ISC Psychology Past Paper PDF 2024-2025

Examination Reference Material ISC- Psychology Grade - XII (2024-25) Chapter-5. Psychological Disorders and Psychotherapy Abnormal behaviour: A...

Examination Reference Material ISC- Psychology Grade - XII (2024-25) Chapter-5. Psychological Disorders and Psychotherapy Abnormal behaviour: Abnormal behaviour means, the behaviour which deviates from what is considered normal, usually refers to maladaptive behaviours. Features of abnormal behaviour: 4 D’s Abnormal behaviour may be explained by the following four types of behaviours- 1. Deviance Behaviour, which usually deviates from social norms and rules, i.e., the behaviour which is quite different from what we accept as the norms of society. 2. Dysfunction-Behaviour, which interfere with person's ability to perform day-to-day activities properly. 3. Distress- Behaviour, which are unpleasant and upsetting to the persons and others. 4. Danger- Behaviour, that causes harm or injury to the individual's own self or to others. DSM IV Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Why classification of disorders is necessary? A psychologist while seeing a patient goes through certain steps. It involves gathering information of the problems the person is facing, inquire about his present and past lives, etc. These information gathering steps are called assessment. They are used for diagnosis, i.e., identify the person's problem. In order to identify the problem and make an appropriate diagnosis, classification of mental disorders are very essential. The following points illustrates the necessity of classification of mental disorders- 1. Facilitating communication between researchers and clinicians, clinicians and patients through the use of a common language or at least a clearly and precisely defined nomenclature (a naming system), terms and descriptions, 2. Providing a nosographic (classification and description of diseases) reference system, to be used in the diagnosis and treatment. 3. Helping research by ensuring that sample cases are as homogeneous or similar as possible. 4. Facilitating statistical record for public health institutions. 5. It also delineates which types of psychological disorders guarantee insurance reimbursement and how much reimbursement. Five Axis of DSM IV DSM IV evaluates an individual according to five foci, or ‘axes’. The first three axes assess an individual’s present clinical status or condition. Axis I: Clinical disorders or other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention. This would include schizophrenia, generalized anxiety disorder, major depression and substance dependence. Axis I conditions are roughly analogous to the various illness and disease recognized in general medicine. Axis II: Personality disorders and Mental retardation- A very broad group of disorders, that encompasses a variety of problematic ways of relating to the world, such as histrionic personality disorder, paranoid personality disorder, or antisocial personality disorder. The last of these, for example, refers to an early – developing, persistent and pervasive pattern of disregard for accepted standards of conduct, including legal ones. Axis II provides a means of coding for long-standing maladaptive personality traits that may or may not be involved in the development and expression of an Axis I disorder. Mental retardation is also diagnosed as an Axis II condition. Axis III: General medical conditions- Listed here are any general medical conditions potentially relevant to understanding or management of the case. Axis III of DSM-IV may be used in conjunction with an Axis I diagnosis qualified by the phrase, “Due’ to [a specifically designated]” general medical condition – for example, where a major depressive disorder is conceived as resulting from unremitting pain associated with some chronic medical disease. On any of these first three axes where the pertinent criteria are met more than one diagnosis is permissible, and in fact encouraged. That is, a person may be diagnosed as having multiple psychiatric syndromes, such as Panic Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder; disorders of personality, such as Dependent or Avoidant; or potentially relevant medical problems, such as Cirrhosis (liver disease often caused by excessive alcohol use) and Overdose, Cocaine. The last two DSM-IV axes are used to assess broader aspects of an individual’s situation. Axis IV: Psychosocial and environmental problems- This group deals with the stressors that may have contributed to the current disorder, particularly those that have been present during the prior year. The diagnostician is invited to use a checklist approach for various categories of impinging life problems – family, economic, occupational and legal, etc. For example, the phrase “Problems with Primary Support Group”, may be included where a family disruption is judged to have contributed to the disorder. Axis V: Global assessment of functioning-This is where clinicians note how well the individual is coping at the present time. A 100-point rating scale, the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) Scale, is provided for the examiner to assign a number summarizing a patient’s overall functional ability. Different views of "abnormal" behaviour: The statistical stand, biological/medical approach, psychodynamic perspective and sociocultural dimension. Statistical Stand: Abnormal behavior is a Statistical rarity. From a statistical point of view, abnormality is any substantial deviation from the statistically calculated average. Those within the 'yellow mean-those who do what other people do -are 'normal', while those whose behaviour differs from that of the majority are abnormal. One has only to measure the individual's behavior against the accepted behavioural norm. If it falls outside the average range, it is abnormal. Biological/Medical Approach: The biological approach is evident in the medical model which describes psychological disorders as medical diseases with a biological origin. Biological views on psychological disorders fall into three main categories: 1.Brain Structural views Abnormalities in the brain's structure cause mental disorders. 2. Biochemical views: Imbalances in various neurotransmitters or hormones cause mental disorders. 3. Genetic views: Disordered or inherited genes cause mental disorders. For example, any mental disorders show high concordance among close relatives. If one family member develops a disorder, then others are at increased risk for developing it too. Techniques for observing the functioning of the brain like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) AND PET scans are extensively utilized. Psychodynamic Perspectives: Psychoanalytic perspective: that abnormal behaviour stems from childhood unconscious conflicts. Freud's theory suggests that children pass through a series of stages in which impulses take different forms and produce conflict that require to be resolved. If these conflicts remain unresolved in the unconscious and eventually bring about the abnormal behaviour during adulthood. It takes account of these unconscious forces and conflicts within individuals leading to abnormal behaviours. Behavioural perspective: Behaviour is seen as the source of the problem, and the great and par aliments that maintain these behaviours. Using the learning theories some psychologists believe that normal and abnormal behaviours are responses to a set of stimuli, responses that have been learned through past experiences. These are guided in the present by rewards and punishments in the individual's environment. Socio Cultural perspective: People's behaviour-normal and abnormal- is shaped by the kind of environment, that is, the family, group and culture in which they live in. Social factors such as poverty, homelessness, unemployment, ethnicity, inferior education, socio-economic status and prejudice can be potential causes. Family relationships-sibling conflicts, one child favoured over another, marital conflict and so on can also trigger psychological disorders. Anxiety disorders (Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorders) Anxiety can be defined as "Increased arousal accompanied by generalized feelings of fear or apprehension.'" In simple words, it is a vague concern that something unpleasant will soon occur. GAD (Generalised anxiety disorder): GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER (GAD): 'An anxiety disorder that consists of persistent anxiety for at least 1 month; the individual with this disorder often cannot specify the reasons for this anxiety' Etiology or Causes of Anxiety Biological factors – Genetic predisposition - A common gene is believed to be related to anxiety which affects the brain's ability to use serotonin which is a mood regulating neurotransmitters. People of certain personality types are more susceptible to anxiety disorders, and logically, a combination of stressful life situations may trigger excessive anxiety. Chemical Imbalance - GABA (Gamma amino butyric acid) is a neurotransmitter that reduces anxiety in stressful situations. A deficiency of the neurotransmitter GABA in the human brain is linked to GAD. Functional deficiency of GABA would promote the maintenance of anxiety in general. Psychological factors: Psychodynamic view suggests that anxiety results when the id is unable to express its unacceptable anxiety because it is suppressed and there is a breakdown of defence mechanisms. The person begins to experience free-floating anxiety in general because he or she is unable to deal with, displace or deny anxiety. Some common symptoms of GAD: 1. Restlessness or feelings of being keyed up the edge 2. A sense of being easily upset 3. Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank 4. Irritability  5. Muscle tension 6. Sleep disturbance 7. Hyperactivity is manifested by shortness of breath, excessive sweating, palpitations and even stomach ailments like chronic diarrhoea. 8. The anxiety, worry or physical symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning. 9. Feel that something dreadful is about to happen but cannot identify a specific object or situation that causes it and this is called 'free-floating anxiety'. Phobic disorders Phobias are "Intense or irrational fears of objects or situations that may present little or no danger to a person." Classified as an Axis I disorder on the DSM IV. There are currently three recognized types of phobic disorders: 1.Specific/ Simple phobias- A specific phobia , formerly called as simple phobia is characterized by an intense and persistent fear of a specific object or situation such as snakes, heights, blood , insects etc. Symptoms- 1) Intense, excessive and unreasonable fear of a specific object or situation. 2) The fear is uncontrollable in spite of best efforts. 3) Exposure to phobic stimulus or mere anticipation of the same results in extreme fear and anxiety. 2. Social phobia- It is a type of phobia in which an individual experiences extreme and irrational fear of social situations. They may have trouble in meeting and interacting with new people, in attending social gatherings, or public speaking. Social phobia can be manifested in selective social situations like only when eating in front of strangers or talking to strangers. Though the exact cause for social phobia is unknown, a combination of environmental factors likes bullying, family conflict, genetic factors, or physical abnormalities like serotonin imbalance could be causal factors. 3. Agoraphobia Biological Causes of Phobias: Genes - Specific genes may affect anxiety and fearfulness. Chemical Imbalance - An imbalance in the brain chemical Serotonin could be a factor. Serotonin, a neurotransmitter, helps regulate mood and emotions, among other functions. People with phobic disorders may be extra sensitive to the effects of serotonin. Fear responses - The limbic system of the brain is involved in controlling strong emotions, motivation and learning. The amygdala may play a role in controlling the fear response. People who have an overactive amygdala may have a heightened fear response, causing increased anxiety in social and specific situations. Behavioural perspective - explains anxiety in phobic disorders as a learned response to stress. Operant Conditioning - a young girl is bitten by an insect. When she next sees a one, she is frightened and runs away a behaviour that relieves her anxiety and thereby reinforces her avoidance behaviour. Classical conditioning - associate neutral stimuli with strong emotional reactions. For example, an individual may develop a phobia of buzzing noises such as those made by bees after being stung by a bee or wasp. Social Cognitive view - Observational learning leads to fears typical of phobias. For example, a little girl may have developed a fear of high places because she may have seen or heard of people who were afraid of high places. General symptoms of Phobic Disorders: 1. The fear is unreasonable or excessive but the person is unable to help himself or herself from being rational. 2. The phobic situation is avoided otherwise it is endured with great distress it causes personal distress and impaired functioning 3. The anxiety associated with phobias is not related to other psychological disorders. Obsessive compulsive disorder This is a DSM-IV Axis I disorder. Obsessive - Compulsive disorder is "A disorder characterized by obsessions and compulsions". It consists of 2 components: Obsessions are defined by the following: 1. Recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses or images that are experienced at some time during the disturbances as intrusive and inappropriate and cause marked anxiety or distress. 2. The thoughts, impulses or images are not simply excessive worries about real life problems. 3. The person attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, impulses or images or to neutralize them with some other thought or action. 4. The person recognizes that the obsession thoughts, impulses or images are a product of his or her own mind (not imposed from without as in thought insertion) Compulsions are defined by the following: 1. Repetitive behaviors (e.g. hand-washing, ordering, checking) or mental acts (e.g. praying, counting, repeating words silently) that the person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession, or according to rules that must be applied rigidly. 2. The behaviors or mental acts are aimed at preventing or reducing distress or preventing some dreaded event or situation; however, these behaviors or mental acts either are not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralize or prevent or are clearly excessive. At some point during the course of the disorder, the person has recognized that the obsessions or compulsions are excessive or unreasonable. The obsessions or compulsions cause marked distress, are time consuming (take more than one hour a day) or significantly interfere with the persons normal routine, occupational (or academic) functioning, or usual social activities or relationships. What is meant by phobia? Ans- Intense, irrational fear of objects or events causing intense emotional distress and interfering significantly with everyday activities/ more than natural fear. Causes of OCD: Biological factors: Role of Genes: Studies involving identical twins and first-degree relatives in families have shown a high rate of concordance rate. Role of Brain Structure: Abnormalities in brain structure such as an overactive frontal cortex may generate so many impulses to the thalamus of the brain that the result is obsessive thoughts and compulsive actions. Role of Chemical Imbalances: The levels of the neurotransmitter. Serotonin, a neurotransmitter has been implicated in OCD. Current researches have suggested that increased level of serotonin activity results in OCD. Medication that affects serotonin level may sometimes give some relief to OCD patients. Psychodynamic factors: OCD symptoms may develop as a result of fixation at the anal stage of psychosexual development explained by Freud. Toilet training by their parents involves teaching them to learn control. If parents are too harsh and make the child feel dirty or bad about soiling themselves, they may cause a lot of guilt and shame in the child. Thus the intense conflict between the id to 'let go' and the ego to control' can lead to OCD symptoms as adults. Cognitive factors: Major life changes may trigger stress, like childbirth, a change in occupational or marital status. These in turn may lead a person to develop anxiety associated with OCD. They may fear losing control and so may develop rituals which they believe helps them to exert control over their anxiety. Also, to avoid past experiences like severe embarrassments. Characteristics/ Symptoms/ Diagnostic Criteria: 1. Recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses or images that are experienced at some time during the disturbances as intrusive and inappropriate and cause marked anxiety or distress. 2. The thoughts, impulses or images are not simply excessive worries about real life problems, it is intense anxiety. 3. The person attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, impulses or images or to neutralize them with some other thought or action. 4. The person recognizes that the obsession thoughts, impulses or images are a product of his or her own mind (not imposed from without as in thought insertion) 5. Repetitive behaviours (e.g. hand-washing, ordering, checking) or mental acts (e.g. praying, counting, repeating words silently) that the person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession, or according to rules that must be applied rigidly. 6. The behaviours or mental acts are aimed at preventing or reducing distress or preventing some dreaded event or situation; however, these behaviours or mental acts either are not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralize or prevent or are clearly excessive. Types of Obsessions: 1. Fear of contamination. 2. Pathological doubt: Undue concern about not having done a job well enough. 3. Obsessional Need for Precision. 4. Repetitive thoughts. Types of Compulsions are actions that people perform to neutralize these obsessions. 1. Repetitive cleaning Compulsion like washing hands repeatedly. 2. Checking Compulsion like checking doors, windows, taps or gas repeatedly. 3. Counting Compulsion like counting objects a particular number of times. 4. Ordering/Arranging Compulsion like constantly arranging things to be symmetrical 5. Compulsive worrying like uncontrollable and upsetting repetitive negative thoughts. 6. Hoarding compulsion like hoarding old mail, newspapers and other useless objects. 7. They are often successful in hiding their symptoms from co-workers and friends. Mood disorders: Bipolar ( Manic Depression) and Depression ( MDD- Major Depressive Disorder or Unipolar Depression) Moods can be defined as emotional states. Most of us experience different mood states - being happy or sad and upset at other times. In some people however moods are so pronounced and lingering that they interfere with the ability to function effectively. Mood disorders are "Psychological disorders in which individuals experience swings in their emotional states that are much more extreme and prolonged than is true of most people." There are two major types of Mood Disorders: 1.Unipolar / Major Depression 2.Bipolar / Manic Depressive Disorder Unipolar Depressions/Major Depression Unipolar depressions disorder is " a mood disorder in which individuals experience extreme unhappiness, lack of energy and several related problems." This is characterized only by depressive episodes. Symptoms: 1. Dysphoric or unpleasant mood. This entails feelings of gloom, dejection, and despondence. 2. Feelings of anxiety. 3. Profound unhappiness Rapid weight loss or weight gain. 4. Change in appetite. 5. Fatigue or a loss of energy. 6. Sleep disturbances; Insomnia. 7. Recurrent headaches or stomach aches. 8. Feelings of worthlessness or guilt in an excessive or inappropriate manner. 9. A recurrent inability to think or concentrate or make decisions. 10. Recurrent thoughts of suicide or death. 11. Loss of interest in all the usual pleasures of life. 12. Psychomotor agitation or retardation. 13. Neglect of physical appearance. Causes- 1) Neurochemical factor 2) Cognitive factors 3) Humanistic factor 4) Behavioural factor 5) Genetic factor 6) Stressful life events 7) Psychodynamic factor Bipolar Mood Disorder/Manic Depressive: Bipolar Mood Disorder suffer from wide swings in their mood. They move over varying periods of time between deep depression and an emotional state known as mania. It is also known as manic-depressive disorder, because a person's mood can alternate between the "poles" - mania (highs) and depression (lows). This change in mood or "mood swing" can last for hours, days, weeks or months. Symptoms: Manic and depressed phases. The first episode may be either manic or depressive. The periods of highs and lows are called episodes of mania and depression. 1. Mania is a state characterized by extreme excitement, elation, power and energy. symptoms associated with Mania include:  Irritability  Euphoria  Hostility  Decreased sleep  Rapid speech  Difficulty focusing attention  Abundance of energy  Inflated self-esteem  Grandiose or lofty plans  Poor judgment 2. Depressive symptoms include:  Increased or decreased sleep.  Weight gain or weight loss.  Severe sadness.  Crying spells.  Loss of joy.  Loss of interest in activities.  Difficulty thinking or concentrating.  Severe depression may lead to thoughts and plans of suicide. If not treated adequately death through suicide is a very real possibility in the severely depressed person with bipolar disorder.  Depressive episode is diagnosed if five or more of these symptoms last most of the day, nearly every day, for a period of 2 weeks or longer. Causes- 1) Genetic 2) Neurochemical 3) Psychodynamic Personality disorders: Anti- social, Avoidant and Dependent. Anti-social disorder-Antisocial Behaviour refer to age inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, societal norms, and the personal or property rights of others. An individual of atleast 18 years of age, whose behaviour shows continuous disregard or violation of the rights of others , is diagnosed to have anti- social personality disorder. Symptoms:  They lack of conforming to laws and repeatedly commit crimes.  Repeatedly deceitful in relationships  Failure to think or plan ahead   Tendency of irritability, anger and aggression  Disregard for personal safety or safety for others Persistent lack of taking responsibility  Lack of guilt for any wrong activity.  Excessive impulsivity, irritability and aggressiveness.  A possible history of conduct disorder or presence of symptoms of conduct disorders ( childhood disorder marked by aggressive and anti- social behaviouir). Causes:  Neurochemical factor  Genetic factor  Environmental factor  Studies of adopted children indicate that both genetic and environmental factors influence the development of this disorder. Both biological and adopted children of people diagnosed with the disorder have an increased risk of developing it. Children born to parents diagnosed with antisocial personality but adopted into other families resemble their biological more than their adoptive parent.  Researcher have linked antisocial personality disorder to childhood physical or sexual abuse, some undiagnosed neurological disorders and low IQ. But, as with other personality disorders, no one has defined any specific cause or causes of antisocial personality disorder. Persons diagnosed with antisocial personality also have an increased incidence of somatisation and substance-related disorders. Avoidant personality disorder- Individuals with avoidant personality disorder are marked by behaviour pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation by others. As a result they are reluctant to enter into any social interactions and has limited social relationships. It is also known as Anxious personality disorder. Symptoms:  Extreme shyness  Sensitivity to criticism and rejection  Low self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy  A desire for closeness with others but difficulty in forming relationships with people outside of immediate family  Avoidance of social situations, including those related to school or work.  Self-imposed social isolation.  Self- critical. Causes:  Genetic and personality factor  Psychodynamic factor  The causes of avoidant personality disorder is not clearly defined and may be influenced by a combination of social, genetic and biological factors. Avoidant personality traits typically appear in childhood, with signs of excessive shyness and fear when the child confronts new people and situations.  The characteristics are also developmentally appropriate emotions for children, however and do not necessarily mean that a pattern of avoidant personality disorder will continue into adulthood. Many persons diagnosed with avoidant personality  disorder have had painful early experiences of chronic parental criticism and rejection.  The need to bond with the rejecting parents makes the avoidant person hungry for relationships but their longing gradually develops into a defensive shell of self- protection against repeated parental criticisms. Dependent Personality Disorder- It is also known as asthenic personality disorder. A person with this disorder has a profound psychological dependence on other people. It is a long term condition in which people depend on others to meet their emotional and physical needs. They generally show clinging and submissive behaviour. They show acute fear of separation. These people always suppress their own views and needs to avoid disagreement with other people. Symptoms:  Chronic and pervasive pattern of dependent, submissive, and needy behaviour.  Seek out excessive advice, approval and encouragement.  Sensitivity to criticism or rejection.  Low self-confidence and self-esteem.  An inability to make decisions without direction from others.  Feelings of helplessness when alone.  An inability to disagree with others.  Extreme devastation when close relationships end and a need to immediately begin a new relationship.  Difficulty in making everyday decisions.  Has difficulty in initiating any project or doing things on her own.  Craves for relationship for care and support immediately after a close friend ends. Causes:  It is commonly thought that the development of dependence in these individuals is a result of over-involvement and intrusive behaviour by their primary caretakers. Families of those with dependent personality disorder are often do not express their emotions and are controlling; they demonstrate poorly defined relational roles within the family unit.  Individuals with dependent personality disorder often have been socially humiliated by others in their developmental years. They may carry significant doubts about their abilities to perform tasks, take on new responsibilities, and generally function independently of others. This reinforces their suspicious that they are incapable of living autonomously.  Genetic and personality factors.  Behavioural and cognitive factors. Nature and Meaning of Schizophrenia - Schizophrenia is a complex disorder characterized by hallucinations (e.g. hearing voices), delusions (belief with no basis in reality), disturbances in speech, and several symptoms. Schizophrenia is a devastating mental disorder that affects 1% of the world's adult population. Thought, language and communication dysfunction characterize all its symptoms with disorganized and sometimes unintelligible speech. It is "A complex disorder characterized by hallucinations (Eg, hearing voices), delusions (beliefs with no basis in reality), disturbances in speech, disturbed logical flow of thoughts and several other symptoms." The term comes from two Latin words "schizo" meaning 'mind' and "phrenia" meaning 'split. It involves the split of a person's personality from reality. Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia: Positive symptoms mean adding something that is not normally there - excessive and bizarre behaviour, seeing and hearing things that do not normally exist. 1. Delusions- They are firmly held beliefs that have no basis in reality. Delusions are misinterpretations of normal events and experiences which has little basis in reality. Common schizophrenic delusions include:  Delusions of persecution - Belief that others, often a vague "they," are out to get him or her. E.g. "Martians are trying to poison me with radioactive particles delivered through my tap water").  Delusions of reference - A neutral environmental event is believed to have a special and personal meaning. For example, a person with schizophrenia might believe a billboard or a person on TV is sending a message meant specifically for them.  Delusions of grandeur - Belief that one is a famous or important figure like Napoleon. Alternately, delusions of grandeur may involve the belief that one has unusual powers that no one else has (e.g. the ability to fly).  Delusions of control - Belief that one's thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside, alien forces. Common delusions of control include thought broadcasting ("My private thoughts are being transmitted to others"), thought insertion ("Someone is planting thoughts in my head"), and thought withdrawal ("The CIA is robbing me of my thoughts"). 2. Hallucinations- They are vivid sensory experiences that have no basis in physical reality. About 70% of schizophrenia see and hear things that aren’t really there. Hallucinations can involve any of the five senses, auditory hallucinations (e.g. hearing voices or some other sound) are most common in schizophrenia. The types of hallucinations are: Auditory – hearing Visual – Seeing Tactile – Feeling as if something is crawling outside the body Somatic – Feeling as if something is happening inside 3. Disorganized speech Fragmented thinking is characteristic of schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia tend to have trouble concentrating and maintaining a train of thought. They speak incoherently, or say illogical things. Common signs of disorganized speech in schizophrenia include:  Loose associations - Rapidly shifting from topic to topic, with no connection between one thought and the next.  Neologisms - Made-up words or phrases that only have meaning to the patient.  Perseveration (echolalia)- Repetition of words and statements; saying the same thing over and over.  Clang - Meaningless use of rhyming words, "I said the bread and read the shed and fed Ned at the head". 4. Disorganized behaviour  Impairments in a person's ability to take care of him or herself, work, and interact with others.   A decline in overall daily functioning.  Unpredictable or inappropriate emotional responses.  Behaviours that appear bizarre and have no purpose.  Lack of inhibition and impulse control. Negative Symptoms: 1. Flat /Blunt Affect /Affective flattening - show relatively immobile and unresponsive facial expressions, often accompanied by poor eye contact and little body language or movement. 2. Alogia refers to difficulty with speaking. In some schizophrenic patients, alogia manifests as reduced total speech output, and reduced verbal fluency (the ease with which words are chosen). 3. Avolition describes a loss of motivation, will or desire to participate in activities or to do things. Seemingly indifferent to their surroundings, and without displaying any interest in work or social activities. 4. Echolalia refers to meaningless repetition of another person's spoken words. 5. Anhedonia - finding no pleasure in what others find as pleasurable activities 6. Excessive & Peculiar Motor Activity - Agitation, not influenced by external stimuli, Grimacing 7. Echopraxia-Mimicking another's movements. Types of Schizophrenia: Paranoid Schizophrenia- It is the most common form of schizophrenia. The defining feature of paranoid schizophrenia is absurd or suspicious ideas and beliefs. Delusions of persecution are the most frequent theme, however delusions of grandeur are also common where they may have a false belief themselves. As a result, they may claim to be some influential or powerful / wealthy or famous person. The defining feature of the paranoid subtype is the presence of auditory hallucinations or delusions. Typically, the hallucinations and delusions revolve around some theme, and this theme often remains fairly stable over time. Delusions are usually persecutory, grandiose, or both. Delusions involve a belief that one is being oppressed, pursued, or harassed in some way. Grandiose delusions involve the belief that one is very important or famous. People with paranoid schizophrenia show a history of increasing paranoia and difficulties in their relationships. Comparatively, patients with paranoid schizophrenia exhibit fewer problems with their cognitive skills, emotions and attention. Disorganized Schizophrenia Characterized by disorganized behaviour, disorganized speech, and emotional flatness or inappropriateness, gradual social withdrawal. It is also known as hebephrenia. Chuckles inappropriately, for example, through a funeral service or other solemn occasion. Impairment in their ability to communicate effectively. At times, their speech can become virtually incomprehensible, due to disorganized thinking.  Emotional shallowness.  Childish silliness.  Bizarre delusions and hallucinations.  Giggling spells with alternate outburst of anger.  Talking or smiling to themselves or with imaginary persons.   Affective flattening  Social withdrawl Catatonic Schizophrenia Disturbance in movement. Affected people may exhibit a dramatic reduction in activity, to the point that voluntary movement stops, as in catatonic stupor. They may maintain a pose in which someone places them, sometimes for extended periods of time. This symptom sometimes is referred to as waxy flexibility. Alternatively, activity can dramatically increase, a state known as catatonic excitement. Repetitive behaviour performed, also known as stereotypic behaviour, may occur. Echolalia, parrot-like repeating of what another person is saying or mimicking the movements of another person. Behavioural and Developmental Disorders of childhood Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Behavioural disorders involve a pattern of disruptive behaviours in children that last for at least 6 months and cause problems in school, at home and in social situations. The main features of ADHD are inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity. Children who are inattentive find it difficult to sustain mental effort during work or play. They have a hard time keeping their minds on any one thing or in following instructions Common complaints are that the child (Symptoms):  does not listen  cannot concentrate  does not follow instructions  is disorganized  easily distracted  forgetful  on the go, does not finish assignments  difficult to wait or take turns  difficulty resisting temptations or delaying gratification  constant motion-fidget, squirm, climb, run around aimlessly  always talk incessantly  impulsive seem unable to control their behaviours  quick to lose interest in boring activities Separation anxiety disorder (SAD) Some children are extremely and inappropriately fearful about being separated from trheir primary caregivers or someone they are attached to. They are afraid of staying in a room alone, going to school or entering a new situation and try to find solace in the protection of their primary care giver. Symptoms:  Children with SAD may have difficulty being in a room by themselves  going to school alone  are fearful of entering new situations and c   ling to and shadow their parents’ every move  To avoid separation, children with SAD may fuss, scream, throw severe tantrums, or make suicidal gestures. Developmental disorders Autism Developmental disorders originate in childhood that involve serious impairments in physical, learning, language, or behaviour areas. These conditions usually begin during childhood, have an impact on day-to-day functioning, and usually last for the rest of a person's life. Autism - a serious pervasive developmental disorder that impairs the ability to communicate and interact. Carson at al - "..deficits in language, perception, motor development; defective reality testing and social withdrawal". About 70 percent of children with autism show intellectual disabilities. Symptoms:  Marked difficulties in social interaction and communication.  Experience profound difficulties in relating to other people.  Unable to initiate social behaviour and seem unresponsive to other people's feelings.  Unable to share experiences or emotions with others.  Show serious abnormalities in communication and language that persist over time.  Some do not develop speech and those who do, have repetitive and deviant speech patterns.  Show narrow patterns of interests and repetitive behaviours such as lining up objects or stereotyped body.  Movements such as rocking.  Motor movements may be self-stimulatory such as hand flapping or self-injurious such as banging their head against the wall. Psychotherapy Procedures in which persons with mental disorders interact with a trained psychotherapist who helps them to change certain behaviors, thoughts, or emotions so that they feel and function better. 'Treatment in which a trained professional -a therapist- uses psychological techniques to help someone overcome psychological difficulties and disorders and resolve problems bring about personal growth.' Psychodynamic therapies: Method of Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud and are based on the idea that mental disorders stem mainly from hidden inner conflicts and the possibility that unacceptable unconscious impulses will enter consciousness. Psychoanalysis is "Freud's therapeutic technique for analysing individual's unconscious thoughts and enable them to gain insight into their hidden inner conflicts and repressed wishes. Classic Freudian Psychoanalysis tends to be hour-long sessions with the psychoanalyst, for 4 -6 days a week and tend to go on for years. It involved confronting the conflicts and impulses by bringing them out of the unconscious part of the mind and into the conscious part traced back to childhood experiences. There are several psychoanalytic techniques uses to gain this insight: Free Association - is a verbal reporting by persons undergoing psychoanalysis, of everything that passes through their minds, no matter how unimportant or embarrassing it may appear to be. The repressed impulses would then be revealed by these mental wanderings at least to the trained ear of the psychoanalyst. Dream analysis - is another technique used to find clues to the unconscious conflicts and problems. Moving beyond the surface description of a dream (manifest content), therapists seek to find the underlying meaning (latent content), thereby revealing the true unconscious meaning of the dream. Even everyday events like slips of the tongue could aid the analyst in making interpretations concerning the patient's hidden inner conflicts. Resistance - The processes of free association and dream analysis do not always move forward easily. The same unconscious forces that produced repression can work to keep past difficulties out of the conscious, producing resistance. Resistance is a patient's stubborn refusal to report certain thoughts or motives and experiences or outward rejection of the therapist's interpretations. For e.g.: They may forget what they were saying when talking about a childhood memory or completely change the topic.Possibly, resistance occurs because as patients become more and more aware of these conflicts in their consciousness, they try and avoid them. The psychoanalyst has to pick out such instances of resistance and enable the patient to return to the topic and discuss it. Transference - are intense emotional feelings of love or hate toward the analyst on the part of the patient undergoing psychoanalysis. Often patients react toward their analyst as they did to someone important in their early lives, like their parents. Freud believed that transference could be an important for helping individuals work through conflicts involving one of their parents. The harm done by unhealthy family relationships can be resolves through psychoanalysis and the transference gradually fades away. Counter transference - is defined as redirection of a therapist's feelings toward a client, or more generally as a therapist's emotional entanglement with a client. A therapist's attunement to their own countertransference is nearly as critical as understanding the transference. Not only does this help the therapist regulate their emotions in the therapeutic relationship, but it also gives the therapist valuable insight into what the client is attempting to elicit in them. Insight, interpretation and working through - Working through is seen as the process of repeating, elaborating, and amplifying interpretations. It is believed that such working through is critical towards the success of therapy. The patient, after insight, comes to terms as an abreaction which is an emotional, unconscious reaction that you have in response to a stimulus that brings back a painful situation you have experienced before. Leading to a catharsis which is an emotional release. This emotional release is linked to a need to relieve unconscious conflicts. The patient is ready to face his/her conflict and deal with it. Behavioural therapy Behaviour therapies "are a set of therapies based on the belief that many mental disorders arise from faulty learning and based on the learning principles of reinforcement and extinction. The focus of Behaviour therapies are firstly on the individual's current behaviour. Secondly, both abnormal behaviour and normal behaviour are learned. The therapists' role is to change or modify faulty current behaviour and not to correct faulty self-concepts or to resolve inner conflicts like in Humanistic and Psychodynamic therapies. Therapies based on Classical Conditioning- Systematic desensitization and flooding Systematic desensitization is the technique in which the patient is expose to the objects as in flooding, but in a more slow and gradual manner.This technique involves repeated pairing of stimuli that leads to relaxation in the person. First through deep muscle, a relaxed mental state of the patient is created. Then the patient is asked to think or is exposed to the fear producing object in a hierarchical manner. Therapies based on classical conditioning: It is a process in which organisms learn that the occurrence of one stimulus will soon be followed by the occurrence of another. Behavior therapists suggest that many problems are acquired in this manner. Stimuli that happen to be present when real danger occurs may acquire the capacity to evoke intense fear because of this association. As a result, individuals experience intense fears in response to these conditional stimuli, even though they pose no threat to their well-being. To eliminate such reactions, behavior therapists sometimes use the technique of flooding. This involves exposure to the feared stimuli, or to mental representations of them, under conditions in which the person with the phobias can’t escape from them. This procedure encourage extinction of such fears, the phobias may soon fade away. Classical Conditioning is a process in which organisms learn that the occurrence of one stimulus will be followed by the occurrence of another. The pattern of learning is: UCS----------> UCR CS-----------> CR A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response. Eg: After a bee sting and associated pain, the sound of the bee buzzing is enough a evoke a response of fear, Flooding - behaviour therapists expose the person to the feared stimuli or to mental representations of them in situations from which they cannot escape. A high strength conditioned stimulus is presented over and over again. Eg: Acrophobia-made to stand near a high bridge. Therapies based on Operant Conditioning- Behaviour is often shaped by the consequences it produces- actions are repeated if they yield positive outcomes or if they permit people to escape from a negative situation. In contrast actions, which yield negative outcomes, are not repeated. These basic principles of operant conditioning earning are used in various forms of therapy based o rewards as reinforcements and punishments. Shaping - In instrumental conditioning, teaching a desired response through a series of successive steps which lead the learner to the final response. Each small step leading to the final response is reinforced. Also, called the method of successive approximations. A gradual, behaviour modification technique in which successive approximations to the desired behaviour is rewarded. Shaping, or behaviour-shaping, is a variant of operant conditioning. Instead of waiting for a subject to exhibit a desired behaviour, any behaviour leading to the target behaviour is rewarded. With shaping, the learner learns by first approximately performing the goal behaviour. As the teacher, you reinforce the approximation of the goal, and you help the learner take "baby steps" to the final goal. As the learner gets better and better, you slowly raise the bar, repeating this cycle until the final goal is met. Some uses for the shaping technique include teaching a child how to sleep in one's bed all night, how to clean his room, how to write his name, language development, and much more. Chaining-With chaining, you take a multi-step task and break it down into a sequence of smaller tasks. The learner is taught only one step at a time and is not taught any future steps until the current step has been mastered. The chaining technique could be used to teach a child how to tie a shoe, how to zip a jacket, how to brush teeth, how to get dressed, and much more Token Economy System - seeks to identify and help change potentially negative behaviours. The use of conditioned or secondary reinforces money like tokens to strengthen desired behaviors in mental hospitals, prisons, and other similar institutions. By the use of these tokens desirable behaviors which aid therapy can be shaped. One useful technique commonly used in behaviour therapy is the "token economy". This system strengthens positive behaviour and frequently therapists use it with children. For a token economy to work, criteria have to be specific and clear. Sometimes client manuals have specifications such as "how many tokens can each target behaviour earn Sometimes the possibility of punishment' or 'time out' by token loss included, technically called 'response cost': disruptive behaviour can be fined with the loss of tokens. Prisoners get a token for good behaviour and the more tokens they collect, the more privileges that they can avail of. Modelling Therapy According to Albert Bandura and Richard Walters (1977), the main proponents of this theory, personality is determined by repeated observation of others' behaviours. In social modelling, one person watches another person give a particular response in a situation and learns about the consequences of that response - Observational Learning. When the observer identifies with the modeler, he will decide to give the same response if he finds himself in a similar situation in the future (if the consequence was positive) or will avoid that response (if the consequence was negative). Bandura also notes that human beings are capable of SELF-REGULATION of their own behaviour. They are capable of setting their own goals and rewarding themselves when the goals are reached-SELF REINFORCEMENT. Psychosocial rehabilitation: People with mental illness and other psychiatric concerns sometimes need help in different aspects of their lives—including work, living, social, and learning environments. One approach that can help these individuals manage symptoms and improve functioning is known as psychosocial rehabilitation. Psychosocial rehabilitation is a treatment approach designed to help improve the lives of people with mental illness. Its goal is to teach them emotional, cognitive, and social skills to help them live and work in their communities as independently as possible. Psychosocial Rehabilitation have two components:  Reduction Of Symptoms  Improvement In Quality Of Life Above mentioned points are applicable in mild problems like Generalised Anxiety Disorders(GAD), but in case of severe disorders like schizophrenia it is not applicable Rehabilitation is propelled by the purpose to empower clients to become productive members of society. In rehabilitation, patients are given occupational therapy, social skills training, vocational therapy, and cognitive training and they are described below:  Occupational therapy: Clients are taught work therapy and they are taught skills like weaving, paper making, etc.  Social skills training: Clients are taught interpersonal skills like empathy, communication skills, cooperation, etc.  Vocational therapy: Employability skills are taught to clients in vocational therapy  Cognitive training: Patients are taught cognitive skills like decision-making, memory, etc. Rational Emotive Therapy: Albert Ellis formulated the Rational Emotive Therapy (RET). The central thesis of this therapy is that irrational beliefs mediate between the antecedent events and their consequences. The first step in RET is the antecedent-belief-consequence (ABC) analysis. Antecedent events, which caused the psychological distress, are noted. The client is also interviewed to find the irrational beliefs, which are distorting the present reality. Irrational beliefs may not be supported by empirical evidence in the environment. These beliefs are characterised by thoughts with ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’, i.e. things ‘must’ and ‘should’ be in a particular manner. Examples of irrational beliefs are, “One should be loved by everybody all the time”, “Human misery is caused by external events over which one does not have any control”, etc. This distorted perception of the antecedent event due to the irrational belief leads to the consequence, i.e. negative emotions and behaviours. Irrational beliefs are assessed through questionnaires and interviews. In the process of RET, the irrational beliefs are refuted by the therapist through a process of non-directive questioning. The nature of questioning is gentle, without probing or being directive. The questions make the client to think deeper into her/his assumptions about life and problems. Gradually the client is able to change the irrational beliefs by making a change in her/his philosophy about life. The rational belief system replaces the irrational belief system and there is a reduction in psychological distress. Another cognitive therapy is that of Aaron Beck. His theory of psychological distress characterised by anxiety or depression, states that childhood experiences provided by the family and society develop core schemas or systems, which include beliefs and action patterns in the individual. Thus, a client, who was neglected by the parents as a child, develops the core schema of “I am not wanted”. During the course of life, a critical incident occurs in her/his life. S/ he is publicly ridiculed by the teacher in school. This critical incident triggers the core schema of “I am not wanted” leading to the development of negative automatic thoughts. Negative thoughts are persistent irrational thoughts such as “nobody loves me”, “I am ugly”, “I am stupid”, “I will not succeed”, etc. Such negative automatic thoughts are characterised by cognitive distortions. Cognitive distortions are ways of thinking which are general in nature but which distort the reality in a negative manner. These patterns of thought are called dysfunctional cognitive structures. They lead to errors of cognition about the social reality. Repeated occurrence of these thoughts leads to the development of feelings of anxiety and depression. The therapist uses questioning, which is gentle, non- threatening disputation of the client’s beliefs and thoughts. Examples of such question would be, “Why should everyone love you?”, “What does it mean to you to succeed?”, etc. The questions make the client think in a direction opposite to that of the negative automatic thoughts whereby s/ he gains insight into the nature of her/ his dysfunctional schemas, and is able to alter her/his cognitive structures. The aim of the therapy is to achieve this cognitive restructuring which, in turn, reduces anxiety and depression. Similar to behaviour therapy, cognitive therapy focuses on solving a specific problem of the client. Unlike psycho-dynamic therapy, behaviour therapy is open, i.e. the therapist shares her/his method with the client. It is short, lasting between 10–20 sessions. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy The most popular therapy presently is the Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT). Research into the outcome and effectiveness of psychotherapy has conclusively established CBT to be a short and efficacious treatment for a wide range of psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, panic attacks, and borderline personality, etc. CBT adopts a bio-psychosocial approach to the delineation of psychopathology. It combines cognitive therapy with behavioural techniques. The rationale is that the client’s distress has its origins in the biological, psychological, and social realms. Hence, addressing the biological aspects through relaxation procedures, the psychological ones through behaviour therapy and cognitive therapy techniques and the social ones with environmental manipulations makes CBT a comprehensive technique which is easy to use, applicable to a variety of disorders, and has proven efficacy. Client-centred Therapy Developed by Carl Rogers. Rogers strongly rejected Freud's view that mental disorders result from Unconscious hidden conflicts. The gap between the Real Self and Ideal Self leads to distortions and denial. This results in mal adjusted behaviour patterns. Carl Roger's approach to Psychotherapy seeks to eliminate irrational or illogical conditions of worth in the client's mind by providing unconditional positive regard in a caring and accepting environment. The therapists comments are not interpretations or answers to questions by the clients (like in Psychoanalysis) rather they reflect whatever the client says (For eg: You feel like'; or "In other words, what you are saying is..") This is called Non-directive counselling. Rogers combined scientific rigour with the individualised practice of client-centred psychotherapy. Rogers brought into psychotherapy the concept of self, with freedom and choice as the core of one’s being. The therapy provides a warm relationship in which the client can reconnect with her/his disintegrated feelings. The therapist shows empathy, i.e. understanding the client’s experience as if it were her/his own, is warm and has unconditional positive regard, i.e. total acceptance of the client as s/he is. Empathy sets up an emotional resonance between the therapist and the client. Unconditional positive regard indicates that the positive warmth of the therapist is not dependent on what the client reveals or does in the therapy sessions. This unique unconditional warmth ensures that the client feels secure and can trust the therapist. The client feels secure enough to explore her/his feelings. The therapist reflects the feelings of the client in a non-judgmental manner. The reflection is achieved by rephrasing the statements of the client, i.e. seeking simple clarifications to enhance the meaning of the client’s statements. This process of reflection helps the client to become integrated. Personal relationships improve with an increase in adjustment. In essence, this therapy helps a client to become her/his real self with the therapist working as a facilitator. Two primary goals of person centered therapy are increased self-esteem and greater openness to experience. Some of the related changes that this form of therapy seeks to foster in clients include: i) Closer agreement between the client’s idealised and actual selves ii) Better self-understanding iii) Lower levels of defensiveness, guilt, and insecurity iv) More positive and comfortable relationships with others and v) An increased capacity to experience and express feelings at the moment they occur. General goals of therapy are: a) becoming more open to experience, b) Achieving self-trust, c) developing an internal source of evaluation, d) being willing to continually grow. Key concepts: Para phrasing and active listing are an essential part of this process Empathy: It refers to the counsellor’s ability to understand the client at a deep level. Rogers refers to the internal frame of reference to denote the client’s unique experience of personal problems. In order to stay within the client’s internal frame of reference, it is necessary for the counsellor to listen carefully to what is being conveyed (both verbally and nonverbally) at every stage of counselling. Once the counsellor understands the feelings and experiences of the client, the same thing needs to be communicated to the client. Unconditional Positive Regard: People need love acceptance, respect and warmth from others but unfortunately these attitudes and feelings are often given conditionally. As many people who come into counselling have experienced these attitudes, Rogers believed that counsellors should convey unconditional positive regard or warmth towards clients if they are to feel understood and accepted. This means that clients are valued without any conditions attached even when they experience themselves as negative, bad, frightened or abnormal. When attitudes and of warmth and acceptance are present in counselling, clients are likely to accept themselves and become more confident in their own abilities to cope. Genuineness and Congruence: The Person Centered Therapy relationship must always be an honest one. The counselor needs to be real and true in the relationship. Individuals who cannot accept others (i.e. because of personal values and beliefs they hold rigidly and apply to all), or who will not listen and try to understand cannot do Person Centered Therapy. The therapist must embody the attitudinal quality of genuineness and to experience empathic understanding from the client’s internal frame of reference and to experience unconditional positive regard towards the client. When the client perceives the therapist’s empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard, the actualising tendency of the client is promoted. Congruence means that the counsellor is authentic and genuine. The counsellor does not present an aloof professional facade, but is present and transparent to the client. There is no air of authority or hidden knowledge, and the client does not have to speculate about what the counsellor is ‘really like’. Transparency: Transparency means even negative feelings about a client, if any exist, are expressed. The therapist shows a non-possessive feeling of love for the client and is able to, after a time, be empathetic enough to understand the client enough to metaphorically walk in the individual’s shoes. Concreteness: The next condition, concreteness, is the counsellor’s skill in focussing the client’s discussion on specific events, thoughts and feelings that matter while discouraging intellectualised story telling. Concreteness is a precaution against the rambling that can occur when the other three conditions are employed without sufficient attention to identifying the client’s themes. If the counsellor is totally accepting of each client as a person, relates emphatically to the client’s reality and behaves in a genuine way, the client will be free to discover and express the positive core of his being. As clients come to perceive themselves more positively in the nurturing environment, they will function more effectively. Counsellors not only provide the nurturing environment that is missing in client’s lives but also serve as role models of how fully functioning persons relate with others. Self-Disclosure: The issue of degree to which person centred therapists may express and disclose themselves in the person centred relationships is contentious. However there is general agreement that self-expression and self-disclosure and willingness to be known are different from congruency. The therapist responds to the client from the therapist’s frame of reference. The therapist should be willing to be known on the progress and success of therapy. The issue of the therapist’s self-disclosure to the client is constantly revisited and many take the view that at times and in limited ways this may be a useful thing to do. Self-disclosure and self- expression are most likely to be helpful to the client and the therapeutic relationship when They are relevant to client and the client’s present experiencing. They are a response to the client’s experience A reaction to the client is persistent and particularly striking. In response to the questions and requests from the client, the therapist answers openly and honestly and helps dispel the mystique. When it seems the client wants to ask a question but does not directly voices it. To make an empathic observation – that is to express a perception of an aspect of the client’s communication or emotional expression To correct for loss of acceptance or empathy or incongruence. To offer insights and ideas. Cultural Awareness in Client Centred Counselling: In Culture-centred Counselling, recognising the centrality of culture can augment therapy and result in effective treatment of all clients. This approach involves recognising cultural assumptions and acquiring knowledge and skills to get beyond them, something that may be done no matter what treatment model a therapist might use. Cultural awareness means being cognisant of culture differences that may use different standards for loudness, speed of delivery, spatial distance, silence, eye contact, gestures, attentiveness and response rate during communication. All this may seem like a lot to consider, but the tips for considering cross cultural communication are really very basic: 1) Use common words 2) Follow basic words of grammar 3) Avoid slang 4) Repeat basic ideas without shouting 5) Paraphrase important points 6) Check for understanding Chapter 6 Social Thought and Social Behaviour AND Chapter 7 Attitude Attribution Attribution is the processes through which we seek to determine the causes behind other’s behaviour. H Kelley's Attribution Theory (covariation model) Attribution theory usually aims to assess how people determine whether a certain behaviour is the result of external factors or an individual's internal characteristics. Attribution theory is concerned with how ordinary people explain the causes of behaviour and events. For example, is someone angry because they are bad-tempered or because something bad happened? The covariation model was developed by Harold Kelley and suggests that people typically use three types of information when trying to figure out if another person's behaviour is internally or externally motivated. He developed a logical model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to some characteristic (dispositional/internal) of the person or the environment (situational/external). The first piece of information is consensus, which describes whether other people would act in a similar manner if faced with a similar situation. E.g., If everybody in the audience is laughing, the consensus is high. If only Tom is laughing, the consensus is low. If we conclude that others would have done the same, we usually draw fewer conclusions regarding an individual's behaviour. The second piece of information in Kelley's model is distinctiveness. Distinctiveness describes whether the person exhibiting a certain behaviour would act similarly in other situations. If we conclude that the individual only acts a certain way in a specific situation, we usually attribute the behaviour to the situation rather than the person. If Tom only laughs at this comedian, the distinctiveness is high. If Tom laughs at everything, then distinctiveness is low. The third piece of information in Kelley's model is consistency. Consistency describes whether a person acts in a similar way in a specific situation even if it occurs multiple times. If we conclude that the individual acts in different ways in similar situations, we usually find it more difficult to attribute the cause of the behaviour. If Tom always laughs at this comedian, the consistency is high. If Tom rarely laughs at this comedian, then consistency is low. Now, if everybody laughs at this comedian if they don’t laugh at the comedian who follows, and if this comedian always raises a laugh, then we would make an external attribution, i.e., we assume that Tom is laughing because the comedian is very funny. On the other hand, if Tom is the only person who laughs at this comedian, if Tom laughs at all comedians, and if Tom always laughs at the comedian, then we would make an internal attribution, i.e., we assume that Tom is laughing because he is the kind of person who laughs a lot. Biases: 1) False consensus effect: The tendency to believe that other persons share our attitudes to a greater extent than is true. The false consensus effect is not necessarily restricted to cases where people believe that their values are shared by the majority. The false consensus effect is also evidenced when people overestimate the extent of their particular belief is correlated with the belief of others. Thus, fundamentalists do not necessarily believe that the majority of people share their views, but their estimates of the number of people who share their point of view will tend to exceed the actual number. Fundamentalists and political radicals often overestimate the number of people who share their values and beliefs, because of the false consensus effect. 2) Automatic vigilance: This is the strong tendency to pay attention to negative social information. If another person smiles at us twenty times during a conversation but frowns once, it is the frown we tend to notice. In an important sense this tendency is very reasonable. It alerts us to potential danger and it is crucial that we recognize it and respond to it as quickly as possible. But our attention capacity is limited, so when we direct attention to negative social information we run the risk of overlooking other valuable forms of input. Thus, it may save us cognitive effort but it can lead us into errors in our perceptions or judgments of others. Automatic vigilance effect also helps explain why it is often so important to make a good first impression on others. Since people are highly sensitive to negative information anything we say or do during a first meeting that triggers negative reactions is likely to have a strong effect on the impression we create than positive information. In this and many other respects the automatic vigilance effect can have important effects on key aspects of social thought. 3) The self-serving bias: This is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to our own traits or characteristics but negative outcomes to factors beyond our control. e.g. if students score well in an exam they will most likely attribute it to internal causes like talent or hard work but if they score poorly they will attribute it to external factors like difficult paper or strict marking. Thus we have a tendency to take credit for positive behaviour or outcomes by attributing them to internal causes, but to blame negative ones on external causes, especially on factors beyond our control. There are several factors which determine this attribution but the most important is the need to protect and enhance our self-esteem or the desire to look good to others. Attributing our successes to internal causes while failure to external causes permits us to accomplish these ego-protective goals. Self-serving bias is a cause of much interpersonal friction. It often leads persons who work with others on a joint task to perceive that they, not their partners, have made the major contribution. Similarly, it leads individuals to perceive that while their own successes stem from internal causes and are well deserved, the success of others stem from external factors and are less appropriate. Also, because of the self-serving bias many persons tend to perceive negative actions on their parts as justified and excusable but identical actions by others as irrational and inexcusable. In these ways the self- serving bias can have important effects on interpersonal relations. There may be a number of good examples of the self-serving bias. Below are some of the self-serving bias examples: 1. Believing that you are more intelligent than you actually are. 2. Believing that a positive outcome (e.g. writing a best-selling book) is completely due to your talents when it may be partly explained by chance factors or the effects of others. 3. Blaming a negative outcome in your life on other people or bad luck when it may be partly due to making bad decisions. 4. Believing that you can become a famous singer when most people have doubted your singing ability. 4) Counterfactual Thinking: counterfactual thinking involves the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; something that is contrary to what actually happened. It is the tendency to judge any situation in life by thinking about a perfect alternative to it. In other words, counterfactual thinking is those thoughts which make the person think over the difference in his/ her situation. It is described as ‘ what might have been if….’ thought process. For example- a person working in bank as clerk thinks that he would have succeeded more if he had worked in advertising company. Both negative and positive feelings generated associated with counter factual. When a person imagines better outcomes than actually what has occurred ( upward counterfactual thinking), he/she experiences negative feelings of regret , envy etc. When the person, on the contrary imagines worse outcomes than actually what has occurred ( downward counterfactual thinking) they may experience positive feelings of satisfaction. Also, counterfactual thinking may help the person to understand the reasons of the worse outcomes. This may facilitate him/ her to adopt new strategies for better performance in future. Social Influence Social influence are the efforts by one or more persons to change the attitudes or behaviour of one or more people. Social Influence- how people try to change others’ behaviour; social norms; conformity and obedience - factors affecting them. Group Meaning: A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals, who are interacting and interdependent, who have common motives, have a set of role relationships among its members, and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members. Characteristics:  A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to the group. This characteristic of the group helps in distinguishing one group from the other and gives the group its unique identity.  A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals. Groups function either working towards a given goal, or away from certain threats facing the group.  A collection of individuals who are interdependent, i.e. what one is doing may have consequences for others. Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket team drops an important catch during a match — this will have consequence for the entire team.  Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through their joint association also influence each other.  A gathering of individuals who interact with one another either directly or indirectly.  A collection of individuals whose interactions are structured by a set of roles and norms. This means that the group members perform the same functions every time the group meets and the group members adhere to group norms. Norms tell us how we ought to behave in the group and specify the behaviours expected from group members. Formation of Groups/ Why Do People Join Groups- The central feature of a group formation is the interaction between the members of the group. The interaction can take place with physical contact or, as it is seen in the present day, through online platforms or social media. Whatever be the mode of interaction, there are certain conditions that are required to facilitate rhem.  Physical proximity- Being physically near to someone or some group facilitates the formation of the group. Repeated exposure to each other and interaction thus results in the formation of groups like the groups of friends in a class or on the play field. Similar background, interests and attitude are also important determinants of the cohesiveneness of the group.   Security : When we are alone, we feel insecure. Groups reduce this insecurity. Being with people gives a sense of comfort, and protection. As a result, people feel stronger, and are less vulnerable to threats.  Status : When we are members of a group that is perceived to be important by others, we feel recognised and experience a sense of power. Suppose your school wins in an interinstitutional debate competition, you feel proud and think that you are better than others.  Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings of self-worth and establish a positive social identity. Being a member of prestigious groups enhances one’s self-concept.  Satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs : Groups satisfy one’s social and psychological needs such as sense of belongingness, giving and receiving attention, love, and power through a group.  Goal achievement : Groups help in achieving such goals which cannot be attained individually. There is power in the majority.  Provide knowledge and information : Group membership provides knowledge and information and thus broadens our view. Group Formation Groups usually go through different stages of formation, conflict, stabilisation, performance, and dismissal. Tuckman suggested that groups pass through five developmental sequences. These are: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. When group members first meet, there is a great deal of uncertainty about the group, the goal, and how it is to be achieved. People try to know each other and assess whether they will fit in. There is excitement as well as apprehensions. This stage is called the forming stage. Often, after this stage, there is a stage of intragroup conflict which is referred to as storming. In this stage, there is conflict among members about how the target of the group is to be achieved, who is to control the group and its resources, and who is to perform what task. When this stage is complete, some sort of hierarchy of leadership in the group develops and a clear vision as to how to achieve the group goal. The storming stage is followed by another stage known as norming. Group members by this time develop norms related to group behaviour. This leads to development of a positive group identity. The fourth stage is performing. By this time, the structure of the group has evolved and is accepted by group members. The group moves towards achieving the group goal. For some groups, this may be the last stage of group development. However, for some groups, for example, in the case of an organising committee for a school function, there may be another stage known as adjourning stage. In this stage, once the function is over, the group may be disbanded. Types of Groups: Primary and Secondary Groups: A major difference between primary and secondary groups is that primary groups are pre-existing formations which are usually given to the individual whereas secondary groups are those which the individual joins by choice. Thus, family, caste, and religion are primary groups whereas membership of a political party is an example of a secondary group. In a primary group, there is a face-to-face interaction, members have close physical proximity, and they share warm emotional bonds. Primary groups are central to individual’s functioning and have a very major role in developing values and ideals of the individual during the early stages of development. In contrast, secondary groups are those where relationships among members are more impersonal, indirect, and less frequent. In the primary group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e. members do not have the option to choose its membership as compared to secondary groups where it is easy to leave and join another group. Formal and Informal Groups: These groups differ in the degree to which the functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally. The functions of a formal group are explicitly stated as in the case of an office organisation. The roles to be performed by group members are stated in an explicit manner. The formal and informal groups differ on the basis of structure. The formation of formal groups is based on some specific rules or laws and members have definite roles. There are a set of norms which help in establishing order. A university is an example of a formal group. On the other hand, the formation of informal groups is not based on rules or laws and there is close relationship among members. Ingroup and Outgroup: Just as individuals compare themselves with others in terms of similarities and differences with respect to what they have and what others have, individuals also compare the group they belong to with groups of which they are not a member. The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own group, and ‘outgroup’ refers to another group. For ingroup members, we use the word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the word ‘they’ is used. By using the words they and we, one is categorising people as similar or different. It has been found that persons in the ingroup are generally supposed to be similar, are viewed favourably, and have desirable traits. Members of the outgroup are viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to the ingroup members. Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect our social lives. Influence of Group on Individual 1) Social facilitation 2) Social loafing 3) Group polarisation Generally teamwork in groups leads to beneficial results. However, Irving Janis has suggested that cohesion can interfere with effective leadership and can lead to disastrous decisions. Janis discovered a process known as “groupthink” in which a group allows its concerns for unanimity. They, in fact, “override the motivation to realistically appraise courses of action”. It results in the tendency of decision makers to make irrational and uncritical decisions. Groupthink is characterised by the appearance of consensus or unanimous agreement within a group. Each member believes that all members agree upon a particular decision or a policy. No one expresses dissenting opinion because each person believes it would undermine the cohesion of the group and s/he would be unpopular. Studies have shown that such a group has an exaggerated sense of its own power to control events, and tends to ignore or minimise cues from the real world that suggest danger to its plan. In order to preserve the group’s internal harmony and collective well-being, it becomes increasingly out-of-touch with reality. Groupthink is likely to occur in socially homogenous, cohesive groups that are isolated from outsiders, that have no tradition of considering alternatives, and that face a decision with high costs or failures. Examples of several group decisions at the international level can be cited as illustrations of groupthink phenomenon. These decisions turned out to be major fiascos. The Vietnam War is an example. From 1964 to 1967, President Lyndon Johnson and his advisors in the U.S. escalated the Vietnam War thinking that this would bring North Vietnam to the peace table. The escalation decisions were made despite warnings. The grossly miscalculated move resulted in the loss of 56,000 American and more than one million Vietnamese lives and created huge budget deficits. Some ways to counteract or prevent groupthink are: encouraging and rewarding critical thinking and even disagreement among group members, encouraging groups to present alternative courses of action, inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s decisions, and encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted others. We have seen that groups are powerful as they are able to influence the behaviour of individuals. What is the nature of this influence? What impact does the presence of others have on our performance? We will discuss two situations : (i) an individual performing an activity alone in the presence of others (social facilitation), and (ii) an individual performing an activity along with the others as part of a larger group (social loafing). Social facilitation research suggests that presence of others leads to arousal and can motivate individuals to enhance their performance if they are already good at solving something. This enhancement occurs when a person’s efforts are individually evaluated. There are 2 types of social facilitation - Co-action effects: A co-action effect refers to your performance being better on a task, merely because there are other people doing the same task as you. An example would be working at an office with co-workers instead of in a solitary environment. Audience effects: An audience effect refers to your performance being better because you are doing something in front of an audience. An example would be a pianist playing at home versus on stage in front of a crowd. Social loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task, i.e. one in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members. An example of such a task is the game of tug-of-war. It is not possible for you to identify how much force each member of the team has been exerting. Such situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become a free rider. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many experiments by Latane and his associates who asked group of male students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible as they (experimenters) were interested in knowing how much noise people make in social settings. They varied the group size; individuals were either alone, or in groups of two, four and six. The results of the study showed that although the total amount of noise rose up, as size increased, the amount of noise produced by each participant dropped. In other words, each participant put in less effort as the group size increased. Social loafing refers to reduction in motivation when people are functioning collectively. It is a form of group influence. Why does social loafing occur? Group members feel less responsible for the overall task being performed and therefore exert less effort. Motivation of members decreases because they realise that their contributions will not be evaluated on individual basis. The performance of the group is not to be compared with other groups. There is an improper coordination (or no coordination) among members. Belonging to the same group is not important for members. It is only an aggregate of individuals. Social loafing may be reduced by: Making the efforts of each person identifiable. Increasing the pressure to work hard (making group members committed to successful task performance). Increasing the apparent importance or value of a task. Making people feel that their individual contribution is important. Strengthening group cohesiveness which increases the motivation for successful group outcome. Group Polarisation: We all know that important decisions are taken by groups and not by individuals alone. For example, a decision is to be taken whether a school has to be established in a village. Such a decision has to be a group decision. We have also seen that when groups take decisions, there is a fear that the phenomenon of groupthink may sometimes occur. Groups show another tendency referred to as ‘group polarisation’. It has been found that groups are more likely to take extreme decisions than individuals alone. Suppose there is an employee who has been caught taking bribe or engaging in some other unethical act. Her/his colleagues are asked to decide on what punishment s/he should be given. They may let her/him go scot-free or decide to terminate her/his services instead of imposing a punishment which may be commensurate with the unethical act s/he had engaged in. Whatever the initial position in the group, this position becomes much stronger as a result of discussions in the group. This strengthening of the group’s initial position as a result of group interaction and discussion is referred to as group polarisation. This may sometimes have dangerous repercussions as groups may take extreme positions, i.e. from very weak to very strong decisions. Group polarization is a group influence which refers to the strengthening of groups initial position as a result interaction and discussion. As a result of group discussion opinion shifts towards more extreme positions than those which they initially held. In group polarization, it has been found that groups are more likely to take extreme decisions than individuals alone. Group polarization occurs due to the following factors: (Why does Group Polarisation occur?) In the company of like-minded people, people are likely to hear newer arguments favouring their view-points. When people find others also favouring their view-point, they feel that their view is validated by the public. This is a sort of bandwagon effect. When people find others having similar views, they are likely to perceive them as in- group. You start identifying with the group, begin showing conformity, and as a consequence your views become strengthened. Social Norms Social norms are the informal, often unspoken rules, guides and standards of behaviour which people in that society follow with great care. Rules indicating how individuals are expected to behave in specific situations are called social norms. Descriptive norms- these norms tell us what most people do in a given situation. They inform us about what is generally seen as appropriate or adaptive behaviour in that situation. E.g. For instance suppose you find yourself in a park where there are many people picnicking, but not one shred of paper blowing around, instead all the trash cans are filled. Injunctive norms- Specify what should or should not be done, not merely what most people do. E.g. If you encounter a sign saying 500/- rupees fine for littering , Clearly , this presents an injunctive norm. It tells you that littering is forbidden and that if you do it, you may be punished. Some injunctive norms can be detailed and precise- for example, written constitutions, athletic rule books, traffic signs / rules. Why do people conform to social norms? People conform to social norms due to the following reasons- 1) People conform to social norms because of their desire to be liked and accepted by others. This is called as normative influence. People realise that non- conformity may lead to criticism and rejection by others. Thus, they conform in order to get approved and appreciated by others. 2) People conform because of their desire to be correct. It is called informational influence. This generally occurs in situations where people are highly uncertain abouit what is correct , so they conform to the group behaviour , thinking it to be accurate. 3) Every socialization process involves learning different social norms, customs, traditions by means of conformity. So, it gradually becomes a habitual act. 4) Conformity results in acceptance and liking by the other people. This assures the person of his safety and getting cooperation from others during any crisis. 5) Conforming to social norms and other activities generally develop ‘ we feeling’ and sense of belongingness to the particular group.  Norms represent a set of unwritten and informal ‘rules’ of behaviour that provide information to members of a group about what is expected of them in specific situations. This makes the whole situation clearer, and allows both the individual and the group to function more smoothly. In general, people feel uncomfortable if they are considered ‘different’ from others. Behaving in a way that differs from the expected form of behaviour may lead to disapproval or dislike by others, which is a form of social punishment. This is something that most people fear, often in an imagined way. Following the norm is the simplest way of avoiding disapproval and obtaining approval from others. The norm is seen as reflecting the views and beliefs of the majority. Most people believe that the majority is more likely to be right rather than wrong. An instance of this is often observed in quiz shows on television. When a contestant is at a loss for the correct answer to a question, s/he may opt for an audience opinion, the person most often tends to choose the same option that the majority of the audience chooses. By the same reasoning people conform to the norm because they believe that the majority must be right. Conformity and Obedience: All indicate the influence of others on an individual’s behaviour. Obedience is the most direct and explicit form of social influence, whereas compliance is less direct than obedience because someone has requested and thus you comply (here, the probability of refusal is there). Conformity is the most indirect form (you are conforming because you do not want to deviate from the norm). Conformity: It is a most indirect form of social influence in which individuals change their behaviour or beliefs to correspond more closely to the behaviour of others in the group. It essentially involves yielding to group pressure. People conform because it is comfortable. Non-conformity is socially undesirable and many a times punishable offence. Most people believe that majority is always right, so it is better to conform. Whenever individual gets confused and not confident he/she conforms. Conformity provides assurance that individual is right. People conform because of two types of Social Influence: Informational Influence, i.e., influence that results from accepting evidence rather than reality. It is social influence based on individuals desire to be correct—to possess accurate perceptions of the social world. We conform because we have a strong desire to hold the right views. We want to be correct about various matters so we turn to other persons for guidance as to what is appropriate, e.g., if children see that, in the colony, nobody is playing in the park then they get information from the actions of others that park should not be used as playground. This is behaving according to evidence then from reality. Normative influence, i.e., influence based on a person’s desire to be accepted or admired by others. Individual follows the reality and conforms. We conform in order to meet other’s expectations and so to gain their approval, e.g., if we see rules written on the board outside the park that playing in the park is prohibited then children avoid playing there. Asch’s experiment prove that people do get carried away by the social influence whenever taking decisions. Determinants of Conformity / Factors affecting conformity- The degree of conformity among the group-members is determined by many factors which are as follows: Size of the Group: Conformity is greater when the group is small. It happens because it is easier for a deviant member to be noticed in a small group. In a large group, if there is strong agreement among most of the members, conformity makes the majority and its norms stronger. In such a case, the minority would be more likely to conform because the group pressure would be stronger. Size of the Minority: When the deviating minority size increases, the likelihood , of conformity decreases. Group cohesiveness Group status Open environment Acculturation Nature of the Task: Where there is something like a correct or an incorrect answer, conformity is more. Where answers can vary widely without any answer being correct or incorrect, conformity would be less. Public or Private Expression of Behaviour: If the group-members are asked to give their answers publicly, conformity is more. Less conformity is found under private expression. Personality Characteristics: Some individuals have a conforming personality that is tendency to change their behaviour according to what others say or do in most situations and vice- versa. Such persons have a tendency to change their behaviour according to what others say or do in most situations. By contrast, there are individuals who are independent, and do not look for a norm in order to decide how to behave in a specific situation. Research has shown that highly intelligent people, those who are confident of themselves, those who are strongly committed and have a high self-esteem are less likely to conform. Solomon Asch’s experiment on conformity Conformity is a type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or behaviour in order to adhere to existing social norms. They are unspoken or spoken rules that indicate how we should behave. SOLOMON ASCH EXPERIMENT:  The Figure The FP − The FPs or subjects in the experiment were asked to choose which of the comparison lines was the same length as a standard line. The control subjects who were by themselves when they looked at the lines were accurate about 99 percent of the time. This established a baseline against which to judge the responses of the other subjects in the experimental sessions. EXPERIMENTAL SESSIONS: Judgements were made in group. Each session typically employed only one actual subject in a group of seven to nine other people – the agents- who had been coached to choose one of the nonmatching lines. These people were confederates, or “helpers”, of the experimenter. The experiment was setup so that the real experimental subject heard the judgments of all but one of these confederates before choosing one of the comparison lines. Thus, with nine confederates, the subject would hear eight of them choose a particular comparison line that did not match the standard line. FINDINGS: In general, they showed tendency to conform to the group. On the average, only about 67% of their judgements, compared with 99% of control subject judgements, were correct. Not all subjects conformed, however; there were large individual differences in conformity, and those who conformed did not do so on every trial. Subjects conformed most often when their judgements were “public” – that is, when majority could hear their answers. If the majority was not unanimous, that is, if one of the confederates was instructed to disagree with the majority opinion, the amount of conformity was greatly reduced. In experiments performed with fewer than seven or nine confederates, as the number of confederates in the majority group increased from one to three, conformity increased, but further increases in size of the majority did not result in greater conformity. The occurrences of conformity will increase when:  FP is fatigued.  Is uninformed about the stimuli.  Has lower status than agents.  Is desirous of further interactions with the agent.  To conclude three factors in conformity are social disapproval, social comparison and the need to be liked and accepted. Obedience: It is most direct form of social influence. Obedience refers to accepting commands/orders from the authority. Authority refers to a person who has inherent power to give reward or punishment. If a person has power over another, obedience can be demanded; such a person usually has the means to enforce orders. Milligram’