Group Dynamics - PDF

GROUP DYNAMICS Shared tasks and goals: “Three or more people who work together interdependently on an agreed- Chapter 1 upon activity...

GROUP DYNAMICS Shared tasks and goals: “Three or more people who work together interdependently on an agreed- Chapter 1 upon activity or goal” (Keyton, 2002, p. 5).  Defining Group Size: “Two or more people” (Williams, 2010, p.  Types of Groups  Value of groups for individuals 269). Social unit: “Persons who recognize that they Defining Groups constitute a meaningful social unit, interact on that -“an entity comprised of individuals who come basis, and are committed to that social unity” (Fine, together for a common purpose and whose 2012, p. 21; Kerr & Tindale, 2014). behaviors in the group are guided by a set of Structure: “A social unit which consists of a shared values and norms,” (Haynes, 1998). number of individuals who stand in (more or less) - Two or more individuals who are connected by definite status and role relationships to one another and within social relationships. and which possesses a set of values or norms of its - Groups come in a staggering assortment of own regulating the behavior of individual members, shapes and sizes, from dyads (two members) and at least in matters of consequence to the group” triads (three members) to huge crowds, mobs, and (Sherif & Sherif, 1956, p. 144). assemblies (Simmel, 1902). Systems: “An intact social system, complete with Still others suggest that a shared purpose or goal is what turns boundaries, interdependence for some shared a mere aggregate of individuals into a bona fide group. Even the minimal number of members needed for a true group is purpose, and differentiated member roles” debated, with some definitions requiring three members but (Hackman & Katz, 2010, p. 1210) others only two (Moreland, 2010; Williams, 2010). Categorization: “Two or more individuals … [who] perceive themselves to be members of the same Types of Group social category” (Turner, 1982, p. 15). Communication: “Three or more people…who (a) think of themselves as a group, (b) are interdependent (e.g., with regard to shared goals or behaviors that affect one another), and (c) communicate (interact) with one another (via face- to-face or technological means)” (Frey & Konieczka, 2010, p. 317). Influence: “Two or more persons who are Primary Group -A small, long-term group interacting with one another in such a manner that characterized by frequent interaction, solidarity, and each person influences and is influenced by each high levels of interdependence among members other person” (Shaw, 1981, p. 454). that substantially influences the attitudes, values, and social outcomes of its members. (families, Interdependence: “A dynamic whole based on close friends, small combat squads (firearms), etc) interdependence rather than similarity” (Lewin, 1948, p. 184). Social Group-A relatively small number of Interrelations: “An aggregation of two or more individuals who interact with one another over an people who are to some degree in dynamic extended period of time, such as work groups, interrelation with one another” (McGrath, 1984, p. clubs, and congregations. (coworkers, teams, 8). crews, study groups, task forces, etc) Psychological significance: “A psychological group is any number of people who interact with Collective-A relatively large aggregation or group each other, are psychologically aware of each of individuals who display similarities in actions and other, and perceive themselves to be in a group” outlook. A street crowd, a line of people (a queue), (Pennington, 2002, p. 3). and a panicked group escaping a fire are examples Relations: “Individuals who stand in certain of collectives, as are more widely dispersed groups relations to each other, for example, as sharing a (e.g., listeners who respond similarly to a public common purpose or having a common service announcement). (audiences, queues, intentionality, or acting together, or at least having a crowds, social movements, etc) common interest” (Gould, 2004, p. 119). Category  Social category A perceptual grouping of Shared identity: “Two or more people possessing people who are assumed to be similar to a common social identification and whose one another in some ways but different in existence as a group is recognized by a third party” one or more ways, such as all women, the (Brown, 2000, p. 19). elderly, college students, or all the citizens of a specific country.   Social identity An individual’s sense of self than good (Martin & Jacobs, 1980). However, a sense of derived from relationships and trust within the group may be established or enhanced memberships in groups; also, those aspects when group members are open and honest with each other on a selective and constructive basis. As a general of the self that are assumed to be common principle, such behaviors are valued and appropriate. to most or all of the members of the same group or social category. Myth 4: "Groups force people to lose their identity." Elements of Group The idea behind this myth is that a group is overwhelming and that within cais related to stories of Common purpose means that the members of the poorly run or unregulated groups where people have group are participating in the group activities to been attacked, ridiculed, or humiliated when they did not achieve similar goals. They are motivated to agree with the group as a whole or with its leader. participate in the group process and dynamics by a Stories of brainwashing experiences from prisoners of shared set of desired outcomes. war have also fed the idea that groups are not helpful to individuals. A third factor that has led to this myth is the Shared values mean that the members of the behaves large and anonymous groups, such as mobs (Zimbardo, 1969). In reality, most individuals develop a group share certain core beliefs about what the stronger personal identity or interests as a result of their structure and essence of the group is and strive to interactions with others. maintain the group’s integrity. Myth 5: "Groups are artificial." Shared norms mean that the members of the This belief is precipitated by the fact that all group group agree on certain experiences are unique. As a result, many people doubt overarching principles that direct or influence the that what they learn in a group setting can be transferred manner in which the group members behave and to other life events. This belief may be less prevalent interact with one another in the context of the among task groups because key members of a work group. In children’s groups these are referred to as team may actually be present in the group. In rules. therapeutic groups, however, members may question the validity of their group experience more because of their diverse backgrounds. In actuality, any experience in MYTHS AND MISCONCEPTION OF A GROUP which one learns more about oneself and how to interrelate effectively with others has a lasting and Myth 1: "The effectiveness of groups depends realistically pervasive influence. on leadership." While leadership is an important element in almost all Overcoming Myths and Misconceptions groups, the effectiveness of a group is a combination of many factors. In summarizing the research, Capuzzi and There are a number of strategies leaders can use Gross (1992) state that group members have an impact to dispel and overcome myths and misconceptions on each other regardless of the leader, and "the most about groups (Childers & Couch, 1989). Among effective group leaders are those who help the group these are the following: develop so that members are primary sources of help for one another" (p. 18). While it is helpful and - Utilizing a pre-group interview to identify any fears advantageous to have a caring, committed, and related to the group and to correct them. competent leader for a group, it is not essential. - Providing factual information (psycho-didactic) to group members about the effects of groups (Selby Myth 2: "Groups are only effective when they & Calhoun, 1980). focus on the present." - Addressing group members' concerns early in the group process by giving the group as a whole low It is beneficial for many people to attend to their intensity responses that address cur-rent thoughts thoughts, behaviors, and feelings as they occur in a and feelings (Cohen & Smith,1976). group setting. However, the effectiveness of the group and its members is also a product of the past. Therefore, Types of Group effective groups deal with "there-and-then experiences as well as the here-and-now". In this integrated way, There are many different types of groups. For the members inform themselves and others about lessons purpose of discussion, groups have been classified learned from personal history as well as those gleaned into two broad categories: functional groups and from the present. identity groups. Functional Groups are groups that are classified Myth 3: "Group members must be open and on the basis of what they are designed to do and honest at all times." accomplish. They are defined by their purpose. This myth implies that people ingroups should "tell all" and confess all of their shameful acts to others (Yalom, 1. T-Groups: The “T” is for training. T-Groups are 1985). It is a major reason many people resist joining sensitivity groups that are designed to increase groups of any type. Complete openness and honesty are participants’ self-awareness, promote self-growth, not appropriate in every situation. For instance, if a enhance sensitivity to the feelings of others and group member has a history of failures or does not like improve one’s effectiveness as a group participant. someone else's speech, the communication of these The concepts of training and sensitivity are combined in facts will probably not be helpful to others. Unfiltered the notion of “T” groups because the training centers on self-disclosing or feedback per se may do more damage helping individuals increase their sensitivity to the emotional needs of others in their interpersonal members realize that they are not alone and others interactions and to their own emotional needs. One may have faced or are facing similar issues. say that these groups are designed to enhance intra- Members are able learn from the experiences of one personal intelligence (self-awareness and self- another. These groups differ from counseling and regulation) and interpersonal intelligence (awareness of therapy groups in that there is no targeted physical, and interactions with others). A specific type of social, psychological or emotional change expected for sensitivity group is the Encounter Group that uses any member of the group, although a by-product of the verbal or physical confrontation or encounters to support one receives might be such a change. Support promote personal growth. groups tend to be more member-directed and led than counseling and therapy groups. Examples of support 2. Counseling Groups: These groups are groups related to alcohol addiction are: Alcoholics designed to help members address specific Anonymous (AA), Al-Anon and Al-A-teen. Other support groups in school settings may include groups for children physical, social, psychological, emotional or of divorced parents and groups for students who have behavioral issues. Through the group process, lost a close friend or family member. including active listening and feedback, group members are able to confront and address the 7. Psycho-educational groups: These are groups issues of concern. that are designed to address students’ school- The desired outcome is usually to change the existing related behaviors and their academic achievement. situation to one that is more adaptive and healthier for These groups are focused specifically on identified each member of the group. Examples of counseling groups are an anger management group and a group for issues that may be affecting students’ achievement children of divorced parents. motivation leading to underachievement and school failure. 3. Therapy Groups: These groups are similar to A psycho-educational group process called the Interest, counseling groups except that the issues tend to be Achievement and Motivation, “I AM” group process is described in chapter ten and an overview of the more serious and require a much more evaluation of this psycho-educational group process is experienced and knowledgeable group facilitator. provided. Examples of therapy groups are a group for individuals with eating disorders and a group for individuals with Identity Groups are groups that are classified by anxiety disorders. the nature of the affiliation that 4. Work Groups: These groups are designed to members of the groups share with one another. accomplish specific tasks on fixed timelines and deliver a clearly expected product at the end of the 1. Membership Groups: These are groups that specified time frame. The group is evaluated on the involve some form of officially recognized status as basis of the quality of the product. a member. Usually these groups require that the Most teams would be classified as work groups. Specific participant be inducted or receive official examples of team that are work groups are: a grant acknowledgement as a member and may, but not writing team where the product would be a grant necessarily, require a membership fee or proposal, a planning and placement team (PPT) in a membership dues. school where the product would be a an individual Additionally, there is often an official membership roster education plan (IEP) for a student, or a sports team that is revised and updated after a specified period of where the product would be the record at the end of the time. Renewal of membership after a specified period of season. time is usually also required. Examples of membership groups are: sororities, fraternities and athletic teams. 5. Focus Groups: These groups are designed to generate data on the basis of which informed 2. Reference Groups: These are groups that do decisions are made. Usually a small group of not require official recognition or induction as a individuals is convened to discuss a particular topic member, rather they are groups with whose values, and to address focused questions on that topic. purpose and goals individuals identify. A reference The responses to the questions, as well as the passion group for some individuals may be a membership and emotional reactions to the questions and the group for others. interactions among group members, are all considered A good example of this would be football or basketball to be important data for decision makers. Examples of fans, who are not officially members of sports teams but focus groups are the group that is convened by a identify with the sports teams. Therefore, the sports politician to gauge constituents’ reactions to a proposed teams may be considered reference groups. Other piece of legislation and the group that is assembled by examples of reference groups include different advocacy the marketing department of a company to assess groups such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) consumers’ reactions to a product or advertising and Green Peace with whose mission and goals many campaign. people who are not card-carrying members identify. 6. Support Groups: These are groups that are 3. Open Groups: These are groups whose designed as opportunities for individuals facing memberships are fluid, and where people are free similar physical, social, psychological or emotional to join or leave as they choose. There are usually issues to come together to offer and receive no specific attendance requirements. Support support from one another. Sharing experiences and groups are usually open groups. offering support, serves to inspire hope as 4. Closed Groups: These are groups whose  Share common problems; and memberships are fixed, and where people are not  Receive feedback that can help in personal free to join or leave as they choose. There are growth and development. usually clear and strict attendance requirements. Counseling and therapy groups are usually closed groups. The benefits that individuals receive from groups are supported through the following group factors 5. In-Groups: These are groups that are or processes: considered to include the most popular individuals. It is considered desirable to belong to these groups. Support for Catharsis: Groups provide an Among school-aged children, in-groups tend to opportunity for an individual to “emote” or express wield a great deal of influence and power. his or her deep and true feelings about issues, They often exclude individuals whom the members of among group members who listen and empathize. the in-group consider to lack certain traits that they feel As a result, the individual experiences release, important for relief and freedom from emotional and membership. These groups are said to be the popular psychological pain, enabling the individual to groups or the groups with the popular people. experience personal grow. 6. Out-Groups: These groups include individuals Sharing of Information: Group members share who are excluded or denied membership by information which expands the perspective, members of the in-group. Members of this group knowledge, awareness and interests of individuals are considered to be less popular and are deemed in the group. to occupy a lower status in the social hierarchy. Providing Hope: As group members share their Sometimes members of this group suffer ridicule, stories and provide feedback and support to one rejection, ostracism and even bullying by members of another, they come to demonstrate resilience, the in-group. This is a particularly challenging issue among school-age children. determination, strength and optimism. Individuals who may otherwise despair may become hopeful 7. Family Groups: These are groups that include and more determined than ever to succeed. individuals who are related by blood, adoption or Giving of Feedback: Feedback allows group election. These groups are usually divided into members to become more aware of their nuclear, primary, and extended family groups. interpersonal interactions, and to see themselves Nuclear family groups usually include parents and as others in the group may see them. This may children. lead to helpful changes in attitudes and behaviors. Primary family groups typically include family members who share the same household or, if they do not share Promoting Bonding: Group members may the same household, are deemed to play a significant experience a feeling of connectedness, role in the daily lives of family members. Extended family togetherness and cohesion. This allows individuals groups usually include family members who are not in the group to derive a sense of affiliation and nuclear or primary family members. identification with members of the group, perhaps filling a personal need by reducing feelings of 8. Friendship Groups: These are groups that isolation and aloneness. include individuals who are friends and who may share time, activities, interests and actual or virtual Promoting Interpersonal Skills: Groups help space regularly or periodically. individual members develop or refine their social Social networking websites such as MySpace, Face interaction skills by learning how to read and book, Blogosphere and Twitter have considerably respond appropriately to social cues. expanded the reach of friendship groups. In fact, it may be that these internet connections may deserve a Promoting Intrapersonal Skills: Groups help separate group classification, such as Internet individuals develop or refine their self-awareness Networking Groups, but for now they are being included and self-regulation skills by identifying internal as friendship groups. emotional cues and learning how to regulate, manage and express their emotions appropriately. VALUE OF GROUPS FOR INDIVIDUALS Allowing Re-enactment: Some groups provide the opportunity for group members to re-enact family Some of the positive experiences that individuals dynamics, as well other relationships outside of the have through their participation in groups are that family. This enables individuals to achieve catharsis individuals: and therapeutic release.  Receive support, encouragement and Disclosing of Universality: Groups help members validation during self-exploration and realize that they are not alone in experiencing growth; certain issues and that others share these issues  Learn by observing the behaviors and as well. Thus, members can learn coping strategies consequences of the actions of others; and problem solving approaches from others who  Achieve a sense of belonging and are in the same or similar predicament. connectedness;