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Chapter 1: American Political Culture Political Culture: The set of beliefs, values, and norms that define the relationship between citizens and government. Liberty: The principle that individuals should be free to act and think as they choose, provided they do not infring...

Chapter 1: American Political Culture Political Culture: The set of beliefs, values, and norms that define the relationship between citizens and government. Liberty: The principle that individuals should be free to act and think as they choose, provided they do not infringe on others' rights. Equality: The idea that all individuals are equal in their moral worth and are entitled to equal treatment under the law. Democracy: A system of government in which power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through freely elected representatives. Political Efficacy: The belief that one's actions can influence government and politics. Political Trust: The extent to which people believe the government acts in their best interests. Chapter 2: The Founding and the Constitution Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the United States, which created a weak central government. Constitutional Convention: The 1787 meeting at which the U.S. Constitution was created. Separation of Powers: The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to prevent any one branch from exercising the core functions of another. Checks and Balances: A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. Federalism: A system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units. Chapter 3: Federalism Dual Federalism: A system in which the states and the national government each remain supreme within their own spheres of power. Cooperative Federalism: A system in which both federal government and state governments cooperate in solving problems. Supremacy Clause: The clause in the United States Constitution's Article VI, stating that the Constitution and federal laws take precedence over state laws. Enumerated Powers: Powers explicitly granted to Congress by the Constitution. Reserved Powers: Powers that the Constitution neither grants to the federal government nor denies to the states. Chapter 4: Civil Liberties Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which outline individual liberties.  Freedom of Speech: The right to express any opinions without censorship or restraint. Freedom of Religion: The right to practice whatever religion one chooses. Right to Privacy: The concept that one's personal information is protected from public scrutiny. Due Process: Legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person. Chapter 5: Civil Rights Civil Rights: The rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality. Equal Protection Clause: Part of the Fourteenth Amendment emphasizing that the laws must provide equivalent "protection" to all people. Voting Rights Act of 1965: A landmark piece of federal legislation in the United States that prohibits racial discrimination in voting. Civil Rights Movement: The decades-long struggle by African Americans to end legalized racial discrimination, disenfranchisement, and racial segregation. Affirmative Action: A policy favoring those who tend to suffer from discrimination. Chapter 6: Congress Bicameral Legislature: A lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts, such as the U.S. Congress composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Incumbent: An officeholder who is seeking re-election. Filibuster: A tactic used by senators to block a bill by continuing to hold the floor and speak, under the Senate rule of unlimited debate. Cloture: A procedure for ending a debate and taking a vote. Gerrymandering: The drawing of legislative district boundaries to benefit a party, group, or incumbent. Chapter 7: The Presidency Executive Orders: Directives issued by the president that have the effect of law. Veto Power: The president's authority to reject a bill passed by Congress. Executive Agreement: An agreement between the president and the leader of another country that does not require Senate approval. Cabinet: A group of advisers to the president, composed of the heads of the executive departments. Impeachment: The process by which a legislative body levels charges against a government official. Chapter 8: The Federal Judiciary Judicial Review: The power of the courts to declare laws unconstitutional. Supreme Court: The highest federal court in the United States.  Appellate Jurisdiction: The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts. Writ of Certiorari: A decision by the Supreme Court to hear an appeal from a lower court. Judicial Activism: A philosophy that judges should interpret the Constitution to reflect current conditions and values. Chapter 9: Public Opinion and the Media Public Opinion: The distribution of the population's beliefs about politics and policy issues. Political Socialization: The process by which people gain their political attitudes and opinions. Mass Media: Forms of communication, such as newspapers and radio, that reach millions of people. Agenda-Setting: The ability of the media to focus attention on certain issues and shape public perception. Framing: The way in which news organizations define a political issue and consequently affect opinion about the issue. Chapter 10: Political Parties Two-Party System: A political system dominated by two major parties. Party Realignment: The displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually during a critical election period. Primary Elections: Elections in which voters choose the nominee or delegates pledged to the nominee. Party Platform: A formal set of principal goals supported by a political party or individual candidate. Third Parties: Electoral contenders other than the two major parties. Chapter 11: Interest Groups and Lobbying Interest Groups: Organizations that seek to influence public policy. Lobbying: Engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies they enact. Political Action Committee (PAC): An organization that collects political donations and makes campaign contributions to candidates for political office. Iron Triangle: The stable, cooperative relationship that often develops among a congressional committee, an administrative agency, and supportive interest groups. Grassroots Lobbying: Efforts by groups and associations to influence elected officials indirectly, by arousing their constituents. Chapter 12: Elections and Voting  Electoral College: The body of electors who formally elect the United States president and vice-president. Popular Vote: The tally of each individual's vote within a given geographic area. Gerrymandering: The process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power. Voter Turnout: The percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. Campaign Finance: The fundraising and expenditure of money by candidates and political parties. Chapter 13: The Bureaucracy Bureaucracy: A system of managing government through departments run by appointed officials. Regulation: The use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. Deregulation: The lifting of restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities. Administrative Discretion: The ability of bureaucrats to make choices concerning the best way to implement congressional intentions. Merit System: A system of public employment in which selection and promotion depend on demonstrated performance rather than political patronage. Chapter 14: Domestic Policy Public Policy: The course of action the government takes in response to an issue or problem. Social Welfare Policy: Policies that provide benefits, cash, or in-kind, to individuals, based on their entitlement or means testing. Medicare: A federal program of health insurance for persons 65 years of age and older. Medicaid: A federal and state assistance program that pays for health care services for people who cannot afford them. Fiscal Policy: The use of government spending and tax policies to influence economic conditions. Chapter 15: Foreign Policy Foreign Policy: A nation's overall plan for dealing with other nations. Diplomacy: The practice of conducting negotiations between countries. National Security: The ability to keep the country safe from attack or harm. Economic Sanctions: Domestic penalties applied by one country (or group of countries) on another country (or group of countries). Multilateralism: A philosophy that encourages individual nations tacked together to solve international problems. Court Cases  Schenck v. United States (1919): Established the "clear and present danger" test for free speech. Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Incorporated the exclusionary rule to the states, preventing illegally obtained evidence from being used in court. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Guaranteed the right to an attorney for criminal defendants in state courts. Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Required police to inform suspects of their rights before questioning (Miranda warnings). Roe v. Wade (1973): Legalized abortion nationwide, based on the right to privacy. Engel v. Vitale (1962): Prohibited state-sponsored prayer in public schools. Tinker v. Des Moines (1969): Protected students' free speech rights in schools, as long as it doesn't disrupt the educational process. Texas v. Johnson (1989): Affirmed the right to burn the American flag as a form of symbolic speech. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Upheld "separate but equal" segregation laws. Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional. Loving v. Virginia (1967): Invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978): Addressed affirmative action in college admissions, allowing race to be one of several factors in admission decisions. Grutter v. Bollinger (2003): Upheld affirmative action policies that consider race as one factor among many in college admissions. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Legalized same-sex marriage nationwide. The Bill of Rights/Amendments 1. Freedom of Speech, Religion, Press, Assembly, and Petition: Protects these fundamental rights. 2. Right to Keep and Bear Arms: Protects the right to own and carry weapons. 3. Quartering of Soldiers: Prevents the government from housing soldiers in private homes during peacetime without the owner's consent. 4. Search and Seizure: Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures; warrants require probable cause. 5. Rights of the Accused: Includes protection against double jeopardy, self-incrimination, and guarantees due process. 6. Right to a Fair Trial: Guarantees a speedy and public trial, an impartial jury, and the right to counsel. 7. Trial by Jury in Civil Cases: Guarantees a jury trial for civil cases in federal courts. 8. Cruel and Unusual Punishment: Prohibits excessive fines and cruel or unusual punishment. 9. Rights Retained by the People: States that the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution does not deny others held by the people. 10. States' Rights: Affirms that powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or the people. 11. Lawsuits Against States: Limits the ability to sue states in federal court. 12. Presidential Elections: Modifies the procedure for electing the President and Vice President. 13. Abolition of Slavery: Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. 14. Civil Rights: Grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and provides equal protection under the law. 15. Voting Rights: Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 16. Income Tax: Allows the federal government to collect income tax. 17. Direct Election of Senators: Establishes the direct election of U.S. senators by popular vote. 18. Prohibition of Alcohol: Bans the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol (repealed by the 21st Amendment). 19. Women's Suffrage: Grants women the right to vote. 20. Terms of Office: Changes the dates for the start of presidential, vice-presidential, and congressional terms. 21. Repeal of Prohibition: Repeals the 18th Amendment, ending Prohibition. 22. Presidential Term Limits: Limits the President to two terms in office. 23. Washington D.C. Electoral Votes: Grants the District of Columbia electors in the Electoral College. 24. Abolition of Poll Taxes: Prohibits the use of poll taxes in federal elections. 25. Presidential Succession: Clarifies the procedures for presidential succession and disability. 26. Voting Age: Lowers the voting age from 21 to 18. 27. Congressional Pay Raises: Delays congressional pay raises until after the next election.