there are also physical differences between open oceans and coastal seas, such as penetration of sunlight, temperature, salinity, and mixing of water layers. This ensures that the living conditions for marine life in open oceans are very different compared to coastal areas. The different characteristics lead to differences between open oceans and coastal seas when considering (1) types of plankton, (2) levels of primary production, and (3) lengths of food chains. 3.4.1 Phytoplankton types For phytoplankton to grow, sunlight and nutrients are essential. In open oceans, where nutrient-levels are low and where there is little movement and transfer of water between deeper and shallower water levels, plankton is small and round. Only the very small phytoplankton cells can survive in these nutrient-poor and stable waters. Being small means being light, meaning that the risk of sinking to deeper, darker waters where no sunlight penetrates is minimized. In coastal areas, where nutrient-levels are higher and where water layers are relatively well mixed, plankton is large and has more complex shapes. To prevent being eaten, they often have an external skeleton made of glass, sometimes with large spines. Since the water in a coastal area is turbulent, the heavier cells that sink to the bottom have a big chance to reach the surface again along with the water movement, where they receive enough sunlight to grow. 3.4.2 Primary production levels Coastal areas have very good conditions for phytoplankton growth, including abundance of nutrients. This results in relatively high levels of primary production. Open oceans have relatively low levels of primary production, because of the limited availability of nutrients, such as nitrates, but also due to the lack of microelements, such as iron. 3.4.3 Food chain lengths In coastal areas, where phytoplankton is relatively large, and primary production is relatively high, food chains basically have four levels. In the open ocean, plankton is much smaller, and therefore the animals that eat this phytoplankton are smaller as well. Therefore, the food chains are generally longer in open oceans, with around six levels. This means that in an open ocean area, more phytoplankton is needed to produce the same amount of predatory fish at the top of the food chain, when compared to coastal areas. As a result, in coastal areas more fish (in kilograms – biomass) can be found compared to open ocean areas. 3.5 Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs) The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has two instruments to protect sea areas from shipping activities: PSSAs (Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas) and Special Areas. The latter are always coupled to MARPOL Annexes. Below, the focus is on PSSAs. A Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) is an area that needs special protection through action by IMO because of its significance for recognized ecological or socio-economic or scientific reasons and which may be vulnerable to damage by international maritime activities. The criteria for the identification of particularly sensitive sea areas and the criteria for the designation of special areas are not mutually exclusive. In many cases a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area may be identified within a Special Area and vice versa. A PSSA is a marine area that needs special protection because it has important ecological, social, cultural, economic, scientific or educational characteristics, which may be vulnerable to damage by international shipping activities. PSSAs are established by the IMO. When an area is approved as a PSSA, specific measures must be used to control the maritime activities in that area. Such measures can be routing measures, mandatory piloting, reporting systems, speed restrictions, and strict application of MARPOL discharge and equipment requirements for ships, such as oil tankers. Guidelines on designating a "particularly sensitive sea area" (PSSA) are contained in resolution A.982(24) Revised guidelines for the identification and designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs). These guidelines include criteria to allow areas to be designated a PSSA if they fulfil a number of criteria, including: ecological criteria, such as unique or rare ecosystem, diversity of the ecosystem or vulnerability to degradation by natural events or human activities; social, cultural and economic criteria, such as significance of the area for recreation or tourism; and scientific and educational criteria, such as biological research or historical value. When an area is approved as a particularly sensitive sea area, specific measures can be used to control the maritime activities in that area, such as routing measures, strict application of MARPOL discharge and equipment requirements for ships, such as oil tankers; and installation of Vessel Traffic Services (VTS). PSSAs are different from other marine protected areas (MPAs) because PSSAs only protect the marine environment against shipping activities. Other MPAs can, for instance, also protect against impacts from fishing or other industries. Worldwide, 17 PSSAs have been designated since 1990. They are listed on the IMO website.   3.5.1 List of adopted PSSAs The following PSSAS have been designated: The Great Barrier Reef, Australia (designated a PSSA in 1990) The Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago in Cuba (1997) Malpelo Island, Colombia (2002) The sea around the Florida Keys, United States (2002) The Wadden Sea, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands (2002) Paracas National Reserve, Peru (2003) Western European Waters (2004) Extension of the existing Great Barrier Reef PSSA to include the Torres Strait (proposed by Australia and Papua New Guinea) (2005) Canary Islands, Spain (2005) The Galapagos Archipelago, Ecuador (2005) The Baltic Sea area, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Sweden (2005) The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, United States (2007) The Strait of Bonifacio, France and Italy (2011) The Saba Bank, in the North-eastern Caribbean area of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (2012) Extension of Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait to encompass the south-west part of the Coral Sea (2015) The Jomard Entrance, Papua New Guinea (2016) Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park, the Sulu Sea, Philippines (2017) The IMO Assembly in November-December 2005 at its 24th session adopted revised Guidelines for the Identification and Designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas A.982(24) Revised guidelines for the identification and designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs) A PSSA is an area that needs special protection through action by IMO because of its significance for recognized ecological, socio-economic, or scientific attributes where such attributes may be vulnerable to damage by international shipping activities. An application for PSSA designation should contain a proposal for an associated protective measure or measures aimed at preventing, reducing or eliminating the threat or identified vulnerability. Associated protective measures for PSSAs are limited to actions that are to be, or have been, approved and adopted by IMO, for example, a routing system such as an area to be avoided. The guidelines provide advice to IMO Member Governments in the formulation and submission of applications for the designation of PSSAs to ensure that in the process, all interests - those of the coastal State, flag State, and the environmental and shipping communities - are thoroughly considered on the basis of relevant scientific, technical, economic, and environmental information regarding the area at risk of damage from international shipping activities. The guidelines update resolution A.927(22) Guidelines for the Designation of Special Areas under MARPOL 73/78 and Guidelines for the Identification and Designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas. 3.5.2 Ships Routing measures to protect PSSAs A PSSA can be protected by ships routing measures – such as an area to be avoided: an area within defined limits in which either navigation is particularly hazardous or it is exceptionally important to avoid casualties and which should be avoided by all ships, or by certain classes of ships. The IMO Publication Ships' Routing includes General provisions on ships' routing, first adopted by IMO in 1973, and subsequently amended over the years, which are aimed at standardizing the design, development, charted presentation and use of routing measures adopted by IMO. The sea is not only a blue highway, but is teeming with life. The sea is not a uniform mass of water with the same species and amounts of organisms everywhere. Coastal areas are very different from open ocean areas, for instance because of differences in the availability of nutrients needed for the production of marine life. But in almost all marine areas, phytoplankton are at the base of the food web, energy is transferred to predators at higher levels in food chains or food pyramids, and viruses and bacteria ensure that nutrients and carbon are recycled. It is the microscopically small organisms (plankton, viruses and bacteria) that are crucial for the more visible life in the sea, such as fish and marine mammals. Because food chains are interconnected in more complex food webs, many organisms are interlinked. When one marine organism decreases or increases in abundance by human or natural causes, this will have an effect on other organisms in the same food web. 4. REGIONAL MARINE AREAS A regional marine area can be, for instance, a tropical marine area (with mangroves, sea grass beds, and coral reefs), a rocky shoreline, or a local intertidal wetland or estuary. 4.1 Environmental Impacts Tourism can create great pressure on local resources such as energy, food, land and water that may already be in short supply. According to the Third Assessment of Europe’s environment (EEA, 2003[2]), the direct local impacts of tourism on people and the environment at destinations are strongly affected by concentration in space and time (seasonality). They result from: The intensive use of water and land by tourism and leisure facilities. The delivery and use of energy. Changes in the landscape coming from the construction of infrastructure, buildings and facilities. Air pollution and waste. The compaction and sealing of soils (damage and destruction of vegetation). The disturbance of fauna and local people (for example, by noise).   4.2 Impacts on biodiversity Tourism can cause loss of biodiversity in many ways, e.g. by competing with wildlife for habitat and natural resources. More specifically, negative impacts on biodiversity can be caused by various factors. 4.3 Socio-cultural impacts Change of local identity and values: Commercialization of local culture: Tourism can turn local culture into commodities when religious traditions, local customs and festivals are reduced to conform to tourist expectations and resulting in what has been called "reconstructed ethnicity." Standardization: Destinations risk standardization in the process of tourists desires and satisfaction: while landscape, accommodation, food and drinks, etc., must meet the tourists expectation for the new and unfamiliar situation. They must at the same time not be too new or strange because few tourists are looking for completely new things. This factor damages the variation and beauty of diverse cultures. Adaptation to tourist demands: Tourists want to collect souvenirs, arts, crafts, cultural manifestations. In many tourist destinations, craftsmen have responded to the growing demand and have made changes in the design of their products to make them more attractive to the new customers. Cultural erosion may occur in the process of commercializing cultural traditions. 4.4 Cultural clashes may arise through: Economic inequality - between locals and tourists who are spending more than they usually do at home. Irritation due to tourist behavior - Tourists often, out of ignorance or carelessness, fail to respect local customs and moral values. Job level friction - due to a lack of professional training, many low-paid tourism-jobs go to local people while higher-paying and more prestigious managerial jobs go to foreigners or "urbanized" nationals. 5. DISCHARGES TO THE SEA The following environmental challenges are faced by the shipping industry: 5.1 Environmental impact of oil, chemicals, sewage and solid waste 5.1.1 Discharges to the sea – oil Oil and oil products play an important role in modern society. During production, transport and use, oil may enter the marine environment. Oil in the sea is perceived by society as a major environmental problem. The exact impacts from an oil spill depend on a number of factors. These include: the type and amount of oil and its behavior once spilled; weather conditions and season; the effectiveness of the clean-up response; the biological and economic characteristics of the area and their sensitivity to oil pollution. Ecological impacts of oil include toxic effects on zooplankton, fouling of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, tainting of shellfish and oiling of coastal habitat such as beaches, mangroves and tidal areas. Economic effects include cleanup cost and damage to fisheries and the tourism industry. Despite the publicity that oil spills always attract, only a small fraction of the oil entering the sea comes from tanker accidents. Routine shipping operations contribute three times as much to the input of oil to the marine environment as accidental pollution. Other major contributors are natural seeps and land-based sources. Since 1979, the amount of oil entering the sea as a result of shipping operations has declined dramatically, due to safer shipping operations, design improvements and regulations. IMO regulations for the prevention of pollution of oil from ships can be found in MARPOL Annex I. Instructors are encouraged to discuss oil pollution prevention measures (e.g., oil-water separators, incinerators, vapor recovery and port reception facilities).   5.1.2 Discharges to the sea – chemicals Chemicals are everywhere, naturally occurring or synthesized by humans. Chemicals are transported by ships as bulk products (in chemical tankers, bulk carriers or gas tankers) or in packaged form, for example on container ships. In 2000, approximately 120 million tons of chemicals were transported in bulk at sea. If a chemical has one or more of the following properties, it is likely to be considered a Hazardous or Noxious Substance: Flammable Explosive Toxic Corrosive Reactive. To judge the effect of a spill, it is important to understand the behavior and “fate” of the spilled chemical. The fate is determined by several physical and chemical characteristics such as the properties of volatility and solubility. Chemical substances can be divided in four main groups: Chemicals that evaporate – evaporators/gases Chemicals that float – floaters Chemicals that dissolve – dissolvers Chemicals that sink – sinkers. In the environment, chemicals can reduce the ability of humans and other organisms to reproduce, grow, feed or otherwise function optimally. There is still little knowledge about the impact of the most widely used chemicals and their cocktail-like combinations on human health and the environment. Relatively few organic pollutants are fully understood or even identified today. The effects of a chemical spilled into the marine environment depend on a number of factors like the toxicity of the material, the quantities involved and the sensitivity of the organisms to the particular chemical. Instructors should addresses acute and chronic toxicity on marine organisms, bioaccumulation, biodegradation, health effects on humans, effects on marine wildlife, benthic habitats and marine resources. IMO regulations for the prevention of pollution by noxious and harmful substances can be found in MARPOL Annex II (noxious liquid substances carried in bulk) and Annex III (harmful substances in packaged form). Instructors are encouraged to discuss pollution prevention measures (e.g., efficient stripping, use of biodegradable chemicals and inert gas generators). 5.1.3 Discharges to the sea – sewage Sanitary waste or sewage from shipping consists of black water (waste from toilets) and grey water (water from sinks, showers and on- board cleaning and flushing water from kitchen spaces). Sanitary waste contains many nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Discharge of sewage adds extra nutrients to the sea, which may cause excessive growth of some algae (algae blooms). When these algae blooms die, a significant amount of oxygen will be withdrawn from the water, as the algae are decomposed by bacteria. Consequently, the oxygen concentration will quickly decrease. Such an oxygen shortage can lead to death of benthic organisms (animals living at or near the sea floor) and fishes. Discharging sanitary waste in the sea can cause local environmental problems. Sewage discharges in the open ocean are rarely problematic. Coastal areas are more vulnerable, especially when the water temperature is relatively high (such as the Mediterranean and Black Sea as well as enclosed bays), the water contains less oxygen and in case of low currents and turbulence. Other problems may arise when sewage contains pathogens and cleaning chemicals. Sewage is a major issue for two types of ships; cruise ships and livestock carriers. These ships produce large amounts of sewage. IMO regulations for the prevention of pollution by sewage from ships can be found in MARPOL Annex IV. 5.1.4 Discharges to the sea – solid waste When solid waste ends up in the marine environment, it is described as marine litter. This includes all man-made objects that do not naturally occur in the marine and coastal environment. Marine litter consists mostly of very slow degradable waste items, such as plastics, polystyrene, and metal. In many regions, plastics constitute the majority (up to 90 per cent) of the total amount of marine litter. Marine litter includes items that are discarded directly into the sea (thrown or lost), brought to the sea indirectly by rivers, or left by people on beaches and shores. Marine litter is found everywhere in the marine environment, all around the world. It is a truly global problem. The litter soiling our beaches is only part of the problem. There are enormous rotating pools of garbage in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. One of the three known mid-ocean pools of garbage is estimated to be the size of the continent of Europe. These gyres contain large plastic items, but also huge amounts of tiny plastic particles that are much less visible. In some areas, plastic is six times as abundant as plankton. Besides on beaches and in the water column, litter is found on the sea floor. Entanglement and ingestion are the two primary kinds of direct damage to wildlife: Entanglement means that an animal becomes encircled or ensnared by litter. This may happen accidentally or because the animal is attracted to litter out of curiosity or when in search of food or shelter. Entanglement can impede natural behavior in all sorts of ways and can eventually lead to death; Ingestion occurs when animals swallow litter items. Generally, animals swallow litter items because they resemble their natural prey. Typical examples of such food mix-ups are when turtles eat plastic bags (mistaking them for jellyfish), and when birds feed plastic pellets to their young (mistaking them for fish eggs). Ingestion can lead to malnutrition or starvation. The swallowed litter items can accumulate in the digestive tract and make the animal feel "full", while the litter has no nutritional value. The marine environment now also contains a vast quantity of tiny pieces of plastic smaller than 5 millimeters in diameter. Called microplastics, much of this material is microscopic in size. As small animals at the base of the food chain ingest microplastics, the toxic chemicals in plastic enter the food chain. These chemicals interact with numerous biological processes and may eventually pose risks for humans eating contaminated marine organisms. Marine litter also causes serious damage to people, property and livelihood and has significant economic repercussions on coastal and fishing communities. Adverse impacts include damage to fishing vessels and gear, safety risks at sea, damage to power stations, contamination of beaches and clean up cost. Shipping is one of the contributors to the marine litter problem. Instructors are encouraged to discuss the contribution of shipping and personal experiences with waste treatment onboard of ships with the trainees. IMO regulations for the prevention of pollution by garbage from ships can be found in MARPOL Annex V. Instructors are encouraged to discuss pollution prevention measures (e.g., minimizing packaging, compacters, incinerators, separate waste collection on board, and port reception facilities). 5.2 Pollution prevention measures The marine environment now also contains a vast quantity of tiny pieces of plastic smaller than 5 millimeters in diameter. Called microplastics, much of this material is microscopic in size. As small animals at the base of the food chain ingest microplastics, the toxic chemicals in plastic enter the food chain. These chemicals interact with numerous biological processes and may eventually pose risks for humans eating contaminated marine organisms. Marine litter also causes serious damage to people, property and livelihood and has significant economic repercussions on coastal and fishing communities. Adverse impacts include damage to fishing vessels and gear, safety risks at sea, damage to power stations, contamination of beaches and clean-up cost. Shipping is one of the contributors to the marine litter problem. Instructors are encouraged to discuss the contribution of shipping and personal experiences with waste treatment onboard of ships with the trainees. IMO regulations for the prevention of pollution by garbage from ships can be found in MARPOL Annex V. Instructors are encouraged to discuss pollution prevention measures (e.g., minimizing packaging, compacters, incinerators, separate waste collection on board, and port reception facilities). 6. REPUTATION OF SHIPPING – WORKSHOP Instructors should emphasize that sustainable development or sustainable shipping is more than taking care of the environmental (Planet P). A sector like shipping also has to be aware of the social part of sustainability (People P). The people P stands for care for human capital. The human capital has two levels: (1) the workers in the business and (2) the broader community in which the company conducts its business: The people P is about fair salaries for workers, a safe working environment and tolerable working hours. When working conditions are bad, or perceived as being bad, it might be hard to get enough people to work for a company; The people P relationship with community and society is less direct. Society related aspects of sustainable development are described as "acceptance by society" which can be a license to operate. A sustainable company or sector will have the (indirect) support from the society. When companies or business sectors lose the support from society, and for example people stop buying products out of protest, the sustainability of a company or sector is at stake. Maritime transport is essential to the world's economy as over 90% of the world's trade is carried by sea. Given that the bulk of this trade consists of commodities such as grain and oil, this leads to the inescapable conclusion that, without shipping, half the world would starve and the other half would freeze. Shipping is the lynchpin of the global economy. Shipping provides a vital service, on which the entire global economy depends. Shipping is one of the least environmentally damaging forms of commercial transport. Where it competes directly with other means of transport, shipping remains by far the most energy efficient. Logically, in the light of the facts, one would surely expect the public image of shipping to be a favorable one. And yet, this is not the case. The contribution made by the shipping industry – and by those who work hard, both on board ships and ashore, to make it safer and more environmentally friendly – is greatly undervalued by the public at large. In this workshop, instructors should start with an introduction of the People P, the importance of shipping and the problems with the image of shipping. After this, instructors should ask trainees to think about the difference between the image of shipping/seafarers (how others think about us or the shipping sector) and their identity (how seafarers think about themselves or the shipping sector). The trainees should be encouraged to think about the causes of this difference (why do we have this image), the consequences (how can a good image be helpful?), and ways to improve the image or to ensure that the image more closely resembles the identity of seafarers or the shipping sector. After the results are presented in a plenary session, the instructor should lead a plenary discussion about this subject. He or she needs to make sure that all trainees can voice their opinions. After a summary of the results, the discussion should focus on the reasons and consequences of the difference in image and identity. Reasons might be: Media? Environmental groups? Movies? Lack of (positive) information about shipping? Old culture, habits from the past? Behavior of seafarers now? When possible, it is valuable to exchange ideas on solutions – how can this image be changed?   7. EMISSIONS TO AIR, GREENHOUSE GASES 7.1 Environmental Impact of Emissions of Greenhouse Gases Climate change is a pressing issue on political agendas and the media are full of it. Climate change has been investigated by scientists for decades, of which the last two decades by The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC defines climate change as: "any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity". The sun warms the Earth's surface and atmosphere. Some of the sunlight striking the earth is absorbed and converted to infrared radiation (heat), which warms the surface. The surface also emits this infrared radiation back to the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere trap this infrared radiation like the glass walls of a greenhouse. This process warms the atmosphere and is called the "greenhouse effect". Without the natural greenhouse effect, life on Earth as we know it would not be possible. The average world temperature would be -18°C, rather than +15°C which is the current average. Greenhouse gases are produced by natural processes, such as volcano eruptions, natural forest fires, and decaying plants and trees. Since the beginning of industrialization around 1750, humans have also started producing GHG. Some examples of human activities producing GHG are combustion of fossil fuels (by cars, airplanes, ships, etc.), electricity and heat production, and agriculture. Since the beginning of industrialization, concentrations of GHG in the atmosphere have notably increased. This enhances the natural greenhouse effect. Of all greenhouse gases produced by humans, CO2 is the most influential. During the past century, scientists have also measured that, on average and worldwide, global air and ocean temperatures are rising, snow and ice are melting, and sea levels are rising. According to the IPCC, anthropogenic (human) greenhouse gases have very likely caused most of these changes over the last 50 years. The IPCC-report states that it is very likely that the observed change in world temperatures is not only due to natural processes. There is scientific consensus about the causes and occurrence of climate change. But the future effects, consequences and developments of climate change are much more difficult to predict and subject to many uncertainties. That's due to the complexity of processes in the Earth's climate system. Nonetheless, some predicted effects include sea level rise, loss of biodiversity, increase of human diseases, damage to coral reefs and unpredictable weather patterns. When considering total shipping emissions worldwide, CO2 is the most important greenhouse gas. The main source of CO2 produced by shipping is exhaust gases from the burning of fuel in main and auxiliary engines. In 2007, international shipping was responsible for 2.7% of the global anthropogenic CO2 emissions worldwide. When because 90% of all the worlds' products are transported by sea, this is a relative low contribution. However, this relatively low contribution might change in the future. World trade is expected to grow, and so is the shipping sector. Moreover, shipping emissions of CO2 are not regulated now and many other sources are. If land-based sources cut emissions and shipping doesn't, the relative contribution of shipping will grow. 7.2 Pollution Prevention Measures Future regulations regarding CO2 are being discussed at the IMO. The EEDI for new ships is the most important technical measure and aims at promoting the use of more energy efficient (less polluting) equipment and engines. The EEDI requires a minimum energy efficiency level per capacity mile (e.g., ton mile) for different ship type and size segments. Since 1 January 2013, following an initial two-year phase zero, new ship design needs to meet the reference level for their ship type. The level is to be tightened incrementally every five years, and so the EEDI is expected to stimulate continued innovation and technical development of all the components influencing the fuel efficiency of a ship from its design phase. The EEDI is a non-prescriptive, performance-based mechanism that leaves the choice of technologies to use in a specific ship design to the industry. If the required energy efficiency level is attained, ship designers and builders are free to use the most cost-efficient solutions for the ship to comply with the regulations. The EEDI provides a specific figure for an individual ship design, expressed in grams of carbon dioxide (CO2) per ship’s capacity-mile (the smaller the EEDI the more energy efficient ship design) and is calculated by a formula based on the technical design parameters for a given ship. The CO2 reduction level (grams of CO2 per ton mile) for the first phase is set to 10% and will be tightened every five years to keep pace with technological developments of new efficiency and reduction measures. Reduction rates have been established until the period 2025 and on