Analysis of Muslim Sects of the Past - PDF

Few Muslims Sects (Group) of the Past The following Muslim groups emerged in different social political circumstances. However, their circumstances and their emergence may have similarities in the modern period as well. It is important to study these groups in order to find such similarities. -...

Few Muslims Sects (Group) of the Past The following Muslim groups emerged in different social political circumstances. However, their circumstances and their emergence may have similarities in the modern period as well. It is important to study these groups in order to find such similarities. - **The Khawaarij (الخوارج)** - **The Shia (شيعة)** - **The Murjia (مرجية)** - **The Jabariyyah (جبرية)** - **The Qadariyyah (القادرية)** - **The Mu'tazilah (المعتزلة)**   - The Khawarij - They were a group of Muslims who emerged before the beginning of the Ummayad rule in 661 CE (Christian Era) - They began in the aftermath of the Battle of Siffin in 657 CE - They were very strict & rigid in their beliefs - They believed that those who participated in the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin were **apostates and disbelievers**. - The Khawarij --continued - Further, they believed that Mu'awiyah (رضي الله عنه ) had committed kufr by fighting against the Khalif... -...and that Ali (رضي الله عنه ) committed kufr by agreeing to an arbitration at the end of the Battle of Siffin. - They believed that [any major] sin was an act of kufr, punishable by being **[forever in the Hellfire. ]** - The Khawarij --continued\ **Other issues** - Who was a true Muslim - How might salvation be attained (how can we get to Jannah) - Political: rejected political learderships of both Ali and Mu'awia (may Allah be pleased with them both). Why? - They elected their own leaders. - *Because Ali's agreement to arbitration was against the concept that « judgment belongs to Allah alone »* - The Shi'a - The name "Shia" comes from *shi'at* Ali -- or "partisans" of Ali (may Allah be pleased with him). It also means "party", "sect", "supporters" or a "group of like minded individuals". - They arose as a result of the early political divisions. - The Shi'a - They believed that the political succession of the Prophet, peace be upon him, should come from his family first before any other Muslim - They remained loyal to Ali, رضي الله عنه , and even during his lifetime, some of them claimed to be his followers and exaggerated his status (raised him to the level of God). This exaggeration continued after his death. - The Shi'a - They felt that the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, should have been the immediate successor and not Abu Bakr. - Over the next 3 centuries, the Shi'a developed a very distinct theological system. - The Murji'ah -1 - The Murji'ah are one of the early sects and grew out the conflicting principles of the Khawarij and the Shia. - In a sense, theirs was an attempt to refine earlier positions and to minimize division within the community - They attempted to redefine the definition of Faith/Eman - They took an opposing position to the Khawarij - The Murji'ah -- 2 - The extreme view of the Khawarij caused the Murji'ah to react and come up with an opposing view, but it was **[also extreme]** - The Murji'ah believed that anyone who says -- la ilah illa Allah -- is considered a believer and will enter Paradise -- they are **[guaranteed]** Paradise. - In other words, they redefined the definition of Eman. - The Murji'ah - 4 - **Summary of their beliefs:** - Faith was belief in Allah and His Prophet - Actions do not form a part of belief - A believer would remain a believer even though he neglected his obligations or committed grave sins - Only the sin of shirk (polytheism) would jeopardize Paradise - The Jabariyyah - 1 - The Jabariyyah took their name from the word (جبر) which means compulsory or necessity - They took this name because **they hold man to be necessarily and inevitably constrained to act as he does by force of God 's eternal and immutable decree.** - The Jabariyyah - 2 - **They are closely related to the Murji'ah** - **They emerged during the Umayyad dynasty -- (661-750)** - **They believed that humans have no control over their actions** - The Jabariyyah - 3 - **Some Umayyad rulers who had committed horrible crimes including meaningless killing of innocent Muslims supported the Jabariyyah because it made it seem that God had predestined them to commit these crimes** - The Jabariyyah - 4 - **The Jabariyyah considered these Umayyad rulers as only doing what Allah had predetermined them to do so they remained legitimate in their eyes** - **They said the Umayyad crimes were "sanctioned" by God, i.e., they were not accountable for their actions** - **They believed that man is forced or limited to act the way he does because Allah has written it / decreed it.** - The Qadariyyah- 1 - They emerged during the late 7^th^ century and lasted until the 9^th^ century. - These were the last years of the Sahabah's generation. Some of these Sahabah were: - Abdullah ibn 'Umar - Jabir bin Abdullah - Abu Hurairah - Ibn Abbass - Anas ibn Malik - The Qadariyyah- 2 - Their Beliefs: - They deny Qadr - They deny some of Allah's attributes - Knowledge - Desire - Ability - Allah's power of creation - The Qadriyyah- 3 - Their Beliefs continued: - They believe that Allah is knowledgeable of man's actions but this knowledge ('ilm) has nothing to do with His Will (iraadah) - In other words, He knows about man's actions but cannot change them by His Will -- so this is denying Allah's Knowledge and Desire and Ability - Allah's power of creation - - The Qadriyyah- 4 - Their Beliefs: - They believe that mankind is independent of Allah's Will & Power; he creates his own actions without interference from Allah - This is denial of Allah's power of creation - **Muslim World in 18^th^ Century** **Politically** : - By the 18th Century, the three empires that ruled the Muslim world )Ottoman, Safvavid, Mughals) were facing political, military, and economic breakdown. - By the end of the 18th century, the power relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Europe began to shift in Europe's favor. - The rise of European colonial interests. (British in India & Arabic Golf, Dutch in Indonesian , France in North and West Africa. - **Culture & economics**: - Continued dominance of classical thought, and sciences (Sufism, pure outdated Islamic Sciences) - Issue of decadence?? - In the 18th century Europe was undergoing major transformations as the new ideas of the Enlightenment, which stressed the importance of science, rationality, and human reason, and the new technologies of the Industrial Revolution swept across Europe, giving Europeans great power and influence. - In the last quarter of the 18th century, the gap widened between the technical skills of some western and northern European countries. while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. - The Great European Powers globalized economically and  started the cast of new sources and raw material, as result, the colonization machine began to work. - The 3 Muslim Empire in 18^th^ Century - Ottoman Losses of Territories in 18^th^ and onwards - ***Example: Napoleon invasion and the civilizational shock*** - Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt in 1798. Although the occupation lasted only 3 years, it exposed the people of Egypt to Enlightenment ideas and Europe\'s new technology.  - The values of the European Enlightenment, which challenged the authority of religion, were alien to the local Muslim population. This invasion slapped the face of the Umma and uncovered its backwardness. \- The exposure to European power and ideas would later inspire the new governor of Egypt, **[Muhammad Ali]** and the Intellectual elites to draw on this technology to modernize Egypt, setting an example for the rest Muslim regions, this is led to the birth of the **Age of Arabic *Nahdah عصر النهضة*** - *Napoleon in Egypt* - *Mohammed Ali of Egypt* - *محمد علي* - The influence of *Nahdah* and modernism in the Arabic world resulted in a cultural revival. Dramatic plays became more common, as did newspapers. Notable European works were analyzed and translated. - At the recommendations of reform-minded Islamic scholars, western sciences were taught in new schools. Much of this had to do with the emergence of  secularism in Arabic World, since it led to the *conclusion that an old-fashioned Muslim society could not compete in the modern world.* - Orientalism and Islam **Orientalism**: - In Europe and later North America: Academic Study of Islam - Starts in the 19^th^ Century together with Colonialism - Languages of Islam; History; Early Period; Comparisons - Modern Islam was left to Colonial Administrators and Anthropologists **Modern Islam**: - A category invented to describe Islam that is not ancient, medieval, traditional. - Modern = Islam under Colonial Rule - Modern = Islam under the Impact of Modernity - Modern = Islam under the influence from the West - Orientalism and Modern Islam **Orientalists** specialised in: - Qur'an, Hadith, Muhammad's Biography, - Umayyad, Abbasid Fatimid, Mamluk etc. Periods - Comparisons between Medieval Islam and Christianity and Judaism - Sufism in Persia, India and the Medieval Middle East - = formed the category of "Classical Islam" **Muslims** under Colonial Rule: - Exposed to Modernizations (e.g. Industry, Mass Transport, Mass Education, Social Mobility etc.) - Exposed to Westernizations (e.g. Dress Codes, Law Reforms, European Languages etc.) - Exposed to Secularisations (e.g. Legislation, Politics, Education, Sciences, Cultures) - Exposed to Colonial Discourse (e.g. about Progress, Rationality, Civil. Superiority) - = "Modern Islam" - Modern Islam = Modernized Islam 1. Theory of Cultural Evolution: Cultures develop from *Primitive -- Developed -- Advanced* 2. Theory of Civilizational Progress: Cultures have *Beginnings -- Golden Ages -- Decline -- Stagnation* 3. Theory of Progressive Modern Development: Societies will develop towards increased *Modernization, Westernization, Secularization* - Orientalism and Modern Islam **Orientalists** specialised in: - Qur'an, Hadith, Muhammad's Biography, - Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, Mamluk etc. Periods - Comparisons between Medieval Islam and Christianity and Judaism - Sufism in Persia, India and the Medieval Middle East - = formed the category of "Classical Islam" **Muslims** under Colonial Rule: - Protest Modernizations (e.g. effects of global economy; financial and commercial transactions etc.) - Resist Westernizations (e.g. European dress codes, laws, languages etc.) - Criticize Secularisations (by calling for a return of religion into legislation, politics, education, sciences, cultures) - Challenge Colonial Discourse (e.g. the assumption that progress, rationality, civil. superiority are ultimately linked with the West) - Why do Muslims Resist? - Do [Muslims] reject modern societies because modern values break with Islamic religious traditions? - Do [Muslims] resist modern forms of democracy, politics, economy because those are alien to their faith? **[Source]**: "Classical" [Islam] - Does [Islam] promote values and norms that are essentially different to Western values? - Is [Islam] basically incompatible with Modernity? - Orientalists Explain - [H.A.R. Gibb], *Modern Trends in Islam*, chapter 6: Islam in the World, pp.: 106-129. **Chicago 1947.** - [Wilfred Cantwell Smith], *Islam in Modern History*, chapter 1: Islam and History, pp.: 3-40. **Princeton 1957.** - [Gustav von Grunebaum], *Modern Islam. The Search for Cultural Identity*, chapter 2: The Problem of Cultural Influence, pp.: 13-29 + chapter 5: Self-Image and Approach to History, pp.: 97-127. **Berkeley 1962.** - [R.J.Zwi Werblowski], *Beyond Tradition and Modernity,* chapter 4: Progress and Stagnation: the Dilemmas of Islam, pp.: 61-82. **1976.** - The Problem with Orientalism - It essentializes modernity with Western cultures/values. - It essentializes Islam with non-Western cultures/values. - It, therefore, excludes Islam from modernity. - It creates a category of 'Islam' that is defined according to pre-modern traditions (medieval texts, commentaries, political dynasties, Qur'an and Sunna). - It creates a category of 'Western' that is defined according to modern theories and philosophies (liberalism, rationalism, secularism, Marxism, feminism etc.) - Muslims are portrayed as either 'traditional' (medieval, pre-modern) and/or 'anti-Western' (i.e. anti-modern); if they are modern and Western they are strictly speaking not Islamic any longer. - Implications for the Study of Contemporary Islam - Ideological connotations of terms we use, e.g. 'modern Islam'; 'Western'; 'contemporary'; 'classical' etc. - Contentious nature of studying modern Islam \[unlike the study of modern landscapes, agriculture, education etc.\] - Political implications of 'theories' about modern Islam (Iraq, War on Terrorism etc.) - Effect on shaping modern Islam (Islamic reformism, revivalism, fundamentalism, political Islam, feminism, Islamization etc. are seen as responses to the Western discourse on modern Islam). - "Orientalisms" within the Islamic discourse (about Islam, Modernity, Tradition, Golden Age, Stagnation, West etc.) - Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897) - ***Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani*** - 1838: born in Asadabad (off Hamadan) in Iran, supposedly in a Sayyid-family - A. grows up in a Shi'i environment, comes in contact with Baha'ism and Shaykhism; - A. learns the Qur'an by heart under the supervision of his father, al-Sayyid Safdar - 1850: is sent to Qazwin to complete his Qur'anic education; flees to Teheran one year later when a cholera epidemic breaks out; - until 1854 or 57: A. studies in Najaf (Iraq), but has to flee to India (Bombay and Calcutta) - until 1865: A. travels around the Muslim world including a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1858 - until 1868: A. serves as a senior advisor in the court of A'zam Khan in Kabul (Afghanistan) - 1868: A. is deported from Afghanistan, he goes to India, from where he is shipped off in 1869 - 1869: A. attempts to go on another pilgrimage to Mecca, but stayed in Cairo (Egypt), gives lectures in front of al-Azhar students - 1869-1871: A. moves to Istanbul where he is associated with the reformist university "Dar al-Funun"; he is expelled from Turkey after the Shaykh of Islam condemned him as an heretical; - 1871-1879: A. lives in Cairo until he was expelled in August 1879; he is denied to teach at al-Azhar university (A. becomes a member of the Egyptian Masonic Lodge) - until 1884: exile in Paris; edits together with M. 'Abduh the journal *al-'Urwa al-Wuthqa*; - 1885: A. visits London, helps to negotiate with Russia - until 1891: A. works as an advisor to the Shah Nasir ad-Din in Persia - 1892: A. returns to Istanbul to collaborate with Sultan 'Abd al-Hamid II in the pan-Islamism movement - 1897: death in Istanbul. - Muhammad 'Abduh (1849-1905) 1849: born in a little village of the Egyptian Delta near Tanta A. studies at the Ahmadi-mosque in Tanta A. continues his studies with the Shadhiliya Sufi Shaykh Darwish 1869-1877: A. studies at al-Azhar university in Cairo; first meeting with Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani 1871: second visit of al-Afghani in Egypt; A. becomes his most devoted student 1876: deep financial crisis in Egypt A. writes articles on social and political subjects in the newspaper *al-Ahram* 1877: A. gets the degree of an *'alim*; A. starts his career as a teacher at al-Azhar A. becomes a teacher at *Dar al-'Ulum* in Cairo A. gives courses on Ethics by Mishkawayh; Guizot's *History of Civilization*, and Ibn Khaldun's *Muqaddima* 1878: European ministers take office in the new government of Nubar Pasha A. is forced to retire to his village because of his articles in *Al-Ahram* A. back in Cairo, becomes chief editor of the official gazette *al-Waqa'i al-Misriyya* 1882: Uprising against the British, led by the war minister 'Urabi Pasha; 1882-1885: exile in Beirut, London (1984) and Paris; A. organizes a secret society and publishes the journal *al-'Urwa al-Wuthqa*; 1885-1888: A. works as a teacher in the school of a newly founded Muslim benevolent society in Beirut 1888: A. returns to Cairo, works as a judge in the newly set up "native tribunals" (since 1883) 1895: A. sets up an administrative council for the reform of the al-Azhar; A. founds the Muslim Benevolent Society of Egypt 1899: A. becomes Mufti of Egypt 1899: A. becomes Member of the Legislative Council (since 1883) 1905: death in Cairo - The Concept of *Salafiyya*-Islam ***[Era of Al-Salaf]*** - Pure, pristine form of Islam ↔ - Simplicity, dignity, greatness - Free of accretion ↔ - Maintained and united *Umma* ↔ - Moral and social strength/power ↔ - Political wisdom ↔ - Independence and Sovereignty ↔ - Intellectual, military, economic leadership ↔ - **Strict adherence to pure Islam gave Muslim civilization the ground for success.** ↔ - *Golden Age = Glorious past* ↔ ***[Era of contemporary Islam]*** Impure Islam Humiliation, powerlessness Full of accretion Fragmented *Umma* Moral and social decay Political despotism Foreign domination Intellectual, military, economic decline **Deviance from pure Islam caused the degeneration of Muslim civilization.** *Dark present = Time of stagnation* - The Idea of Reform ***Islah***: Restoration of Morality, Faith and Intellect ***Tajdid***: Renewal of Religion ***Ihya'***: Revival of Original Religious Sciences ***Sahwa***: Awakening of Islamic Faith ***Nahda***: Renaissance of Islamic Tradition - Ambiguities Towards Modernity - Is Islam an effective religious, social and political system or a spiritual tradition? - Is there an unconditioned harmony between Islam and the modern world? - To what extent can Muslims accept the modern values without abandoning their religion? - Pupils: Muhammad Rashid Rida\ (d.1935) "The moderate advocates of Islamic reform are those who affirm that it is possible to resuscitate Islam and renew its true guidance by following the Qur'an and the true Sunna and the guidance of the Virtuous Forefathers, and by seeking the help of the learning of the Imams \[i.e. the great scholars of the past\], without cleaving to particular sectarian books and teachings around which the first group has solidified. They also affirm that it is possible to combine this with the noblest forms of civilisation and organisation which the second groups calls for. Indeed, they believe that religion and the most modern techniques of civilisation and power, on both of which they advocate primary reliance, are two friends in agreement, not in conflict, and that each adds to the power and nobility of the other." (M. Rashid Rida, *Manar*, taken from: M. Kerr, *Islamic Reform*, London 1966, p. 191.) - Reformist Al-Azhar Sheikhs\ Al-Maraghi and Al-Shaltut - "*Islah*" in the Contemporary Arab-Muslim World - Salafism and Orientalism - *Salafiyya*-Islam and Orientalism - Distinction between two different kinds of Islams (classical Islam -- modern Islam) - Essence of Islam is different than its contemporary (outward) expressions - Existing Islam is the product of an accumulative tradition - The Golden Age of Islam lies in the Past