Global Politics: The State and Globalisation - Study Notes PDF

The State and Globalisation Notes INTRODUCTION (p33) In 1992 Francis Fukuyama published The End of History and the Last Man in which he argued that war would eventually become a thing of the past due to the rise of liberal democracies unwilling to engage in conflict -​ Argued that connectivity...

The State and Globalisation Notes INTRODUCTION (p33) In 1992 Francis Fukuyama published The End of History and the Last Man in which he argued that war would eventually become a thing of the past due to the rise of liberal democracies unwilling to engage in conflict -​ Argued that connectivity of democracies would challenge the primacy of the state and the EU was a model for the future relationship between nations; states would work more closely and global governance would challenge the nation-state -​ There was no time frame for this change but people were persuaded by events such as the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 which reunified German liberal democracy as well as communist dictatorships in Eastern Europe being overthrown and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 -​ In Mastricht 1992 the leaders of the EEC pledged to common citizenship and currency, a union was formed and trust and cooperation was encouraged, even China called for democratic reforms The internet has provided a number of opportunities for further integration and global free trade has created greater global wealth than ever before -​ The internet has also facilitated insularity e.g. Russia Today (TV) provides Russian nationalism with a global audience and Fox News is deeply partisan -​ In 2020 the UK reclaimed sovereignty from the EU and other countries like Hungary and Poland have undergone rises in nationalism as has the US with Trump encouraging putting the national interests of the US first -​ The nation-state may not be dying ‘the report of my death was an exaggeration’ THE STATE: NATION-STATE AND NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY (p34) Characteristics (p34) Since the C17th, the state has become the main player in global relations as well as providing peace and international relations -​ Hugo Grotius said the state is ‘a complex association of free men, joined together in the enjoyment of rights for their common interest’ -​ Hobbes and Bodin argue that adherence to a sovereign state is the most effective way of protecting society from mankind’s embedded anarchy (they both experienced negative human nature; Hobbes the English Civil War and Bodin St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre) The Westphalian state system (p34) The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years’ War and is important in the development of sovereignty as it embedded the Holy Roman Emperor’s claim to possess sovereign authority over German states -​ Each state would be sovereign over its own internal affairs with no external intervention, this defined the theory of sovereign equality as: no state has the legal right to intervene  with sovereign affairs of another state, and, all states possess the same legal right to independence The nation-state in the C20th (p35) During the C20th Westphalian principles dominated the globe, Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points (1918) established the principle that nation-state sovereignty should be founded upon right of self-determination and based on shared heritage (led to creation of states such as Austria, Hungary and Poland after WW1) The Montevideo Conference 1933 determined sovereign states must possess: -​ A defined territory -​ A permanent population -​ A viable government -​ The capacity to enter into diplomatic relations with other states A state would possess law-making powers within its borders with no external interference Post WW2 decolonisation (p35) Old colonial empires were dismantled and new nation-states were established across the developing world -​ From 1989-1991 communism collapsed throughout eastern Europe so new nation-states (including 15 parts of the Soviet Union) were established The UN and state sovereignty (p35) Nation-state as a political community is bound by citizenship, nationality and culture; it provided states with a common identity and determined structures in international relations -​ Article 2 of Chapter 1 of the UN Charter states ‘The Organization is based on the principle of sovereign equality of all its Members.’ -​ No state has the right to intervene with the affairs of another as they all have equal rights to determine internal policy, all states can claim equal territorial integrity -​ Realist interpretations are underpinned by loyalty to the state and use of its economic, political and military power to achieve positive outcomes -​ The legitimacy of a nation-state evolves from its acceptance as a nation-state by other nation states e.g. Palestinians, Kurds and Catalans all claim nation-statehood but the UN does not accept these claims so they remain unrecognised PROCESS OF GLOBALISATION (p36) Widening of interconnectedness and interdependence (p36) Globalisation creates a complex web of interconnectedness that challenges the state’s authority to make decisions on its citizens lives -​ This has created a world in which nation-states cannot insulate themselves from events in the rest of the world Significance of economic and financial globalisation (p36) Economic liberalism since the Cold War has lead to the dominance of free-market principles of global trade (Washington Consensus), this means:  -​ States must establish conditions that global investors find attractive including policies of low corporate tax and light regulation -​ Any state that seeks to act in defiance of economic globalisation will risk lost investment and capital flight Governments can tailor the macroeconomic decisions which they make to encourage foreign business e.g. Ireland reduced corporate tax to 12.5% in order to encourage foreign companies, Apple then moved an operations centre to Dublin Globalisation of markets (p36) Facilitated by instantaneous communications of the internet, means that global events can affect a state’s economic wellbeing such as: -​ In 2007-8 the mortgage crisis in the US precipitated by the bankruptcy of UK bank Lehman Brothers provoked a global banking crisis, stock markets plummeted causing a global recession -​ The global impact of COVID-19 impacted every economy in the world, global merchandise trade declined by 9% Influence of non-state actors (p36) Global interconnectedness has also been advanced through the rise of non-state actors in response to global complex problems that cannot fall to singular states to solve, therefore states must work together in IGOs to resolve problems -​ E.g. in 2009 the G20 responded to the global financial crisis by implementing a global strategy of reflation and commitment to free trade -​ The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change provides an international forum for actions and the International Atomic Energy Agency is designed to ensure states abide by the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons Influence of IGOs (p37) Bretton Woods institutions: the World Bank, the IMF and the WTO -​ These impact state sovereignty by advancing global free markets and free trade, structural adjustment programmes are founded on the premise that economic growth is maximised by free trade; governments should encourage FDI by adopting economic policies conductive to it -​ In 2021 the WTO had 164 states as members including Russia and China, it is closely associated with globalisation as it encourages free trade by persuading members to reduce import tariffs; it tries to resolve trade disputes in order to achieve global economic prosperity THE UN The UN was established in 1945 and is based on the liberal principle that the international community must work together to solve ‘collective dilemmas’; nation-states do not sacrifice their sovereignty as members and create a more peaceful and prosperous world. Agencies include: -​ World Health Organisation (WHO)  -​ International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) -​ United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR): works to alleviate the plight of refugees -​ United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF) -​ World Food Programme (WFP): world’s biggest humanitarian relief organisation providing food relief, income support and free school meals as well as supporting small farmers in 88 countries in the developing world Also responsible for: -​ The Millennium (2000-15) and Sustainable Development Goals (2015-30) which have made considerable progress in reducing poverty as well as goals such as gender equality and pushing for action on climate change -​ Climate change conferences organised by the UNFCCC to provide opportunities for states and non-state actors to work together on limiting carbon emissions Regional organisations Established in order to take advantage of opportunities globalisation offers including: -​ EEC (1957) -​ ASEAN (1967) -​ Mercosur (1991) -​ NAFTA (1994) Regional IGOs function as mini free trade areas encouraging trade and specialisation, this gives regions great influence in international trade as well as protecting them from global competition by establishing regions customs unions. Economic sovereignty is pooled meaning nation-states accept limits on what their governments can do for greater collective benefits Influence of non-governmental organisations (p38) NGOs can have considerable soft-power influence on international political dialogue by enriching political debate and include pressure groups such as: Amnesty International, Greenpeace and Human Rights Watch -​ Internationally respected individuals can also have a huge impact on global policy e.g. the urgency of addressing climate change has been encouraged by Greta Thunberg as well as being helped by David Attenborough who has furthered climate change as a global priority by talking to global leaders such as Obama in 2015 and presenting his witness statement in the documentary A Life on Our Planet The internet’s impact (p39) The internet has transformed global communications and lead to instantaneous trading of shares and movement of capital to create a global marketplace of business but also of ideas in which people anywhere in the world can access a supply of information and ideas  -​ Technological advances create the potential for a more global culture in which goods, fashions and ideas can penetrate anywhere in the world e.g. Microsoft, Google and Apple -​ The internet has made it more difficult for states to control the information its citizens receive e.g. Facebook and Al Jazeera played an important role in promoting the 2010-12 Arab Spring by undermining the state’s ability to control flows of information to their people -​ It also provides a platform for social movements and global debate e.g. the murder of George Floyd in 2020 made racism a powerful topic of debate especially in Western democracies GLOBALISATION ATTEMPTS TO RESOLVE CONTEMPORARY ISSUES (p41) For some political commentators it is part of the solution, for others it is part of the problem POVERTY (p41) Supporters argue globalisation has done more than anything else in history to address and resolve global poverty Convergence between the Global North and South (p41) Brandt Reports 1980 and 1983 first coined ‘the North-South divide’ to highlight the economic and social divisions between the developed and developing world; showed that high living standards, high wages and industrial productivity are found in the Northern hemisphere and low wages, agriculture and structural disadvantage mostly found in the Southern hemisphere -​ Supporters of economic globalisation argue that free-trade liberalism has done more than anything to encourage convergence by creating new opportunities for manufacturing the developing world -​ Greater trade has caused the gross world production to increased from $34mil in 2000 to $88mil in 2019 as well as the number of people living in extreme poverty dropping (due to access to higher paid jobs and cheaper food) from 36% of the global population in 1980 to 9.2% in 2019 -​ Developing countries have been able to break into global markets due to freer trade and use their comparative advantage in cheap labour to lift millions out of extreme poverty Tariffs protect producers from foreign competition as governments put a tax on foreign imports to make them less attractive to domestic consumers; but it can encourage producers to charge higher prices in a protected environment. Free trade encourages countries to specialise in what they produce cheaply and abandon expensive/inefficient sectors, producers can take advantage of opportunities to maximise their natural resources. Additionally producers produce goods as efficiently as possible which reduces cost of goods for consumers Developing countries opened up to foreign market investment can now climb the ladder to prosperity, this alters the global balance of power with emerging countries e.g. China and India playing an increasing role in global politics -​ China uses huge supply of cheap labour to manufacture low-cost goods to sell globally, in 2019 exports amounted to $2.5 trillion as the biggest exporter in the world -​ In 2020 South Korea had the 10th biggest GDP specialising in computers, cars and wireless telecommunications such as Samsung with global recognition; North and South Korea used to be equal but North Korea’s ideological self-sufficiency saw its GDP 54 times lower in 2019 -​ Since 1950s Taiwan has focused on export markets originally in toys and textiles but the profits allowed them to expand to become one of the world’s most advanced tech sectors -​ Vietnam is focusing on development of exports such as footwear and textiles, their market is likely to be boosted by the EU agreement 2020 -​ African countries also take advantage by concentrating on sectors in which they possess comparative advantage e.g. Botswana producing diamonds or Ethiopia producing coffee The population of Africa is expected to rise from 1.4 billion in 2020 to 1.7 billion in 2030 to allow major companies to increase moving operations to Africa in order to utilise its youthful labour market and cheaper labour costs. However, Asian countries become wealthier to increase labour costs making them less attractive for TNCs e.g. -​ Renault, Peugeot and Volkswagen are moving most of their car production to African plants -​ Toyota manufactures cars in Kenya and South Africa China has been quick to appreciate the value of outsourcing labour in Africa’s urban centres, in 2017 it was reported there were at least 10,000 Chinese companies operating in Africa including SIMI and Transsion; by 2020 China had opened 25 industrial parks in Africa including Hawassa Park in Ethiopia Globalisation and consumers (p43) Driven down the cost of consumer goods to provide most people with an opportunity to own material possessions that were once only available to the wealthiest -​ In 2020, 45% of the world’s population owned a smartphone with the cheapest Freedom 251 launched on the Indian market in 2016 for less than $3.50 Globalisation and ideas (p43) Encourages international dispersal of ideas to introduce people to new ways of making products, doing business and innovating; this benefits people by providing them with new access to commodities and job opportunities in new sectors offering higher rates of pay -​ Johan Norberg 2020 explored the stagnation of closed economies compared to the progress which globalisation encourages Breaking out of the poverty cycle (p43) Employment opportunities provide people in the developing world with a chance to break the cycle of rural poverty; a lack of competition in closed economies fuels stagnation and inefficiency -​ Jobs in factories provide opportunities for people to earn a regular wage, have the potential for career development and accumulate necessary capital to give their children a better education How has economic globalisation entrenched poverty? (p44) World systems (dependency) theory -​ Globalisation locks developing states into permanent dependency status due to forcing them to opening their borders to trade too early and dumping cheap products on them meaning they become too dependent on cheap imports to develop their own economy -​ This is neocolonialism as countries are condemned to a peripheral status in global trade and end up providing markets and a workforce for globally dominant industries -​ Ha-Joon Chang suggests developing countries should embrace globalisation only when they have achieved a sufficient level of development allowing them to withstand foreign competition and exploitative globalisation Greater inequality -​ Globalisation has had dramatically negative consequences as too often wealth that is generated through global free trade is concentrated in the hands of the elite which increases the gap between the rich and the poor -​ E.g. China has dramatically increased in wealth but also become a more unequal society as well as India where in 2019 only 1% of the population earned 21% of total income -​ Amy Chua argues that concentrating wealth in the hands of a small number of individuals result in resentment and dissatisfaction amongst the majority which undermines social cohesion and can encourage a rise of destablishing political movements -​ This is not confined to the developing world as from 1989-2016 the income gap doubled in the US with the number of middle-income families declining 10% to 51% in 2019; anger and resentment come from the working class and middle class who feel they are being denied the ‘American Dream’ is one of the key reasons for the election of Trump in 2016 CASE STUDY: POORER BUT HAPPIER? (p45) Gini coefficient measures extent of inequality within a state with 0 being perfect equality and 1 prefect inequality; the higher level of income inequality the higher the number -​ Critics suggest that although globalisation increases wealth it fails to share wealth fairly increasing the divide between the rich and the poor which can destabilise society  -​ In the US income inequality has increased from 0.43 in 1990 to 0.48 in 2020 which can help explain the rise of populist politicians like Trump whose support comes from those who feel they're being left behind by globalisation, Biden believes the problem must be addressed -​ Right-wing politicians such as Thatcher believe income inequality does not matter as long as everyone is getting richer A race to the bottom? Global capitalism is based on maximisation of profit meaning it suits the interests of international businesses to seek the lowest costs, creating a ‘race to the bottom’ as states keep regulations as minimal as possible to attract business -​ Chinese companies have low standards of corporate social responsibility and exploit workers; Human Rights Watch accused Chinese mining firms in Africa of human rights abusers -​ Globalisation can be seen to give too much power to MNCs which are undemocratic, unaccountable and driven only by profit undermining the ability of the state to protect its citizens from exploitation; it takes power away from the people and gives it to MNC directors -​ Economic globalisation has been called a form of violence against the poor through exploitation of cheap labour as well as weakening industrial rights, global capitalism allows human rights abuses to be ignored if they interfere with the demands of the market -​ E.g. A coalition of over 180 HR groups have accused China of putting Uighur Muslims in Xingjian in forced labour camps to manufacture cotton; but because China is the world’s biggest supplier of cotton global companies continue to source it making it difficult to identify where it has come from Democratic deficit Economic globalisation gives too much power to IGOs such as IMF, World Bank and WTO which lack in democratic accountability; these agencies often damage the interests of the poorest and there are no democratic means of opposing them -​ E.g. IMF and World Bank structural adjustment programmes often involve cuts in public spending which impact the poorest the most; austerity measures were imposed in Greece by the IMF in 2010 in order to resolve its debt crisis but instead created popular unrest -​ Critics claim WTO agreements are made without reference to workers’ rights which undermines labour unions and rights of workers Destruction of local cultures and the environment MNCs success in reducing labour costs and prices can lead to destruction of local industries such as rice in Ghana as opening up local markets to global competition can have a significant social cost; sudden global challenges can lead to the breakdown of communities and disruption of vulnerable economies which can encourage crime as hierarchical structures lose authority  -​ Materialism undermines cultual observances as factories spread though the developing world breaking up families as young people move to cities to work; in China suicides among lonely workers at Foxconn factories demonstrates devastating consequences -​ MNCs also abuse the environment and show little responsibility to indigenous cultures; e.g. UN estimated in 2011 it would take at least 30 years for pollution caused by Shell in the Niger Delta to be cleaned up -​ Economic globalisation encourages a ‘throw away’ global consumer culture which has a bad impact on sustainability as in 2020 it was estimated every year 12.7 million tonnes of plastic waste enter the sea Lack of job security Global capitalism seeks the cheapest workforce which can undermine long term job security -​ E.g. Chinese firms are increasingly moving operations to Africa and Vietnam -​ E.g. in the 2016 US election both Sanders and Trump generated vocal support among blue-collar workers who felt they were losing their jobs to China and Mexico, Trump said global competition was creating carnage in the US as factories shut and left -​ Anti-globalisation resentment is likely to have encourage extreme nationalistic attitudes towards the EU during UK’s second referendum; especially among the working class there was a conviction that Brexit would stop the flows of goods, capital and labour threatening job security DEBATE: DOES ECONOMIC GLOBALISATION RESOLVE THE ISSUE OF GLOBAL POVERTY? (p48) YES NO -​ Developing countries attract investment by -​ Creates a ‘race to the bottom’ as engaging in free trade allowing them to governments reduce costs by limiting break out of subsistence agriculture workers rights -​ Nation-states use comparative advantage -​ Proletarianisation leads to disintegration of creating opportunities for expansion communities with a rise in crime -​ Developing countries are incentivised to -​ Job security is threatened as businesses provide better trained and educated move production to take advantage of lowest workforce to attract investment cost production environments -​ Global capital flows encourage the rise of a -​ Social harmony undermined as income gap job creating class between the rich and poor increases both -​ Globalisation reduces cost of global imports within and between countries allowing world's poorest to purchase -​ Core states dump cheap products on consumer goods more cheaply developing states so they keep producing -​ Internet facilitates global investment and raw materials ensuring they remain in a spread of knowledge to form a commercial state of neocolonial dependency which global environment traps them in low levels of development -​ MNCs outsource employment to countries -​ Global capitalism is volatile encouraging with lowest labour costs creating crises, this instability threatens stable diversification in developing countries socioeconomic progress in states  -​ Dramatic decrease in levels of global poverty since developing countries engage in globalisation -​ Greater convergence between GDP of the Global North and South -​ MDGs have been largely successful due to effect of economic globalisation CASE STUDY: THE DELL THEORY OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION OR THE THUCYDIDES TRAP? (p49) During the C19th liberal economists and politicians were keen to point out the connection between free trade and peace -​ British liberals such as John Bright, Richard Cobden and William Gladstone viewed free trade as a moral imperative as it protected peace; Thomas Friedam argued that economic globalisation encourages global prosperity and reduces risk of conflict between nation-states due to a complex web of economic interconnectedness that makes it irrational for any states in the same supply chain to go to war -​ The theory does not take into account the way in which economic globalisation has made China so powerful that it is challenging the US’s hegemony; Graham Allison coined the term Thucydides Trap to denote a situation in which an existing hegemony will fight to maintain dominance against an aspiring hegemon HUMAN RIGHTS (p49) Respect of law provides the basis for liberal democracy, this is a prerequisite for adherence to a global standard of human rights The state as a source of civil liberties (p49) Realists support the idea of non-interventionism meaning the cultural heritage of nation-states influences the rights of citizens as they believe it is the sole right of nation communities to decide these rights; this ensures global stability as states are moral arbiters as well as ensuring diversity of cultural traditions, outsider powers cannot destabilise sovereignty Rise of international human rights-based law (p50) Liberals claim human rights are universal and there is a global community with certain human rights we all possess; in 1948 UN issued the Universal Declaration of Human Rights establishing certain human freedoms all can enjoy as well as recognising ‘inherent dignity’ and ‘equal and inalienable rights’ to set out the core civil, political, socal and religion rights all should enjoy -​ UDHR is not international law as states are not bound to it but possesses great persuasive power and accountability by which the international community can judge rights e.g. Human Rights Watch uses UDHR -​ In the 1950 ECHR communicated that all European citizens may claim rights by virtue of their humanity and established the ECtHR with all 47 member states are signatory to -​ ECHR established a powerful standard if human rights that has impacted European domestic law, the ECtHR’s ruling are binding but not enforceable and states have had  to change domestic laws to conform e.g. 1982 Northern Ireland’s law altered to decriminalise male homosexual sex or UK recognising rights of gay people to serve in UK military 1999 -​ ECHR judgements have also encouraged the rule of law in countries e.g. 2005 Bulgaria had to change law to limit circumstances when detention without charge is allowed, 2007 Poland enacted legislation to better protect the freedom to protest, 2020 Turkey had to release Damirtas who they had imprisoned after a failed military coup, 2021 investigated claims on Polish government putting too much pressure on judiciary The New World Order (51) The end of the Cold War provided impetus for the development of a universal standard of human rights with dramatic steps being taken to resolve other conflicts e.g. Northern Ireland, Palestine and South Africa -​ Optimism was enforced in 1993 when UN General Assembly voted to establish a UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, globally influential political figures such as Bill Clinton and Tony Blair began to focus on human rights as an important issue Instant news (p51) Internet’s globalisation of information means human rights abuses are instantly publicised, global pressure groups such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International further raise their profile -​ UN’s failure to intervene during Rwandan genocide 1991-5 heightened the sense that a global community must do much more to protect human rights UN war crimes tribunals and ICC (p51) In 1990s several international courts were established to try war crimes, in 1993 UNSC established International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia to deal with war crimes during the Balkan conflict, more investigated human rights abuses in Cambodia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone -​ In 2002 the ICC was established as a permanent body to try war crimes/crimes against humanity in order to influence human rights-based law through a global consensus that the court could challenge principles of state sovereignty -​ By 2021, 123 nation-states had ratified the Roma statute to recognise the authority of the ICC; in its first 18 years the ICC made 8 convictions and 4 acquittals How has international law failed to advance human rights? (p52) Rival claim of state sovereignty undermines the scope of international human rights justice, the UDHR only amounts to soft persuasive power and the ECtHR and ICC rely on cooperation of nation-states; too often states pursue their own best interests in confidence they will not be punished ICC (p52) Unwillingness of nation-states to accept ICC’s jurisdiction undermines authority:  -​ China, Russia and US refuse to accept the ICC’s jurisdiction; India is also an increasingly influential power -​ In 2014 ICC withdrew indictment of President Uhuru Kenyatta of Kenya for inciting ethnic violence due to Kenyan government’s failure to cooperate -​ In 2016 Russia withdrew from the Rome Statute when the ICC claimed it illegally annexed Crimea -​ In 2019 Philippines withdrew from ICC in response to investigation into whether the government had committed large-scale human rights abuses in its campaign against drugs ECtHR (p52) Influence of ECtHR is limited because member states may ‘derogate’ from the ECHR during national emergencies, according to Article 15 in such circumstances member governments may suspend their obligation to the ECHR e.g. UK government in 1975 claiming republicans arrested during Operation Demetrius in NI could not appeal their arrest due to it being a public emergency -​ E.g. Russia 2015 asserted primary domestic law over jurisdiction of the ECHR -​ E.g. UK 2020 criticised by the Council of Europe for failing to comply with the ECHR judgements it should reopen cases involved potentially illegal killings by NI -​ ECtHR is highly critical of Turkey’s suppression of civil liberties and in 2020 demanded the release of businessman Osman Kavala who had been held in custody without trial since 2017, Turkey refused to comply Problems that ECtHR and ICC face demonstrate continued importance of the state as the arbiter of human rights, increased assertiveness of leaders such as Putin suggests centrality of the state is likely to continue to show limitation of the international courts but also importance is putting forward the case for human rights as liberal internationalism becomes more vulnerable DEBATE: HAS THE ADVANCE OF GLOBALISATION ENCOURAGED GLOBAL HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION? YES NO -​ Due to globalisation there is greater -​ Nation-states frequently ignore interconnectivity making human rights international criticism of alleged human abuses more difficult to cover up rights abuses -​ Internet provides immediate evidence of -​ Globalisation leads to the balance of global human rights abuses providing an opportunity power shifting away from Western powers for immediate global condemnation so they are less likely to take a lead in -​ New institutions of political globalisation such encouraging global protection as ICC provide a global standard of human -​ Led to the emergence of China as a global rights protection force, it is not a good influence given it’s poor -​ Human rights NGOs such as Human Rights record on human rights Watch and mass movements like Black -​ Economic globalisation can lead to the  Lives Matter provide instantly accessible exploitation of workers which undermines records of human rights abuses human rights CONFLICT (p53) How has the international community attempted to resolve conflict? (p53) Post-Cold War idealism Since Cold War a rise of human rights-based international law has led to humanitarian interventions in order to protect people from war crimes, ethnic cleaning or crimes against humanity including: Iraq 1991, Somalia 1992, Bosnia 1995, Kosovo 1999, Sierra Leone 2020, East Timor 2000, Libya 2011 Following the First Gulf War, in 1991 the UN Resolution 688 condemned Saddam Hussein’s retribution against Shia and Kurdish rebels leading to France, UK and US establishing ‘no-fly zones’ within Iraqi airspace to protect opponents -​ President Bush sent US troops into Somalia in 1992, in 1995 NATO intervened against Bosnian Serbs during the Bosnian Civil War, in 1999 NATO bombed Serbia in order to stop the ‘ethnic cleansing’ Serb forces were carrying out in Kosovo; during this Blair defined principles of this new internationalism saying mass murder could not be ‘a purely internal matter’ -​ Other humanitarian interventions were made in 1999 by the UN to keep peace in East Timor when it became independent from Indonesia, in 2000 UK forces intervened in Sierra Leone to stop civil war -​ In 2005 the UN’s World Summit committed member states to the R2P declaring sovereignty conditional upon a nation-state protecting its citizens -​ In 2001 NATO intervened in the Libyan civil war to fulfil the UN Resolution 1973 to protect civilians How has the international community failed to resolve conflicts? (p55) Decline of humanitarian interventionism After the Cold War states increasingly embraced common values based on a global community working together to resolve problems jointly faced, UK Foreign Sec Douglas Hurd said ‘no more enemies - just new friends to be made’ and liberal idealists such as Blair and the dominance of Western power meant an effort was being made for good; the Westphalian principles of state sovereignty would no longer be used to execute mass murder within states -​ Liberals hoped that increased exchanged between states would establish the UN as an arbiter of peace and war and there would be a global respect for human rights, but there were signs that the influence of states was still paramount -​ When the Yugoslav Federation broke up in 1991 the Balkans plunged into civil war and the UN and EU were paralysed by indecision hesitantly intervening; in Chechnya Russian forces quelled independence at the cost of 160,000 lives and in Rwanda 800,000 Tutsis were killed during the 1994 genocide  -​ In all these cases the global community failed to confront mass killings within states that were outside of the jurisdiction of any other body Failings of intervention -​ In 2003 US and UK invaded Iraq without UN’s explicit endorsement resulting in a humanitarian disaster with an estimated 500,000 killed, together with a rise of militant Islamism and destabilisation of the region challenged justification and effectiveness of interventionism -​ Limits illustrated by failure in Afghanistan after 20 years of ‘nation-building’ by Western powers the Taliban swept into Kabul in August 2021 to re-establish control of the country -​ NATO’s intervention in Libya left the country in a state of anarchy These failures undermine humanitarian interventionism and conflicting strategic interest and declining trust between China, Russia and US discourage Western powers from a human rights-based agenda; even though civil war in Syria led to humanitarian disaster Western powers have been wary of fully committing to overthrowing the Assad government -​ Russia and Iran sense a Western lack of resolve so militarily intervened in support of Assad suggesting great power realism may be an important factor -​ Interventionism may not be over, Trump bombed Syria twice when it killed civilians with chemical weapons and Bidens Sec of State acknowledged more should have been done -​ Memories of intervention in Somalia, Iraq, Afghanistan and Libya weaken impetus for humanitarian intervention and economic impact of COVID makes large-scale ones unattractive -​ Shifting balance of power to Russia and China make it more risky for Western powers to intervene in nation-states due to fear of consequences, it is unlikely UN Responsibility to Protect will be fulfilled CASE STUDY: RESPONDING TO EVIL, SYRIAN CHEMICAL WEAPONS (p56) Use of chemical weapons is forbidden by international law but Syria has large stockpiles, in 2013 Assad regime struck Ghouta (rebel-held suburb) with chemical weapons killing many civilians and children; the most lethal use of chemical weapons since Iran/Iraq War 1980-88 -​ Obama announced it would be a ‘red line’ for the US but he decided not to launch military strikes, Camerson failed to persuade Parliament to support military action, Obama was uncertain of support and didn’t want to be dragged into conflict so used diplomatic means instead -​ In 2017 there was another chemical attack on Khan Shaykhun and in 2018 on Douma killing many civilians, Trump refused to become involved but on both occasions launch missiles (first unilaterally, second with France and UK) CASE STUDY: THE ROHINGYA MUSLIMS AND MYANMAR (p57) Rohingya Muslims are denied citizenship in predominantly Buddhist Myanmar, according to UN the government shows ‘genocidal intent’ towards Rohingya and in 2017 launched military campaign forcing  700,000 to flee the country into Bangladesh; in 2020 ICJ rules Myanmar must protect remaining Rohingya Muslims from genocide -​ According to leader Aung San Suu Kyi the international community had no justification for intervening -​ Myanmar has very strong economic, ethnic and diplomatic links with China and is a member of Belt and Road so just a week before ICJ’s judgement Chinese President Xi JinPing made first visit to Myanmar since 2001 where he signed a memorandum ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (p57) Economic globalisation has lifted many out of poverty but large-scale industrialisation has dramatically increased carbon emissions, people are living longer and mortality rates are being cut because of better standards of living meaning there has been an unprecedented increase in the global population to 8 billion in 2022; this contributes to carbon emissions suggesting success of economic globalisation challenging poverty is creating problems for the future of humanity Collective dilemma (p57) Challenge of ‘man-made’ climate change provides an example of a ‘collective security dilemma’ as states must cooperate for lower carbon emissions and protecting the environment, the way in which UN’s IPCC have worked together to highlight dangerous of rise in global temp show importance of IGOs suggesting political globalisation can play a powerful role in addressing environmental problems -​ IPCC has focused global attention on risks of climate change but nation-states are still key players in responding, e.g. Paris Agreement nation-states decided their INDCs to carbon reduction -​ The UN possesses no coercive power if states fail to reduce carbon emissions, Trump administration withdrew from Paris Agreement due to it costing US $3 trillion and 6.5 million jobs demonstrating collective dilemmas as states are depended upon agreeing to work together for the common good, several other countries such as Russia and Australia have fallen short of cuts in carbon A GLOBAL MONOCULTURE (p58) Cultural homogenisation (p58) The spread of a global customer culture based on common adulation of products and brands has undermined national boundaries in determining the culture of a nation-state resulting in cultural homogenisation and a global monoculture as cultural differences disappear through conformity to social norms ‘McWorld’ (p58) Cultural globalisation is associated with consumerism and global dominance of certain brands, referred to as ‘commodity fetishism’ by Naomi Klein as we become obsessed with materialism so much that it undermines unique culture. Top 5 most recognisable brands in 2020 were Apple, Google, Amazon, Microsoft and Coca-Cola showing the cultural outreach of American companies; another example is that the most popular UK tourism attraction for Chinese tourists is now Bicester Village -​ In 2020 the biggest restaurant chain in the world was Subway at almost 43,000 outlets -​ In 2020 there were almost 40,000 McDonalds in the world employing over 200,000 people -​ Biggest restaurant in China is KFC then McDonalds and then Burger King -​ In India dominant fast food restaurant is McDonalds and Starbucks -​ Hollywood has made 50 of the most profitable films of all time and the best selling album of all time is Micheal Jackson’s ‘Thriller’ -​ In 2020 Netflix became the biggest entertainment company in the world streaming to almost every country Critics say global domination of certain brands and a desire to emulate US standards has led to the dilution of distinct cultures to be replaced by a bland, shallow global culture representing nothing of permanent value A global marketplace (p59) There is a rich global diversity of opportunity rather than a one size fits all experience, instead of a monoculture globalisation could create a more globally diverse culture as people all over the world have a global array of choices -​ The Harry Potter books and films won a global audience for a British Story as well as British icon Peppa Pig -​ Netflix does not only stream American films, one of the most popular is British The Crown -​ In 2020 South Korean film Parasite was the first foreign language film to win the best picture Oscar -​ In 2021 South Korean show Squid Game became Netflix’s biggest debut ever -​ K-Pop has become a global craze with BTS one of the most popular bands in the world in 2020 -​ One of the fastest growing restaurant chains in the world is Nando’s, a South African company with a Portuguese/Mozambique influence -​ Wagamama and Yo Sushi also offer Japanese/Asian dining experience This is a richer and more varied cultural experience than ever before Glocalisation (p60) Enables local communities to mould global brands to their own culture demonstrating more subtle globalisation -​ E.g. McDonalds serves lobster burgers in Canada and vegetarian burgers to the Hindu market in India -​ E.g. in China, Starbucks prioritise popular drinks such as the matcha latte DEBATE: IS GLOBALISATION ANOTHER NAME FOR AMERICANISATION? (p60)  YES NO -​ US dominates cultural outreach e.g. -​ Internet provided new opportunities to festivals such as Halloween challenge challenge US by creating a level playing national festivals such as Bonfire Night field for the US to compete on -​ Biggest box office successes have all been -​ Most watched YouTube films are not American including Endgame 2019, Avatar American, in 2021 South Korea’s Baby 2009 and Titanic 1997 Shark Dance had the highest number of -​ In 2020, 9/10 restaurants with biggest views at 9.3 billion global revenue were all American including -​ Most popular global sport is football and Starbucks, McDonalds and Subway then cricket -​ Fortune’s ten most admired companies in -​ British ‘values’ have a global appeal the world in 2020 were US-led including through worldwide popularity of shows such Apple, Amazon, Microsoft, Disney etc. as Downton Abbey, The Crown and Harry -​ American websites are the most visited in Potter the world led by YouTube, Facebook, -​ US came first in global soft power in 2016 Wikepeia, Twitter and Amazon and 2020, it’s dominance is challenged by -​ According to Coca-Cola every day in 200 France in first place in 2019 and 2017 as well countries 1.9 billion of its products are as the UK drunk -​ Rival news channels such as BBC, RT and -​ The US is the dominant global economy Al Jazeera challenge CNN representing a quarter of global GDP in -​ Carnage arose from Iraq 2003 to undermine 2020, free trade is rooted in the Washington US global influence Consensus -​ ‘America First’ policies of Trump and -​ US principles of liberal democracy were handling of COVID reduce positive hugely influential leading up to the collapse perceptions of the US of communist power in Russia and eastern -​ In 2000, 93% of British citizens had a Europe favourable view of the US, by 2020 it was -​ US global troop deployments are only 41%; in Germany decline fell from 78% unparalleled and extending further, a total of to 26% 180,000 US troops are stationed around -​ China’s Belt and Road enables China to the world including 54,000 in Japan, 34,000 play a dominant role in global trade and in Germany, 26,000 in Korea and 4000 in AIIB challenges World Bank Bahrain Limits of materialism (p61) Can reinforce ethnic and national identities to undermine global cosmopolitanism, rather than bridging the world closer it stirs up resentment against the vapid consumerism the culture represents -​ In 1964 Herbert Marcuse warned an obsession with materialism diminished out humanity, now consumerism and gratification of social media create a cultural void based on unfulfilling greed and narcissism -​ Can make people feel they have declining influence over decisions affecting their lives, Tony Benn in 2001 noted people feel they have no control over globalisation, this encourages an insular outlook to create alienation and distrust of perceived outsiders Rise of identity politics (p62) Uncertainties of globalisation explain popularity of political movements and leaders emphasising unique, distinctive qualities of culture and promising to safeguard it -​ In Hungary, Viktor Orban generated huge appeal by emphasising Chritian heritage as a frontier resisting Muslim advance -​ In France, Marine Le Pen and the National Rally claim to represent France’s unique cultural identity -​ In the UK 2016 vote to leave EU and Johnson’s victory in 2019 suggested many voters saw European integration as a threat to traditional ways of life -​ In the US, Trump’s popularity came from ‘America first’ policies and claims to protect America’s heritage -​ The Turkish President appeals to Turkey’s Islamic culture as in 2020 he turned Istanbul's Hagia Sophia from a museum into a mosque A clash of civilisations? (p62) ‘The Clash of Civilizations’, Samuel Huntington 1996 acknowledges the paradox that the popularity of Western-influenced consumer goods can create a negative reaction rather than a monoculture as cultures are threatened and must reassert their own values; in this way cultures are adapting to American ideas e.g. Americans consumed millions of Japanese cars, TVs, cameras etc. in 1970s and 80s but did not become ‘Japanized’ instead more antagonistic towards Japan Civilisations seek to protect their cultures, traditions and identity through characterising their values as different from/superior to Western ones -​ In 2021 gay sex was still illegal in 69 countries and punishable by death in 11, when Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni criminalised gay sex he warned Western powers to respect African values -​ In Russia there was a resurgence of national identity during Putin years associated with Slavic pride and conservatism of the Orthodox Church. In 2020 Russians voted 78-22 for a new constitution restricting marriage to man and woman to protect Christian values stating the sovereignty of Russia was supported by respect from history, culture, language and traditions -​ In China the government imposed authoritarian forms of government on Hong Kong, in 2020 president Xi Jingping pledged that the ‘banner of socialism with Chinese characteristics is now flying high and proud for all to see’ Therefore the cultural backlash of Americanisation cannot be underestimated, Western values too may be seen as a threat to Islam increasing risk of cultural conflict between Western and Islamic civilisations. Critics say this is unhelpful in its generalisation of Islam and risk of conflict is overstated; others argue the nature of Islam makes it difficult to accommodate Western values. There is evidence of a clash between Islam and the West: -​ Some political leaders of Islamic countries have been critical of liberal values e.g. Turkey’s president Ergogan criticism feminism as well as LGBT rights, the return of the Taliban to power in Afghanistan has raised concerns about Afghan women’s rights  -​ Powerful militant Islamic groups have gained power and pitched themselves against Western policy and cultural ideas e.f. al-Qaeda on 9/11 attacks, ISIL which has carried out numerous atrocities in pursuit of an Islamic state and Boko Haram carrying out terrorist actions in West Africa Evidence of no clash: -​ Many powerful Muslim civil society activists and human rights advocates campaign for women’s and LGBT rights e.g. Pakistan’s Malala won Nobel Peace Prize after campaigning for access to education for women and girls, pressure group Musawah launched in 2020 campaigning for women’s rights within Muslim tradition -​ Some Muslim states are authoritarian but some are democratic, since 1998 Indonesia has transition to more democratic, Tunisia and Senegal are democracies -​ Socially conservative values are found all over the world, Russia has become increasingly antagonistic towards LGBT rights and in US some Republicans are opposed to LGBT rights and seek to reduce women's rights to abortion -​ Edward Said states there are so many different traditions within Islam it is misleading to generalise about faith and principles of almost 2 billion Muslims, minority groups do not represent Islam LIBERAL AND REALIST APPROACHES TO GLOBALISATION (p64) Liberals and globalisation (p64) Emphasise global cooperation, see globalisation as a way of encouraging greater connectivity between states and people and creating trust and understanding; Dell Theory of Conflict Resolution states global trade binds countries in supply chains to prevent conflict and political globalisation also develops cooperation between states and non-state actors over issues such as climate change -​ Advance of regionalism challenges the nation-state so reduced risk of nationalist rivalries and ethnic resentment, a more globalisation world is safer as states are less motivated by power maximisation and instead seek to solve the security dilemma -​ Liberals see globalisation embracing common humanity as the way to safeguard the future of the planet Realists and globalisation (p64) Sceptical about extent to which globalisation can challenge primacy of the state in global relations, the nation-state should act in the interests of its citizens in an anarchic world so attempts to constrain states and pool sovereignty are dangerous and undermine the rights of the state -​ Doubt the success of liberal cooperation and are wary of attempts to develop universal human rights, dismiss attempts to create regional integration (e.g. EU) -​ Humanitarian intervention may be guided by best intentions but can cause more harm than good -​ Argue states should advance the interests of own citizens in global trade so are less ideologically committed to free trade than liberals e.g. Trump administration's perusal of protectionist trade policies TO WHAT EXTENT HAS GLOBALISATION TRANSFORMED THE WORLD? (p65) Hyper-globalisers (p65) Argue globalisation is a revolutionary shift in structures of global power which will make the nation-state obsolete; economic integration, global communication, capital flows, MNCs and non-state actors challenge the state -​ Modern life is connected through trade and capital so nation-state must now work within economic parameters established through globalisation, there is an increasingly borderless world where state borders are more permeable than ever before -​ In the post-sovereign state world global trends dilute unique states, the result will be greater global governance and maybe a world government -​ Philip Bobbitt referred to the state being ‘hollowed out’ by globalisation as territorial integrity and authorities importance is challenged Globalisation sceptics (p65) Question the extent to which globalisation is new and whether it has challenged the authority of the state, point out that there has been globalisation before e.g. between 1870-1914 advances in telegraphic communication as well as size and speed of ships saw Britain's commitment as a global hegemon advancing, global trade soared yet rival nationalisms provoked outbreak of WW1 -​ Modern day globalisation also failed to create a global community, collapse of Doha Round of WTO negotiations show the sovereignty of nations in developing countries are not prepared to accept they should open up their markets, limited effectiveness of ICJ and ICC confirms significance of the nation-state -​ UK negotiating departure from EU in 2020 is an example of nation-states state-centric approach Transformationalists (p66) Acknowledge globalisation has had a deep impact on state sovereignty and emphasise totality of globalisation; economic, political and cultural developments are so profound states must engage with new rules in an interconnected world; stakeholders such as MNCs, IGOs and NGOs challenge state sovereignty -​ Do not agree it signals the decline of the state but the state must adapt, membership of regional bodies and influence of World Bank, IMF and WTO challenge the state but they still negotiate best deal e.g. when nation-states embark on regionalism it is so they can use globalisation to their advantage to pool influence on the world stage -​ Sovereignty is enhanced by globalisation as states are more assertive e.g. pressure on Hong Kong and Taiwan; the internet creates global marketplace of ideas to be used to advantage e.g. intense Russian nationalism of RT -​ COVID began in 2020 shows greater connectivity, but government reactions closing borders and unprecedented peacetime control demonstrates ongoing importance of nation-state HOW HAS GLOBALISATION CHALLENGED THE NATION-STATE? (p67) Economic globalisation (p67) In an economically connected world states cannot insulate from global financial crisis e.g. 2008 collapse of Lehman Brothers; influence of MNCs (Apple, Google, Microsoft etc.) means states must shape policy to attract investment -​ E.g. in 2003 Luiz de Silva’s Brazilian government abandoned many socialist commitments to stop MNCs withdrawing funds -​ Nation’s policymakers are concerned with forming favourable conditions for FDI which reduces freedom -​ Glocal consensus in favour of guiding principles of economic liberalism restricts government freedom as they must adopt policies and sometimes reduce workers’ rights Intergovernmentalism (p67) Interest of nation-states are bound with IGOs (IMF, World Bank, WTO etc.) and they must accept the authority of these bodies even if against national interest; IMF and World Bank impose conditions on recipient states they must accept -​ UN war crimes tribunals and ICC develop universal standards nation-states are expected to abide by; increasingly IGOs take the lead in collective dilemmas such as climate change Regional organisations (p67) Impacts state sovereignty e.g. EU decisions are legally binding to member states, the ECB sets common interest rate for Eurozone members and Treaty of Lisbon provides a legal identity to negotiate with other states as a bloc such as TTIP, majority of EU members adhere to Schengen Agreement allowing passport-free travel -​ Other regional organisations such as Mercosur, NAFTA and ASEAN also impose free-trade rules to limit sovereignty Internet (p68) Compromises states’ physical borders; access to anti-government websites and organising power of social media contributed to the Arab Spring -​ Also creates new supranational allegiances e.g. radicalisation to challenge national identity -​ Cyber terrorism and warfare challenge state protection as hackers can penetrate to the heart of governments, territorial state borders become irrelevant -​ Trump’s permanent ban from Twitter is an indication of the influence of MNCs on world leaders’ ability to communicate NGOs (p68) Transnational influence facilitated by the internet reaches across borders, global pressure groups such as Human Rights Watch and Greenpeace inform political debate around the world  -​ Celebrities can also play a role in global politics e.g. Thunberg and Attenborough on climate change -​ Global foundations such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Clinton Foundation play huge roles in fighting poverty Challenges from below (p69) People still wish to define themselves according to ethnic and nationalist identities even when these threaten state allegiances e.g. Kosovo’s and East Timor’s independence is justified on the grounds of self-determination while Russian annexation of Crimea 2014 based on nationalist principle that Crimeans view themselves as Russian -​ In 2014 Scotland narrowly voted against independence but is still a powerful challenge to UK -​ Powerful separatism in Catalonia favours independence from Spain, similarly Kurdish and Palestinian demands for recognition of national aspirations impact policy in the middle east HOW IS THE NATION-STATE STILL IMPORTANT? (p69) Limits of liberalism (p69) Nation-state remains key determiner when negotiating with other states, UN is based on ‘sovereign equality’ while five permanent members of UNSC exercise national vetoes on conflict resolution/war; nation-states negotiated the Paris Agreement and meetings of the G7 allow member states the right to fulfil intentions or not -​ In the EU member states can veto key issues including foreign policy, taxation etc. and Article 50 of Treaty of Lisbon provides mechanism for states to reclaim sovereignty -​ Trump administration approached international relations with an ‘America First’ standpoint, withdrawal from Paris Agreement and trade deals with WTO illustrate how a state can pursue own best interests Policy and the state (p69) State retains power over issues determining life of citizens including fiscal and tax policy e.g. diverse response to COVID demonstrate crucial power; also determines ways in which citizens are educated and cared for in old age -​ State can police the internet e.g. Chinese firewall is highly effective and Russia enacted legislation to ban ‘undesirable’ foreign NGOs operating in the country National borders and security (p70) Terrorist atrocities since 9/11 have made states more determined to protect their borders, US Department for Homeland Security established in 2002 is now the third largest federal employer with 240,000 employees in 2020; the Syrian refugee crisis has called the Schengen Agreement into question as well as COVID emphasising the importance of borders as nation-states enforced them to stop the spread of the virus -​ Governments are able to give themselves unprecedented peacetime powers to limit what citizens can do suggesting the nation-state has great power in determining what happens inside its borders Human rights and civil liberties (p71) After the Cold War liberals hoped for a universalisation of human rights, the US’s commitment provided a soft-power advantage which enabled them to triumph over the Soviet Union so it was anticipated that the US would transform attitudes towards human rights; however, rival religious and political views proved resilient meaning the nature and extent of rights depend more on tradition than universality -​ In 1993 the Bangkok Declaration provided a clear statement of ‘Asian Values’ focusing on social rights and communal values, in most Muslim countries the moral codes of the Qur’an inform them and in Russia the Orthodox Church has increasing decision making power -​ The UDHR is seen as a way of enforcing Western cultural imperialism -​ Nation-states remain main arbiters of human rights e.g. in US death penalty is legal where it is not within the EU International law (p71) When ICC was established China refused to join, the US signed a number of bilateral trade agreements with other countries obliging them not to submit US personnel to ICC’s jurisdiction; nation-states still determine the extent to which they will abide by international standards of human rights and disputes -​ Judgements of ICJ require states to accept them to be enforced e.g. 1992 El Salvador and Honduras agreed to ICJ’s settlement of border dispute; however, Israel constantly ignores the ICJ’s opinion on a wall separating Israel and Palestine; UK also refused to hand back Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius -​ International law is ‘soft’ law e.g. India and Pakistan reneged on obligations to Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons announcing they achieved nuclear defence capacity; in 2014 Organisation for Security and Co-operation declared Crimea referendum illegal but Russia declared result as binding National allegiance (p72) National identities still matter in determining who the individual is, Putin has reasserted Russia’s sense of unique destiny and across Europe populist parties such as the French National Rally and Alternative for Germany challenge pro-European parties -​ In Poland and Hungary nationalist parties have been successful in appealing to tradition; in Scotland, Palestine and Basque Country nationalist movements illustrate the importance of nationhood State egoism (p72) States still act in sovereign self-interest rather than liberal cosmopolitan values, UN did not provide a mandate for the UK and US invasion of Iraq 2003 and they ignored calls for international restraint -​ In 2014 Russia annexed Crimea in defiance of international condemnation that it infringed Ukraine’s sovereignty  -​ Defence spending by China, Russia and the US is dramatically increasing and China increased its military in the South China Sea -​ Main players in the Syrian civil war each have own strategic objectives in the region -​ States are primarily power maximisers and realist principles still play the key role in determining the relationship between states IS GLOBALISATION A NEW PHENOMENON? (p72) A global village (p72) Hyper-globalisers assume our experience of globalisation is unique and some liberal critics even say we are living in a ‘global village’, the internet penetrates everywhere and global capital flows are instantaneous; sovereignty and borders matter less than ever before -​ But the way leaders such as Putin, Jingping, Modi and Erdogan deploy nationalistic rhetoric and policies to win suggests nationalism is becoming more important; this is a cry from history when where one came from was less important than today Pre C21st global imperialism (p72) Earlier periods of history have been considerably more ‘globalised’ than we are today with the first age of globalisation from 1870-1913 when global trade expanded and British imperialism guaranteed the world’s sea lanes, British values had a profound global influence; Gandhi played a key role in ending British rule in India but his autobiography showed how deeply he absorbed in British values -​ C19th was an age of migration with millions trying to start a new life in the US and the British Empire, it was so rapid railways in France abandoned the passport in 1861 -​ In C18th intellectuals crossed borders in surprising ways such as Thomas Jefferson advising on France’s Declaration of the Rights of Man 1789; even earlier the Catholic Church united people across Europe proving an authority to rival the crown; in the Roman period a single language, culture and citizenship bought together people in western Europe and the near east The internet: unity or disunity? (p73) Globalisation of communication challenges power of the state in determining political allegiance and culture preferences of citizens, liberals hope the internet can create a global dialogue -​ E.g. Facebook and Twitter helped provoke the Arab Spring with citizens organising themselves electronically to undermine authority of repressive governments; pressure groups such as Make Poverty History also use the internet to coordinate -​ In 2020 following the murder of George Floyd, BLM became a dominant force making organisations examine how they approach issues connected to racism and equality; there is more awareness on climate change as activists such as Greta Thunberg gain international followings -​ Liberals failed to appreciate there is no reason for states not to use the internet to advantage their own nationalistic views e.g. RT advances nationalism and ridicules Western democracies and Chinese governments advances its nationalist agenda and resists outside influence  -​ Social media can create echo chambers which means posts can generate abuse rather than discussion DEBATE: IS STATE SOVEREIGNTY BECOMING LESS IMPORTANT? (p74) YES NO -​ Global acceptance of free market liberalism -​ Nation-states choose whether to cooperate restricts economic choices for governments with non-state actors, they retain rights of -​ States share power with non-state actors sovereign decision making e.g. decisions of MNCs impact job -​ Although regional organisation and prospects and living conditions of workers international treaties limit freedom, states globally can withdraw their involvement -​ Internet influences citizens and can create -​ It is difficult to enforce international law, new supranational allegiances China rejects criticism of treatment of Uighur -​ Global opinion formers can be private Muslims and Israel continues to construct individuals (Thunberg) or popular settlements in occupied territories movements (BLM) -​ Syrian government's human rights abuses -​ Pooling of sovereignty with organisations have not triggered a response form the such as EU, ASEAN, NAFTA international community due to ‘conditional -​ Collective dilemmas such as climate sovereignty’ change, nuclear proliferation, terrorism and -​ State allegiance still determines loyalty of crime require intergovernmental solutions citizens, it has increased in the face of -​ States accept legal limitations on domestic uncertainties of globalisation direction e.g. ECHR, ICC and ICJ -​ Paris Agreement requires states to fulfil their INDC -​ Way nation-states responses to COVID demonstrates indispensability of the state DEBATE: HAS GLOBALISATION CHANGED THE WORLD? (p75) YES NO -​ Economic globalisation has dramatically -​ Sceptics respond that global increased global trade, lifted millions out interconnectedness is not entirely new, of poverty and created greater potential for first wave occurred 1870-1913 and previous convergence between the Global North periods have experiences similar integration and South (World Bank now says more than -​ UK’s departure from EU and US’s 80% of global population can hope to live to renegotiation of NAFTA demonstrates 60, double global life expectancy 100 nation-states can join regional years ago) organisations to advance national interest -​ China is on course to become biggest -​ Nation-states remain key players in global economy to challenge the US’s hegemony, politics, IGOs require them to work represents a shift of the global balance of together to be successful, success of Paris power eastwards towards emerging Agreement depends on whether powerful economies states chose to engage -​ Pace of regionalism has increased as -​ Global impact of 1929 Wall Street Crash and regions work more closely together to take South Sea Bubble 1720 shows global advantage of new opportunities for trade economy being interconnected is not  -​ Since the world is so economically and unique financially interconnected no state can avoid -​ Realist self interest determines state being impacted by global crises such as policy e.g. Russia’s annexation of Crimea collapse of Lehman Brothers 2008 or COVID and China’s restriction of self-government in -​ The internet interlinks economies all over the Hong Kong world, national borders are porous as -​ Cultural globalisation reinforces nationalist, goods and capital flow freely and MNCs ethnic and religious identities as a increasingly determine employment reaction against homogenisation and opportunities and labour rights materialism -​ Personal laptops allow anyone to be an -​ Extent of one’s human rights is determined entrepreneur, anybody has limitless within states and cultures, universalisation opportunities for business success is undermined by allegiance to other value -​ There are few truly national products sets remaining as MNCs such as Adidas and -​ Terrorist threats, migration and COVID have Nike manufacture and sell across the world led to reassertion of nation control over -​ Cultural globalisation has homogenised borders world culture to create a global enthusiasm for the same brands, products and trends -​ Nation-states work more closely in IGOs to resolve collective dilemmas and UN R2P has encouraged a universal standard for human rights -​ NGOs such as BLM and global activities such as Thunberg and Nakate add another layer to global decision making challenging exclusivity of nation-states -​ Internet facilitates spread of alternative allegiances undermining national cohesion Regionalism and the European Union Notes INTRODUCTION (p228) On 31st January 2020 at 11pm the UK became the first and only country to leave the EU after a 47 year membership, in 2016 they voted to Leave 52-48% -​ Cameron who had supported Remain resigned and was replaced by May who triggered Article 50 in March 2017 to start the process of leaving -​ May was responsible for negotiating the Chequers agreement resulting in Brexit but resigned in 2019 after failing to have the withdrawal agreement approved by Parliament, Johnson became PM as a key figure in the Leave campaign -​ In January 2020 UK officially left and entered a transition period negotiating new relationships, in January 2021 the UK officially withdrew from everything with a new trade deal The EU is agreed to be the most advanced example of regionalism due to levels of integration and expanding membership (now 27 European countries, IGOs and supranational institutions) aiding it in promoting cooperation  -​ UK’s decision to leave was the first of its kind, Leave campaign argued that membership of a regional organisation resulted in loss of power and sovereignty so it should take back control whilst Remain argues for globalisation and interconnectedness giving the UK influence and access to free trade GROWTH OF REGIONALISM (p289) EU is a regional bloc that focuses on economic and political union with member states so integrated it can be seen as an example of federalism -​ In a federal system power is shared between central authority above nation-state level and state-level authority in contrast to devolution which is less permanent and the state has the power -​ There are two levels of government in a federal system and both can make laws, EU has regional laws as well as national laws so nation-states have a degree of autonomy -​ Regionalism grew in the late C20th as states look for means of international global governance e.g. UN, USMCA and ASEAN which impacts world order and reshapes international stage Regional organisations give states smaller, more focused means of working together on an international level REGIONALISM AND POWER (p290) Key consideration is the amount of power organisations have over member states, this is usually decided in treaties which set out rules and legal basis e.g. Treaty of Lisbon set out Article 50 as legal process for member state to leave the EU DATE ORGANISATION PURPOSE 1945 Arab League -​ Set up initially with 6 countries but now has 22 members -​ Aims to promote economic growth and trade as well as maintaining sovereignty and encouraging political stability 1950 Council of Europe -​ Mechanism for human rights to be agreed and protected as and ECHR well as enforced by ECtHR -​ ECHR and ECtHR founded as part of Council of Europe now with 47 members (is separate from the EU) 1951 Treaty of Paris and -​ Common market for coal and steel between 6 countries ECSC -​ Robert Schumann said it would ‘make war not only unthinkable but materially impossible’ 1957 Treaty of Rome and -​ 6 members of ECSC signed treaty to form EEC committing to EEC making an even closer union among Europe -​ Formed EC, ECJ, European Parliament and Council of Ministers  1963 Organisation of -​ First attempt at regional governance in Africa African Unity (OAU) -​ Founded as former colonies gained independence designed to strengthen and defend sovereignty 1967 Association of -​ Aimed to enhance economic cooperation in the region Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 1973 Caribbean -​ Now has 15 members with main aim to promote economic Community cooperation and integration (CARICOM) -​ Also coordinate foreign policy 1985 South Asian -​ 8 members and promotes regional integration and Association for economic development Regional Cooperation -​ In 2006 formed South Asian Free Trade Area (SAARC) -​ UN Observer and various links including EU 1993 Maastricht Treaty and -​ Began process for a single European currency the EU -​ Euro came into circulation in 2002 with 13 member states 2001 African Union (AU) -​ African states to cooperate on security and development -​ Has sent peacekeepers into Somalia and threatened withdrawal from ICC 2009 Treaty of Lisbon -​ Created new EU constitution to make decisions easier after biggest enlargement with 10 new members in 2005 -​ Created position of President of European Council and High Representative for Foreign Affairs to strengthen EU’s independent voice on world stage 2015 Eurasian Economic -​ Formed own Single Market and Customs Union Union 2016 Brexit -​ UK voted to leave EU and triggered Article 50 in 2017 2018 United -​ Free trade agreement to replace NAFTA which eliminates States-Mexico-Canad tariff and non-tariff barriers to North American trade a Agreement -​ USMCA changes intellectual prosperity, digital trade, (USMCA) environmental and working regulations, incentives for US car manufacturing and greater access to Canada’s dairy market 2020 Brexit Withdrawal -​ UK officially leaves EU in January 2020 entering transition Agreement period before leaving Customs Union in January 2021 There are two ways that power and decision making work in regional organisations: 1.​ Intergovernmentalism: member states make all of decisions, they are not delegated and no institution can force states to do anything meaning states retain control and impact on sovereignty is lessened; can be said to be more democratic  2.​ Supranationalism: regional organisation makes all decisions and imposes them on member states, often criticised as resulting in states giving up too much power and could be undemocratic REGIONALISM (p297) The idea that nation-states in a geographically defined area are united by common goals, incentives, interests and aims; these areas can be referred to as regional blocs -​ Regionalism has existed since WW2 and has intensified in recent years similar to globalisation -​ The Cold War was a time of bipolarity as the world was divided into two halves around capitalism and communism meaning the two alliances formed with the US and western Europe against the Soviet Union -​ With the increase of social, political, culture and economic interconnectedness it becomes more important for states in a multipolar world to form alliances and agreements ECONOMIC REGIONALISM POLITICAL REGIONALISM SECURITY REGIONALISM -​ Focus on economic -​ Longer-term strategic -​ Focus on defence and progress, free trade and aims security against shared removing barriers -​ Focus on resolving threats -​ Must have challenges and -​ Often shared political ties interdependent maximising opportunities -​ Territorial borders are economies and economic -​ Relies on shared values to important and states have interests some extent so requires a common interest in -​ Does not need a common cultural similarities protecting this area cultural interest -​ More inward looking -​ May impact sovereignty -​ Does not need long-term acting in regions self due to emphasis of a strategic aims interest common defence policy -​ More outwards looking -​ Emphasises pooled but this is limited to this including reaching trade sovereignty and deeper area deals as a bloc with other integration forming non-region states greater erosion of -​ Limited erosion of sovereignty sovereignty expect the -​ Enables states to form same a regional currency common positions and which has a considerable achieve greater influence impact on sovereignty Alliances are often appealing is states within a region have shared interests they wish to extend or defend e.g. free trade in the EU; regionalism and globalisation are intertwined but can also work against each other ECONOMIC REGIONALISM (p298) As states have shared economic aims they are incentivised to form a regional bloc often around trade deals e.g. NAFTA, now USMCA agreeing reduction of trade barriers between Canada, Mexico and the US MULTILATERAL REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS (p299) Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership Originally TTP in 2016 as a trade deal between Pacific rim, Obama championed the trade deal but Trump withdrew on 28 January 2017; the remaining countries replaced it with the CPATTP United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (UMSCA) Agreed between Canada, Mexico and the US in 1994 and updated in 2018 African Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Founded in 2018 with trade commencing in 2021 by the African Continental Free Trade Agreement including 54 African nations, the largest free trade area since formation of WTO Often states make mutually beneficial trade agreements to maximise all economies via free trade agreements or reducing restrictions -​ Can also use regional protectionist policies to protect domestic trade like placing limitations on quotas from outside region, by restricting imports populations are encouraged to buy products produced within the region -​ E.g. EU is protectionist over agriculture, the CAP offers farmers subsidies to produce cheaper goods that EU citizens will buy over more expensive non EU products -​ Obama intervened in UK’s Brexit Ref in 2016 stating they would be ‘at the back of the queue’ when negotiating new trade deals with the US, at the time he was agreeing the TTIP between the US and the EU which is now obsolete -​ Remain and Leave differed on interest to negotiate with the US as a regional bloc or seek UK’s own trade deal refined to national economic interest Political regionalism (p300) Focuses on tackling collective action problems facing two or more states within a region, can be a deeper form of integration due to sharing of social ties and common value systems -​ Often there are long term strategic aims to gain advantage from pooling sovereignty due to being more influential collectively -​ Can increase states structural power within international organisations and informal forums EXAMPLES OF REGIONAL POLITICAL ALLIANCES (p300) Arab League Founded in 1945 compromised by 22 member states across middle east and north Africa, does not have own institution but conducts business through Arab League summits agreeing common positions on shared policy areas Alliance of Small Island States (ASIS)  Established in 1990 to give a unified voice to small island states at risk from climate change, allows states to work together in organisation such as UN and major climate conferences to achieve greater influence Regionalism has evolved to a widening and deepening of regional relations seen in expansion of regional blocs e.g. growth of the EU with many countries wanting to join -​ Depending is the idea of greater involvement of states in the regional bloc -​ When integration is deeper states see some of internal sovereignty eroded to be pooled -​ Regionalism has international and supranational aspects, if there are supranational elements we can expect deeper integration and pooled sovereignty Security regionalism (p301) States make alliances to strengthen regional borders involving militaristic alliances or agreements that regional members will react to attacks on one state, this relates to defence policies and alliance may be centred on a common threat -​ EU tries to gain more influence through Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), Lisbon Treaty 2007 agreed more powers to EU to project unified foreign and security policy but in reality NATO remains the most influential security organisation for European states -​ CFSP confirms NATO as principle organisation responsible for territorial defence of Europe CASE STUDY: OPERATION IRINI (p301) Launched in 2020 is an example of EU’s efforts towards security regionalism, run by EU Naval Force under CDSP aims to enforce UN arms embargo to Libya following Libyan civil war to help peace process -​ Using arial, satellite and maritime resources it inspects vessels that may be carrying arms as well as information on smuggling and human trafficking so can help train coast guard and navy -​ IRINI replaced Operation Sophia in 2015 that aimed on preventing human trafficking across the Mediterranean Sometimes security alliances are centred on movement of people as some states consider free movement between regional members to be safe but maintain common policy to restrict immigration from further afield -​ There was discussion within EU throughout so-called migrant crisis exacerbated by discussions over immigration during Brexit -​ Arab League has a principle to protect sovereignty of member states and help promote stability against historical tensions DEVELOPMENT OF REGIONAL ORGANISATIONS (p305) USMCA (p305) Form of economic regionalism, it is a free-trade agreement replacing NAFTA in 2020 following a year of negotiations as Trump made a lot of trade changes (e.g. ceasing Trans-Pacific Partnership) -​ NAFTA was focused on reducing trade barriers on textiles, agriculture and automobiles between the US, Mexico and Canada with the intention of increasing trade, integrating Mexico and promoting manufacturing -​ Economic because it does not seek deeper political regionalism and it is not a fully free-trade area like the EU -​ USMCA maintains many original elements but some updates including agreement to review every 6 years -​ Notable changes include protectionism on automobile exports, changes to steel and aluminium, greater access to Canadian dairy market, Canadians receiving duty-free American goods bought online and 40-45% of all auto content to be made by workers earning at least $16 per hour, there were also more environmental regulations ASEAN (p306) Primarily economic regionalism with aim to promote trade in the region, also has broader social aims such as protecting and improving health as well as limited political element via aim to defend member sovereignty; focuses on promoting economic growth, peace and stability with the aim of becoming a full economic community as well as establishing ARF to resolve conflicts; allows for visa-free travel and shares intelligence; has 6 major members -​ Held first East Asia summit in 2005 including ASEAN countries and China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia and New Zealand -​ Highest decision making body is annual summit of heads of state and government -​ There are also ASEAN ministerial meetings for foreign ministers to coordinate activities and create guidelines -​ Standing committee is chaired by foreign minister of summit host nation, includes secretary general and directors general of ASEAN national secretariats -​ Secretariat general runs activities and implements policies -​ There are many other committees, ministerial bodies and technical groups in the organisation Successes: -​ The South East Asia Nuclear Weapon-free Zone Treaty was signed in 1995 -​ Asian Free Trade Agreement signed in 1992 -​ In 2008 agreement was ratified to deepen economic integration tuning ASEAN into a legal entity -​ Put pressures on Myanmar to adopt reforms Failures: -​ Criticised for all talk, no action as relies on consensus and non-interference which reinforces authoritarian governance in the region  -​ Bali Summit saw members back general democratic principle that is incongruous with member states -​ Lack of action against regime in Myanmar -​ International terrorism has been tackled with a limiting role to mediation and resolution -​ Unsuccessful in regard to the conflict in the South China Sea THE ARAB LEAGUE (p307) Primarily a political and security alliance aiming to encourage cooperation between member states to promote interests and affairs, there is a security element in the aim to protect member sovereignty and promote peace and stability; focus on coordinating policy hoping to unite Arab states and strengthen ties as well as maintaining stability in the region; has 22 members -​ Highest body is the Council with representative from each member states who all have votes -​ Meets twice annually but can convene special sessions -​ Daily running done by General Secretariat headed by Secretary-General -​ Reaches intergovernmental agreements by consensus, no supranational elements Successes: -​ Greater sense of purpose since Arab Spring as backed UN action against Gaddafi in Libya and suspended Syria over repression of protests -​ Agrees over supporting Palestinians (but rarely beyond making declarations) -​ Success at lower levels e.g. school curriculums, protecting manuscripts, creating regional telecommunications union -​ Suspending Libya and Syria as well as UNSC air strikes on Libya Failures: -​ Leadership rivalry -​ Division between traditional monarchies and ‘revolutionary’ states -​ Decisions are only binding for countries voting for them making some parts redundant -​ Limitations to its strength e.g. not able to offer unified response to 1991 Gulf Wars -​ Collective security policy is weakened by internal conflicts in the region AFRICAN UNION (p308) Mainly a form of political regionalism uniting Africa to give nations a bigger voice on the global stage, a backlash against colonial and neo colonial interference so has security elements; developmental goal centred on economic growth as well as peace and security aiming to reduce poverty and improve human rights; also aims to empower Africa by being its own peacekeeper -​ Loosely modelled on the EU -​ Has intergovernmental decision making -​ Has a Pan-African Parliament that debates continent wide issues and advises heads of states  -​ Has a Peace and Security Council -​ Plans include human rights court, central bank and monetary fund as well as economic community with single currency -​ Chairperson post rotates annually and is elected -​ Assembly includes head of state of all member countries and is main decision making body -​ Executive council compromise foreign ministers of member states who advise assembly members -​ Commission is the administrative branch with 10 commissioners, this is where policy is implemented and activities coordinated Successes: -​ Got rid of non-interference policy and set up Peace and Security Council in 2004 allowing the council to intervene in conflicts, peacekeepers have been used in Sudan, Burundi and Somalia -​ Has a New Partnership for African Development as an anti-poverty initiative agreeing with the West to promote good political and economic practice in return for aid and investment -​ Various states have been suspended and only readmitted when returned by constitutional rule -​ Peacekeepers are replacing UN peacekeepers e.g. in Somalia and Darfur, these troops have greater legitimacy Failures: -​ Morocco left after disagreeing on a decision but rejoined in 2017 -​ Predecessor criticised for a lack of action and AU comtimes been said to be ineffective as certain people can be seen as dictators -​ Failure to act earlier over civil war in Libya and lack of backing of a South African sponsored peace plan, lack of pressure on Gaddafi to step down -​ Some plans are too financially ambitious meaning it must look to China which increases its economic presence -​ Lack of cohesion in promoting democratic principles when many members are not democratic -​ Threatened to pull out of ICC in 2017 which could have affected international image -​ Failed to control Ethiopian forces in internal conflict in 2020 REGIONAL BLOCS (p310) Regional organisations outside EU do not have scope or level of European integration; while they are still developing and integration deepening, it is unlikely they will ever come to rival the EU model DEBATE: DO RIVAL BLOCS CHALLENGE THE EU? (p310) YES NO  -​ EU has gradually expanded and developed -​ EU has a unique role in promoting cultural since ECSC in 1951, the rise of ‘new values and ideals, has a clear identity in regionalism’ did not appear until 1990s promoting democracy, peace and security suggesting it is still early days for other that i