Grammar PDF - Part of Speech

Part of Speech TD:Grammar lesson n°1: Type of Nouns 1. Common Nouns These are broad terms that identify people, places, or objects. 2. Proper Nouns These are distinct names for specific individuals, locations, or items, always beginning with a capital letter. 3. Concrete Nouns Concrete nouns den...

Part of Speech TD:Grammar lesson n°1: Type of Nouns 1. Common Nouns These are broad terms that identify people, places, or objects. 2. Proper Nouns These are distinct names for specific individuals, locations, or items, always beginning with a capital letter. 3. Concrete Nouns Concrete nouns denote items that can be experienced through the five senses. If you can see, touch, smell, hear, or taste it, it qualifies as a concrete noun. 4. Abstract Nouns Abstract nouns signify concepts, feelings, or ideas that cannot be sensed physically. 5. Collective Nouns Collective nouns describe a group of people or items. 6. Compound Nouns Compound nouns consist of two or more words that merge to form a new meaning. Lesson n°2:Types of Pronouns Pronoun A pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun in a sentence, effectively taking the place of that noun. Types of Pronouns: 1. Personal Pronouns Personal pronouns denote a person's name and serve as a replacement for it. They are divided into two categories: subjective and objective pronouns. Subjective pronouns: These replace the subject of a sentence. Common examples include I, we, you, he, she, it, and they. Objective pronouns: These replace the object in a sentence. Common examples are me, us, you, him, her, it, and them. 2. Possessive Pronouns Possessive pronouns indicate ownership within a sentence. They can be classified into two types: Strong possessive pronouns: These include yours, mine, his, hers, its, theirs, and ours. They refer back to a previously mentioned noun or noun phrase to avoid repetition, such as in "I mentioned that pen was mine." Strong possessive pronouns are sometimes referred to as absolute possessive pronouns. Weak possessive pronouns: These include your, my, her, his, its, their, and our. They function as determiners before a noun to indicate ownership, as in "I said that's my pen." They are sometimes called possessive adjectives. 3. Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific entities in a sentence, not pointing to any particular person or thing. They are used when the object does not need to be clearly identified. Indefinite pronouns can be categorized into two main types: singular and plural indefinite pronouns. Singular Indefinite Pronouns: These are used for singular objects rather than plural ones. Examples include someone, somebody, something, no one, nobody, nothing, everyone, everybody, everything, anybody, another, anyone, each, anything, either, other, one, and neither,much. Plural Indefinite Pronoun: Plural indefinite pronouns are used for the plural objects and not for singular. Plural indefinite pronouns include many, several,few, others, and both. 4. Relative Pronouns Relative pronouns serve as a bridge between a relative clause and another clause in a sentence, effectively introducing the relative or adjective clause. Typically, they function as the subject of the relative clause. The most frequently used relative pronouns include: whom, whoever, whomever, who, that, which, and whose. For instance: "She does not know which pack of pencils you want." Here, "which pack of pencils you want" is a relative clause, with the relative pronoun "which" connecting it to the main clause. 5. Intensive Pronouns Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize nouns and pronouns, characterized by their endings in "self" or "selves." They highlight their antecedents by referring back to a noun or pronoun mentioned earlier in the sentence. While similar to reflexive pronouns, intensive pronouns are often referred to as emphatic pronouns. The list of intensive pronouns includes: himself, myself, themselves, itself, herself, yourselves, ourselves, and yourself. 6. Demonstrative Pronouns Demonstrative pronouns replace nouns that have already been mentioned in a sentence. They can be either singular or plural. The five primary demonstrative pronouns are: these, those, such, this, and that. 7. Interrogative Pronouns Interrogative pronouns represent something unknown, as they are used to pose questions. These pronouns are distinctive because they all begin with "Wh," making them easy to remember. The most commonly used interrogative pronouns include: whose, what, whom, which, and who. 8. Reflexive Pronouns Reflexive pronouns and intensive pronouns may seem alike, but they serve different purposes in a sentence. Intensive pronouns are not crucial to the sentence's meaning, while reflexive pronouns are essential. They are used when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to the same individual or entity. Reflexive pronouns typically end in -self or -selves. The reflexive pronouns include: yourself, himself, ourselves, itself, themselves, herself, myself, and yourselves. 9. Reciprocal Pronouns Reciprocal pronouns are used to express actions or feelings that are exchanged between two or more individuals. They always refer to at least two people. The phrases "each other" and "one another" are the two reciprocal pronouns, indicating mutual actions among multiple parties. They are not standalone words but rather phrases that require at least two entities involved in the same action. 10. Distributive Pronouns Distributive pronouns refer to individual members of a group separately, rather than collectively. They highlight a specific person or thing within a larger group. These pronouns are often paired with plural nouns and singular verbs. Common distributive pronouns include each, either, every, neither, none, everyone, and any. Lesson n°3: Types of Verbs/Types Of Adverbs 1.Verb: A verb shows the happening or state of something. It is an action word. It can show: If somebody does something If something has done onto someone The state of someone or something Types Of Verbs: 1.Link Verb A linking verb serves as a crucial connector within a sentence. While it may not carry meaning on its own, it plays an essential role in establishing relationships between different parts of a sentence. Common examples of linking verbs include: is, am, are, was, and were. Without linking verbs, sentences would lack coherence and structure. 2. Action verbs are dynamic words that convey movement or activity, painting a vivid picture in the reader's mind. They can be categorized into two types: transitive and intransitive verbs. a) Transitive Verbs: These verbs require a direct object to complete their meaning. They can also shift from active to passive voice. These verbs do not take a direct object and cannot be converted into passive voice. Interestingly, many verbs can function both transitively and intransitively. There are some verbs such as: go, sleep, die, fall, etc, which show an action that cannot be done to anything or anyone. Hence, these verbs can never be used transitively. 3. Reflexive Verbs Reflexive verbs are those where the subject and the direct object are identical, meaning they refer back to the same individual or entity. Consider the following examples: She stays home by herself. The cat cleans itself. In these instances, the verbs point back to the same person or thing, establishing them as reflexive verbs. This self-reference is achieved through reflexive pronouns, which is why these verbs are categorized as reflexive. 4. Auxiliary Verbs Auxiliary verbs serve as supportive elements to the main verb in a sentence, often referred to as helping verbs. They play a crucial role in modifying the tense, mood, or voice of the main verb. Additionally, they assist in forming negatives and questions. Common auxiliary verbs include: is, am, are, was, were, have, do, etc. The auxiliary "do" is utilized for forming questions, emphasizing points, or making requests. 5. Modal Verbs Modal verbs precede ordinary verbs to convey meanings such as possibility, permission, and certainty. They are often simply referred to as modals. Common modal verbs include: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought. Occasionally, "never" and "dare" are also classified as modal verbs. Modals are generally categorized under auxiliaries and are sometimes known as modal auxiliaries. 2.Adverb: An adverb is a type of word that enhances the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It offers additional details about how, when, or where an action occurs, enriching our understanding of the sentence. Types Of Adverbs 1. Adverbs of Time Adverbs of time provide information regarding when an action takes place. They answer the question: When? Common examples include: ago, before, after, later, already, now, never, formerly, soon, since, and more. 2. Adverbs of Place Adverbs of place indicate the location of an action. They answer the question: Where? Common words in this category include: here, there, up, out, in, within, away, etc. 3. Adverbs of Frequency Adverbs of frequency reveal how often an action occurs. They answer the question: How often? Common examples are: once, twice, again, often, seldom, rarely, always, frequently, etc. It rarely rains around here. 4. Adverbs of Degree Adverbs of degree describe the extent or intensity of an action. They answer the question: How much? These are also referred to as adverbs of quantity. Common examples include: too, any, almost, so, pretty, rather, partly, altogether, enough, etc. 5. Adverbs of Reason Adverbs of Reason serve to express the rationale or cause behind an event. Also referred to as Adverbs of Cause, they respond to the question: Why? Common examples include: Because, hence, therefore, and so forth. 6. Adverbs of Affirmation Adverbs of Affirmation are utilized to confirm or assert the truth of a statement. They lend validation to assertions. Frequently used adverbs in this category include: Surely, certainly, definitely, very, obviously, yes, and indeed. 7. Adverbs of Negation Adverbs of Negation indicate that a statement, action, or idea is untrue. They are employed to deny something. Common words used for negation include: No, never, and invalidly. 8. Relative Adverbs Relative Adverbs introduce an adjective clause and include words such as when, where, and why. 9. Interrogative Adverbs Interrogative Adverbs are used to pose questions and are typically placed at the beginning of the interrogative sentence. Common examples include: Why, where, how, and when. Adverbial Degrees of Comparison Similar to adjectives, adverbs also possess Degrees of Comparison. However, only adverbs that express time, degree, and manner can be compared. Adverbs such as now, then, and there are not suitable for comparison due to their inherent characteristics. Understanding Degrees of Comparison Adverbs of Manner, Degree, and Time frequently change form to indicate comparison. The extent of these changes determines their degree, which is categorized into three distinct types: 1. Positive Degree 2. Comparative Degree 3. Superlative Degree Positive Degree An adverb in its positive degree is presented in its basic and unaltered form, indicating the existence of a quality without any comparison. Comparative Degree The comparative degree of an adverb illustrates that a quality is more pronounced in one instance compared to another. This degree is utilized when comparing two entities. Superlative Degree The Superlative Degree of Comparison is employed when highlighting that a quality in one entity is superior to all others. This degree is relevant when comparing one thing or person against multiple others. Examples include: - Among all the individuals, she walked the most slowly. - The car is parked at the furthest location. In these examples, we have made comparisons with all similar entities, establishing the highest form of comparison, which is the Superlative Degree. Lesson n°4: Adjective Adjective An adjective serves as a word that provides details about a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, enhancing our understanding of these elements. It conveys information regarding the quality, type, or extent of a noun. Consider the following categories of adjectives: Types of Adjectives: 1. Quality Adjectives Quality adjectives characterize the nature, quality, or extent of a noun or pronoun. They are often referred to as descriptive adjectives. 2. Quantity Adjectives These adjectives inform us about the amount associated with a noun, answering the question: How much? Common examples include: some, much, no, any, little, enough, great, half, and sufficient. 3. Number Adjectives Number adjectives indicate the quantity of items or individuals or their sequence. Also known as numeral adjectives, they can be categorized into three types: - Definite Numeral Adjectives - Indefinite Numeral Adjectives – Distributive Numeral Adjectives Definite Numeral Adjectives provide a precise count and are divided into two subcategories: - Cardinal: Indicating quantity, such as one, two, three, etc. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives do not specify an exact number. Common examples include: no, all, few, many, some, several, and any. Distributive Numeral Adjectives refer to individual items or all items within a group. Examples include: every, each, either, and neither. 4. Demonstrative Adjectives Demonstrative adjectives identify specific individuals or objects, answering the question: Which? Common examples are: this, that, these, those, and such. 5. Interrogative Adjectives Interrogative adjectives are utilized to pose questions. When the words what, whose, and which are combined with a noun, they transform into interrogative adjectives. There are only three of these, making them easy to remember. 6. Possessive Adjectives Possessive adjectives indicate ownership or possession. Some frequently used possessive adjectives include: my, your, our, its, his, her, and their. 7. Emphasizing Adjectives Emphasizing adjectives serve the purpose of highlighting or intensifying the meaning within sentences. 8. Exclamatory Adjective An exclamatory adjective expresses strong emotions such as excitement or fear. The primary word used for exclamation is "what." Lesson n°5:Prepositions Prepositions: Prepositions are essential words that precede nouns or pronouns, establishing the relationship between the indicated person or thing and something else. 1. Simple Prepositions Simple prepositions serve to illustrate the connection between nouns or pronouns. They can also link various parts of sentences and clauses. These are one-word prepositions, often referred to as Single Prepositions. Common examples include: In, out, on, up, at, for, from, by, of, off, through, till, etc. 2. Double Prepositions Double Prepositions consist of two Single Prepositions combined. This is the reason for their name. Examples of Double Prepositions include: Onto, into, throughout, up till, up to, within, without, upon, etc. 3. Compound Prepositions Compound Prepositions are typically created by adding a Preposition to Nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs. Unlike Double Prepositions, they do not consist of two single prepositions. Examples of Compound Prepositions include: Above, about, across, along, before, behind, beside, inside, outside, etc. 4. Phrasal Prepositions Phrasal Prepositions are collections of words or phrases that connect a noun or pronoun in a sentence to the rest of the sentence. These phrases convey a single idea by functioning together as a unit. Examples include: In addition to, by means of, in spite of, according to, owing to, in favor of, etc. 5. Participle Prepositions Participle Prepositions, as their name suggests, are the Present Participle forms of Verbs. They are used independently, without any accompanying noun or pronoun. Examples of Participle Prepositions include: Concerning, considering, barring, notwithstanding, touching, pending, during, etc. 6. Hidden Prepositions Hidden Prepositions refer to those prepositions that are not explicitly stated in sentences but are implied through their abbreviated forms. For instance, 'a' serves as a contraction of the preposition 'on,' while 'o' is a shortened version of 'of.' 7. Separated Prepositions A preposition is termed a Separated Preposition when it appears away from its object. This detachment occurs particularly when the object is an interrogative or relative pronoun, resulting in the preposition being placed at the end of the sentence. Lesson n°6: Conjuctions & Interjections 1.Conjunction: Conjunctions serve as the essential connectors in our language, linking sentences, clauses, and sometimes individual words to create a more streamlined expression. Unlike relative adverbs and pronouns, conjunctions focus solely on joining elements without taking on additional roles. To illustrate their function more clearly, Types Of Conjunctions: 1. Correlative Conjunctions Correlative conjunctions consist of paired words that collaborate to connect equivalent parts of a sentence. They highlight relationships between two ideas or items, offering either balance or contrast. Some of the most frequently used correlative conjunctions include: Either...or - Signifies a choice between two alternatives. Neither...nor - Connects two negative concepts. Both...and - Links two affirmative ideas or elements. Not only...but also - Provides emphasis, often introducing an unexpected twist. Whether...or - Indicates a choice, particularly in uncertain or hypothetical contexts. As...as - Used for making comparisons. Each component of a correlative conjunction must connect similar types of words (such as nouns to nouns or adjectives to adjectives) to ensure grammatical harmony. They enrich sentences with variety and emphasis, making them an indispensable asset in English grammar. 2. Compound Conjunctions Compound conjunctions are multi-word phrases that act as single conjunctions, linking clauses, phrases, or words within a sentence. Unlike simple conjunctions such as "and," "but," or "or," these compound forms enhance the complexity of your writing. Here are some frequently used compound conjunctions and their functions: - As well as: This phrase adds information and often highlights similarities. - In order that: It conveys purpose, clarifying the reason behind an action. - Even though: This expression introduces a contrast, akin to "although" or "though." - So that: It indicates intent or purpose, explaining the rationale for an action. - As soon as: This phrase denotes immediacy, showing that one action quickly follows another. - Provided that: It establishes a condition, similar to "if." Utilizing these compound conjunctions enriches your sentences, allowing for more intricate relationships between ideas, such as cause and effect, contrast, conditions, or timing. Classes of Conjunctions Conjunctions can be categorized into two main classes: 1. Coordinating Conjunctions The term "coordinating" refers to elements of equal rank. These conjunctions connect two sentences or clauses of equal significance, linking independent clauses together. The primary coordinating conjunctions include: And, but, for, nor, or, also, neither-nor, either-or. Types of Coordinating Conjunctions Cumulative Conjunctions These conjunctions serve the purpose of simply linking one clause to another. Cumulative Conjunctions are often referred to as Copulative Conjunctions. Adversative Conjunctions These conjunctions highlight opposition or contrast between two statements or clauses, effectively showcasing differing viewpoints. Disjunctive Conjunctions Disjunctive Conjunctions present two sentences that offer distinct alternatives. They are also known as Alternative Conjunctions. Illative Conjunctions  Illative Conjunctions express inferences, allowing one statement to draw conclusions based on the conditions set forth in another. Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions connect an independent clause with a dependent clause. Key examples include: after, before, because, if, until, as, that, though, although, unless, and more. Types of Subordinating Conjunctions Time Subordinating Conjunctions These conjunctions serve to indicate when an event occurs. Cause Subordinating Conjunctions These conjunctions illustrate the relationship between cause and effect, providing the rationale behind an event. They are often referred to as Conjunctions of Reason. Purpose Subordinating Conjunctions These conjunctions express the intent behind actions, explaining why something was done or why an event took place. Consequence Subordinating Conjunctions These conjunctions reveal the outcome of an event, which is why they are also known as Conjunctions of Result. Condition Subordinating Conjunctions These conjunctions indicate that one event will occur if another event takes place, outlining the conditions under which a clause is fulfilled. Concession Subordinating Conjunctions These conjunctions acknowledge a fact or idea, regardless of the assertions made in the main clause. Comparison Subordinating Conjunctions These conjunctions are utilized to draw comparisons between two elements within two statements. 2.Interjections: Interjections are powerful words or phrases that convey intense emotions and are always punctuated with an exclamation mark. They play no grammatical role in a sentence but serve to express feelings vividly. Common examples of interjections include Hurrah!, Alas!, Oh no!, Oh my God!, and What! Interjections can be categorized based on the emotions they express, including happiness, surprise, sadness, anger, and greetings. Here are the different types: 1. Interjections for Greeting: These are used to convey warmth and friendliness when meeting someone. 2. Interjections for Happiness: These express joy or elation during celebratory moments. 3. Interjections for Attention: These are employed to capture someone's focus or interest. 4. Interjections for Approval: These indicate agreement or endorsement of a particular idea or action. 5. Interjections for Surprise: These reveal astonishment or disbelief regarding unexpected events. 6. Interjections for Sorrow: These articulate feelings of sadness in response to unfortunate circumstances. 7. Interjections for Shock: These express disbelief or astonishment at surprising news or events. 8. Interjections for Anger: Interjections like these are employed in sentences to convey frustration over an unfortunate event caused by someone's error or negligence. Lesson n°6: Determiners Determiners are essential words that precede nouns or adjectives to introduce them effectively. Unlike adjectives, which provide additional details about nouns, determiners serve primarily to identify or specify nouns. These words are also known as determinatives. Common examples of determiners include: a, the, every, any, that, my, your, which, and more. Types of Determiners 1. Articles The terms 'a', 'an', and 'the' are classified as articles, which are functional words. There are two main types of articles: Definite Article Indefinite Article Definite Article: The definite article is used to refer to a specific person or thing, with 'the' being the sole example. Indefinite Article: The articles 'a' and 'an' are termed indefinite because they refer to non-specific items or entities. 2. Demonstrative Determiners These determiners indicate a specific item or identity. The words that fall under this category include: this, that, these, and those. 3. Possessive Determiners Possessive determiners are functional words that precede nouns to indicate ownership. Examples include: my, your, our, her, his, their, and its. 4. Distributive Determiners Distributive determiners refer to individuals or items within a group or the entire group. Examples include: every, each, all, both, either, neither, and half. 5. Interrogative Determiners Interrogative determiners are functional words used to ask questions. Often referred to as Wh-determiners, they all begin with 'wh'. Examples include: what, which, whatever, whichever, whoever, and whose. 6. Quantifiers Quantifiers are essential function words that precede nouns to express the amount of something. Examples of quantifiers include: all, no, any, many, some, few, a little, a lot, and more. 7. Cardinal Numbers Cardinal Numbers serve to denote quantity as well, but they do so through numerical representation and counting. Often regarded as a subset of quantifiers, these numbers function as determiners. Examples include: one, two, three, twelve, a hundred, two thousand, and others. 8. Ordinal Numbers Ordinal Numbers are function words that indicate the sequence or rank of individuals, objects, or events. Examples of ordinal numbers include: first, second, third, and so forth.