Gillette 1st Semester Project PDF Analysis

Semester project Razor Sharp Shifts: The Evolving Portrayal of Masculinity in Gillette’s Advertisements and Its Reflection of Societal Change "How has Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity evolved in its advertisements from 1989 to nowadays, and in what ways does this evolution reflect changing societal expectations of men?" By Michelle Kofod Leidecker & Thea Juhl Larsen Degree: Culture, Communication, and Globalisation Course: Global Processes Semester: 1st Student ID - Michelle: 20241125 Student ID - Thea: 20241105 Submission date: December 18, 2024 Keystrokes: 115.324 characters (with spaces) Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Table of Contents INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 3 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................................... 4 RESEARCH STRATEGY: MIXED APPROACH....................................................................................................... 4 ONTOLOGICAL POSITION............................................................................................................................ 4 EPISTEMOLOGICAL STANCES....................................................................................................................... 5 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH.................................................................................................................... 6 Qualitative research............................................................................................................... 6 Case study research.............................................................................................................. 6 Method of analysis: Three-dimensional analytical model........................................................... 6 Data collecting...................................................................................................................... 8 LIMITATIONS............................................................................................................................................ 9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS....................................................................................................................... 10 LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................................. 11 TREND 1: FEMALE REPRESENTATION IN ADS.................................................................................................. 11 TREND 2: MASCULINITY PORTRAYALS IN ADS ACROSS INDUSTRIES..................................................................... 12 TREND 3: PREDOMINANCE OF TDA OVER MMDA.......................................................................................... 13 THEORY - HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY......................................................................................... 15 CRITIQUES............................................................................................................................................ 16 RELEVANCE TO OUR PROJECT.................................................................................................................... 16 ANALYSIS.................................................................................................................................. 17 ANALYSIS 1 – 1989: “THE BEST A MAN CAN GET”........................................................................................... 17 Multimodal text................................................................................................................... 17 Discursive practice.............................................................................................................. 19 Social practice.................................................................................................................... 20 ANALYSIS 2 – 1999: “MACH 3”................................................................................................................. 23 Multimodal text................................................................................................................... 23 Discursive practice.............................................................................................................. 24 Social practice.................................................................................................................... 25 ANALYSIS 3 – 2006: “GILLETTE FUSION”..................................................................................................... 27 Multimodal text................................................................................................................... 27 Discursive practice.............................................................................................................. 30 Social practice.................................................................................................................... 31 ANALYSIS 4 – 2016: “PERFECT ISN’T PRETTY”.............................................................................................. 33 Multimodal text................................................................................................................... 33 Discursive practice.............................................................................................................. 37 Social practice.................................................................................................................... 39 ANALYSIS 5 – 2019: “WE BELIEVE THE BEST A MAN CAN GET”.......................................................................... 40 Multimodal text................................................................................................................... 40 Discursive practice.............................................................................................................. 43 Social practice.................................................................................................................... 44 ANALYSIS 6 – 2019: “THE FIRST SHAVE – THE STORY OF SAMSON”.................................................................... 46 Multimodal text................................................................................................................... 46 Discursive practice.............................................................................................................. 48 Social practice.................................................................................................................... 48 1 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: HOW GILLETTE’S PORTRAYAL OF MASCULINITY HAS EVOLVED IN ITS ADS FROM 1989 TO NOWADAYS, AND HOW GILLETTE REFLECTS OR CHALLENGE SOCIETAL EXPECTATIONS OF MEN............................................................................................................. 50 FROM COMMERCIAL DISCOURSE TO SOCIAL ACTIVISM DISCOURSE: WHEN TO ADAPT OR CHALLENGE SOCIAL PRACTICE?................................................................................................. 51 THE CONTESTED RISE OF INCLUSIVE MASCULINITY.................................................................... 52 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................ 54 BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................... 55 2 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Introduction This project seeks to explore how the portrayal of masculinity in advertising has evolved over time, and how this evolution reflects changing societal expectations of men due to cultural and social shifts throughout time. This project uses the global grooming and personal care company, Gillette, and their advertisements (hereafter ads) as a case study. We find Gillette relevant as a case study due to their global reach and their long history of advertising to men, thus a long history of both reflecting and shaping ideals and expectations of what it means to be masculine. Gillette’s portrayals have evolved significantly over the decades reflecting social and cultural shifts, and societal discussion about masculinity. Moreover, we argue that our case study on Gillette can contribute to the rather narrowly focused scholarly field in terms of analysing portrayal of masculinity outside the traditional ‘male-dominated’ industries. The portrayal of masculinity is highly relevant today, as gender roles and identity are undergoing significant transformations. Traditional hegemonic masculinity has increasingly faced criticism for perpetuating harmful stereotypes, sparking debates about concepts like 'toxic masculinity' and calls for more inclusive representations. As a leading global brand, Gillette has portrayed masculinity in reflection of these societal changes, as well as playing an active role in contributing to the conversation about what it means to be a man. Exploring the evolution of the portrayal of masculinity in Gillette’s ads contributes to the understanding of how media and advertising respond to these shifts in cultural landscapes, contribute to or contest the hegemonic discourse on masculinity. Leading us to the following research question: How has Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity evolved in its advertisements from 1989 to nowadays, and in what ways does this evolution reflect changing societal expectations of men? We will answer this by applying a theoretical framework on hegemonic masculinity, supported by a case study approach to analyse Gillette’s ads from 1989 to 2019. Our diachronic analysis will draw on Fairclough's three-dimensional model, which includes textual analysis (multimodal discourse analysis), discursive practice, and social practice to explore how Gillette’s portrayals align with or challenge the changing societal expectations of men. This approach will be based on a qualitative methodology, drawing on a mix of inductive and deductive reasoning, and constructivism to explore how masculinity is constructed or contested in the ads. Then a comparative analysis of our findings across the decades. Finally, a discussion on whether inclusive masculinity is becoming hegemonic in today’s society. 3 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Methodology Research strategy: Mixed approach We would argue that this project adopts both an inductive as well as a deductive approach in order to analyse how Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity has evolved over the decades 1990’s, 2010s, and 2020s through its ads. The inductive approach is applied to the early phase of this project, where it allows patterns to emerge from the content of the ads, through our multimodal discourse analysis, with the goal of identifying recurring themes and shifts in these portrayals. The inductive approach is especially valuable here, as it allows us to explore the ads in open-ended, revealing nuances and complexities that may not align with traditional definitions of masculinity. Thus, this provides an opportunity to contributing to new perspectives on masculinity in advertising (Aurini et al., 2016). The deductive approach is then later integrated into the analysis, by applying the existing theoretical frameworks of hegemonic masculinity (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005), in order to interpret the identified patterns and themes. This deductive approach allows us to test how well the data align with hegemonic masculinity, exploring how Gillette’s ads either reinforce or challenge the dominant ideas of masculinity. By connecting the inductively discovered patterns to these established theories, we aim to deepen our understanding of how advertising reflects and shapes social norms. Ontological position Since this project seeks to explore how Gillette's portrayal of masculinity in its ads has evolved through certain time periods, we take on the ontological position of (social) constructivism. With this ontological position, we view masculinity as an emergent social reality in an on-going state of construction and reconstruction by social actors (Bryman, 2016, p. 30). So, the meanings of masculinity aren’t fixed, distinct entities, but ascribed meanings that are socially constructed through social -and cultural influences by social actors (Bryman, 2016; Porta & Keating, 2008). Hence, why we will do a diachronic analysis of Gillette’s ads through different decades to explore how Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity has evolved through social -and cultural shifts. Constructivism often focuses on the representations being used to present categories or social phenomena in certain ways, suggesting that social reality and its categories are constructed through communication (Bryman, 2016, p. 30). Thus, we find constructivism aligns with our project and our use of Fairclough’s three-dimensional model as it conceptualises how discourses are dynamically constructed or reconstructed. This enables us to explore how Gillette’s ads reflect society’s evolving construction of masculinity, and how Gillette self plays an active role in promoting specific representations of masculinity in response to changing cultural or social shifts. Ads can employ and reflect the social world’s construction of masculinity, since ads are “…manipulated representations of recognisable 4 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker scenes from “real life”” (Goffman, 1987, p. vii). Goffman (1987) argues ads depict not necessarily how we actually behave as men and women but how we think men and women behave. This depiction serves the social purpose of convincing us that this is how men and women are, or want to be, or should be. We argue then, that ads not only employ and reflect the respective social reality’s meaning-making of masculinity, but also act as social actors themselves in constructing the meanings of masculinity. Specifically, constructing an idealised form of masculinity. Epistemological stances We find the epistemological stances of interpretivism, drawing on the epistemological traditions of hermeneutics, central to our project. Hermeneutics is concerned with the method and theory of the interpretation and understanding of social action (Bryman, 2016, p. 26). Aligned with interpretivism, they are both concerned with interpreting and understanding subjective knowledge, meanings and action of the social world from their subjective point of view, aligning with our ontological position, constructivism (Blaikie & Priest, 2018, p. 107; Bryman, 2016, p. 27; Porta & Keating, 2008, p. 23). In our case Gillette’s understanding of masculinity. The interpretivist approach aims to understand social phenomena by looking at the perceptions social actors have of the world with their “…imperfect knowledge and complex motivations, themselves formed through complex cultural and social influences, but retaining a degree of free will and judgement” (Porta & Keating, 2008, p. 25). This epistemology is central to our project, since interpretivism concerns with understanding the subjective meanings that shape perceptions of social phenomena, and hermeneutics focus on interpreting and understanding phenomena through language, social practice, interaction, signs etc. as data, which aligns with our method of analysis. 5 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Methodological approach Qualitative research As our project aims to interpret the evolution of Gillette’s portrayals of masculinity diachronically, we believe that the qualitative methods are most suitable for the analysis of the ads. Blaikie & Priest (2019) suggests that qualitative methods are focused on producing rich, discursive descriptions, as well as uncovering meanings and interpretations that actors assign to their experiences. This stands in contrast to the quantitative research method, which Brewer (2003) suggests is primarily concerned with numerical and statistical data analysis. Thus, using qualitative analysis in relation to our project, means focusing on the language, imagery, and symbolism within Gillette’s ads rather than attempting to quantify trends or analyse large data sets (Bryman, 2012a). Furthermore, the qualitative approach aligns well with our ontological and epistemological stances of social constructivism and interpretivism, which sees social realities, like the portrayal of masculinity, as constructed through discourse and open to interpretation (Bryman, 2012a). These stances enable us to approach Gillette’s ads as a form for human communication encompassing written, visual, and audio elements that convey meanings about masculinity. These ads, thereby, constitute a rich qualitative dataset, allowing us to interpret the values and ideas Gillette ascribes to masculinity across different eras. Thus, a qualitative approach will be informed by multimodal perspectives through multimodal discourse analysis. Case study research Since our goal for this project is to conduct an examination of how portrayals of masculinity in Gillette ads have changed from the 1990s to nowadays, we take the approach of a case study. Yin (2009b) defines a case study as inquiries focused on examining contemporary phenomena within their real-world context, which allows for a focused exploration of Gillette’s advertising as a single case study. According to Yin (2009a) a case study can be structured as either a single-case or multiple-case design, depending on the context, case, and units of analysis. In a single-case study, one context and one case are investigated; in a multiple-case study, multiple cases within different contexts can be analysed. Given that our project centres on Gillette’s ads, this project uses an embedded single-case design with multiple units of analysis. Method of analysis: Three-dimensional analytical model Since our analysis focuses on Gillette's video ads, we aim to study not just isolated images or texts, but the integration of multiple modes—visual, textual, and audio—and how these elements collectively represent masculinity. To do this, we apply a structured, three- dimensional analytical model inspired by Norman Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis. Fairclough argues that Foucault’s discourse analysis lacks a critical element, which is the analysis of actual texts (Fairclough, 1992b, pp. 55–61). Foucault’s approach focuses on how power and knowledge shape discourse in society but doesn’t directly engage with the 6 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker language or structure of specific texts. Fairclough, however, views examining real texts as essential to understand how discourse operates in practice. This approach, which Fairclough calls Text-Oriented Discourse Analysis, includes linguistic and discursive analysis and moves beyond text examination to include three dimensions: Textual analysis, discourse practice, and social practice(Fairclough, 1992b, pp. 55–61). In this project, we align with Fairclough's emphasis on using a multidimensional approach in discourse analysis, as it best supports the type of in-depth, multimodal analysis needed to capture not only the language and visuals in each ad, but also to contextualize how these elements interact within the broader societal discourse on masculinity. While inspired by Fairclough’s three-dimensional model, we have tailored the model which allows us to examine each ad across three layers: the language and visuals within the text, the communicative practices of the ads, and the broader social and cultural practice in which these representations of masculinity are situated. Multimodal text This is focused on a multimodal discourse analysis of each ad. It involves examining both the visual and verbal elements, such as imagery, gestures, language, setting, and colour schemes, to examine how masculinity is represented across different eras. By focusing on these modes, we aim to understand the implicit and explicit ways that masculinity is communicated in each ad. These ads will be analysed by using Gunther Kress’ Multimodal Discourse Analysis (Kress, 2012). Kress emphasizes that analysis of texts are complex, multimodal semiotic entities that are composed of diverse semiotic modes such as gesture, image, speech, writing, and sound. According to Kress, meaning-making in a text does not rely solely on language (spoken or written) but on how these different modes interact to form a “whole”. Thus, arguing that multimodality is essential to capture the full meaning of a text, as each mode contributes uniquely to the social, political, or ideological dimensions of the discourse (Kress, 2012). Furthermore, Kress highlights how texts reflect social structures and the interests of their creators, involving how semiotic resources are chosen and combined to produce cohesive meaning that aligns with the social context of the text. This aligns well with Fairclough’s emphasis on examining texts in their actual structure and context(Fairclough, 1992b). Both advocate for analysing multiple semiotic modes—such as images, text, and sound—in order to understand how meaning is constructed within a specific social context. Therefore, through a multimodal discourse analysis, we can interpret how the different modes interact within the ads and how it reflects the broader cultural and social discourses surrounding masculinity across different periods. Since the multimodal analysis examines both verbal and visual elements, the analysis will therefore incorporate quotes from verbal communication and screenshots from the visual communication in order to support each statement and aid the reader in understanding our findings. By using this approach to analyse the textual dimension of the ads, it allows for a clear examination of what is said and what is shown. This combination ensures that each aspect of the 7 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker multimodal elements—visual, textual, audial, and verbal—is systematically documented and analysed to fully understand how masculinity is portrayed. Social practice The social practice dimension in our model is focused on examining each ad within the broader socio-cultural context and examines the concept of hegemonic masculinity as an interpretative lens. Hegemonic masculinity (See Theory) refers to the dominant and idealized form of masculinity, culturally exalted through institutions, culture, and persuasion. While not common in practice, it sets the normative standard for all men (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). In this dimension, we look at how Gillette’s portrayals of masculinity align with or challenge dominant gender norms in each era. Through this lens, we can explore whether certain portrayals reinforce traditional masculine ideals or suggest more nuanced, contemporary representations. Discursive practice And lastly, this dimension focuses on examining intertextuality and interdiscursivity, focusing on how Gillette’s ads relate to other media, social movements, or broader cultural discourses about masculinity. Fairclough defines intertextuality as a concept that refers to the way specific other texts are drawn upon within a text, whereas interdiscursivity is a key concept that refers to the way distinct types of discourses or genres are combined within a single text (Fairclough, 1992a). Carvalho (2008) highlights the temporality dimension of discourse, emphasizing its historical nature as one of its fundamental characteristics. Including interdiscursivity and intertextuality is crucial for a time-sensitive discourse analysis, which involves considering both the specific context of a given period—such as relevant events and developments—and broader aspects of the social environment. This dimension allows us to assess how Gillette’s messages engage with, respond to, or reshape cultural narratives on masculinity over time. This three-dimensional model enables a structured and cohesive analysis. Each dimension serves to bridge theory and data, which strengthens the transparency and credibility of our methodology by clearly outlining how each analytical layer contributes to answering our research question on the evolution of the representation of masculinity in Gillette’s ads. Data collecting This section will explain the relevance of the data collection methods, and the rationale behind our data choices. By detailing these components, we aim to ensure that our research process is transparent, and that the study’s credibility and validity are reinforced. As our project focuses on Gillette, one of the most globally recognized brands in personal grooming, finding its ads is very accessible due to its extensive catalogue of ads available online. We primarily use YouTube to access Gillette's ads, however, it requires us to consciously search for the ads. This is important as when conducting research, we need to reflect on the approach taken to select and analyse our data. For our project on how Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity has evolved in ads from the 1990s to nowadays, purposive 8 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker sampling was chosen to strategically select ads that relate to our research focus. This involves intentionally selecting data that aligns with the study’s objectives (Bryman, 2012b, pp. 415–417). This approach ensures that the dataset will closely relate to our research question by focusing on ads that illustrate key shifts in masculinity representations over time, allowing for a coherent analysis. By targeting specific Gillette ads for men, our selection enhances the relevance and depth of our findings. The six Gillette ads selected for analysis (one from 1989, one from 1999, one from 2006, and three from the 2010s) represent varying approaches to portraying masculinity. These ads differ not only in their temporal context but also in their length and nature. Some ads, such as the shorter 30-second ads, were designed as traditional TV ads, aiming for concise and impactful messaging within the constraints of broadcast formats. Others, particularly 2010’s ad 1, and 2010’s ad 3, run up to three minutes long, allowing for more narrative depth and a broader exploration of themes. The longer campaign-style ads naturally require more space in the analysis, as their extended length allows for a richer examination of visual, textual, and auditory modalities. Conversely, the shorter ads, while significant, are more limited in scope. This balance ensures that the treatment of each ad reflects its unique characteristics and contributions while accommodating the constraints of the overall page limit. Limitations Our project is subject to certain limitations that are important to acknowledge. As aforementioned, our epistemological and ontological approach emphasize reality as socially constructed and context-dependent on social actors and cultural influences. This means that we also need to take into account that our own social world is constructed and must recognize the interplay between us as researchers and the object of the project (Porta & Keating, 2008, p. 26). So, given our constructivist, hermeneutic, interpretive stance, we also present a certain context of social reality. Our contemporary understanding of what hegemonic masculinity means may then affect the way we interpret the ads from the different decades. Possibly being more critical of e.g. Gillette’s earlier portrayal of masculinity and hegemonic masculinity as social practice. Meaning our findings may not be objective or definitive, allowing for contingency and ambiguity (Blaikie & Priest, 2018, p. 107; Bryman, 2016, p. 29; Porta & Keating, 2008, p. 26). Our findings are then limited in being universally or cross-culturally generalisable on portrayal of masculinity, due to socio- cultural differences across cultures, and their respective social construction of masculinity. As Porta & Keating (2008, p. 27) state: “Predictability is impossible since human beings change in time and space”. The selection and scope of the data also have limitations. Selecting six ads to explore how Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity has evolved through three decades (1989 to 2019) does of course not fully capture the nuances of Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity and how it has evolved. Our relatively small dataset may omit relevant examples of other Gillette ads in those decades that either support or alter our findings. However, we had to consider the 9 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker relevancy and amount of data in relation to the time and page limit of our project. Thus, we have selected ads that significantly relate to our research question by choosing ads that illustrate key shifts in Gillette’s masculinity portrayal over time. Making our diachronic findings more focused on significant shifts in Gillette’s evolving portrayal of masculinity in the three decades. Focusing on Gillette’s ads to the U.S. market may limit the cross-cultural generalisability as aforementioned, since Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity may differ when targeting other markets that may have another constructed meaning of gender. A case study can also have some limitations. There are limitations in terms of generalisation and external validity, since case studies focus on more context-specific analysis. Thus, limiting the scope of findings that can be used in other contexts e.g., the broader advertising industry. However, case studies can also help to understand and explore nuances and complexities in social phenomena within specific “real-world” situations that may be missed by broader methods and research scopes (Vennesson, 2008, pp. 223–239). Although it could be relevant, we can’t with our research conclude how recipients of the ads actually interpreted and internalised Gillette’s masculinity portrayals. Interpretivism does focus on understanding constructed meanings from those interpreting them. However, since our project doesn’t include recipient research e.g. via surveys or interviews, we would only be able to conclude this based on theoretical evidence, not empirical. Ethical considerations Given the sensitive nature of gender, several ethical considerations were addressed to ensure a responsible approach to the research. Gillette's ads are primarily targeted at men, but this focus does not necessarily exclude individuals who do not identify as male, either biologically or socially. However, the ads often frame gender through the lens of heteronormativity, which can limit the representation of gender diversity. As the analysis is focused on masculinity, this project treats gender as a binary for analytical clarity. However, we recognise that this doesn’t encompass the full spectrum of gender identities, who may not fit into the binary constructs (Cohen et al., 2018). Another essential ethical consideration in this project is the recognition of researcher bias. We acknowledge that our own cultural and social perspectives may influence the interpretation of masculinity portrayed in the ads. Being reflexive about our position, as well as potential biases, is important to maintain objectivity and transparency in our analysis (Berger, 2015). Thus, we are committed to critically examining our interpretations and ensuring that the findings are not shaped by personal biases but instead grounded in the data. 10 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Literature Review Trend 1: Female representation in ads One of the most dominant trends in gender and advertising studies is the predominant focus on the portrayal of women, often emphasising their stereotypical representations. The scholarly focus on female representation in advertising has long overshadowed the study of male portrayals, even as attention to masculinity has grown in recent years. Early works like Gender Advertisements by Goffman (1987) focus on the ways ads construct gendered images, particularly those of women, with little commentary on how male roles are constructed or stereotyped. Goffman’s work reveals the intricate interplay between artificial advertising poses and societal perceptions of "natural" femininity, further emphasising how female representations dominate the discourse on advertising's social implications in early research. Similarly, Artz et al. (1999) argues that research has primarily centred on women’s visual portrayals as decorative or subordinate figures, with only brief mentions of men’s roles, such as being predominant in voiceovers. Although they acknowledge shifts in male depictions toward diverse roles, they continue to prioritise female stereotyping. The historical influence of feminist thought persists in later works, such as the meta-analysis on gender roles in advertising by Eisend (2009), which critiques the stereotypical portrayal of women and its societal consequences. It highlights that some studies indicate progress in reducing stereotyping, while others argue that portrayals of, specifically women, remain negative. Although some progress in reducing stereotyping is noted, female representations dominate, and male portrayals receive little attention. Grau & Zotos (2016) reinforce this imbalance, underlining that most gender research in advertising has been shaped by feminist critique. These studies critique the unfair depictions of women, rooted in their roles as nurturers or objects of beauty. However, there is limited engagement in analysing masculinity, suggesting that it overlooks the need for broader exploration of masculinity theories to fully understand both gender stereotypes. More recent studies, such as The Changing Roles of Gender in Advertising: Past, Present, and Future (Tsichla, 2020), notes a slower shift in the representation in women compared to societal progress. While stating that male depictions have changed as well, moving from traditional masculine portrayals to a greater variety of roles, female representations still dominate the research. While the acknowledgment of male representations in advertising has grown over time, it remains underexplored compared to the extensive critique of female portrayals. The focus on female stereotypes in advertising has provided valuable insights into their societal impacts, but it has also left a clear gap in understanding how masculinity is portrayed, especially in male-targeted product categories. This imbalance underscores the need for more inclusive gender research that equally examines how advertising shapes and reflects male roles alongside female ones. 11 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Our study contributes to the existing gap in gender and advertising research by shifting focus to male portrayals, specifically in the context of grooming ads. While the majority of gender studies have analysed female representations, often critiquing stereotypical depictions of women, our research addresses how masculinity is constructed in advertising through a multimodal framework. Trend 2: Masculinity portrayals in ads across industries Although the scholarly focus on gender and advertising studies has a predominant focus on the portrayal of women, research on masculinity in advertising is growing. However, it’s still a rather narrowly focused field in terms of industries outside the traditional ‘male- dominated’ industries. There has been a notable amount of studies in examining traditional, hegemonic masculinities in the more ‘male-dominated’ industries such as automotives, technology, alcohol and sports. Studies as Kończak (2022) and Wörsching (2007) examine how cars and technologies related to it, often are marketed in ways that aligns with hegemonic masculinity e.g. through portrayals of control, technical competence and independence. Likewise, Schroeder & Zwick (2004) analyse ads for cars, concluding how masculinity in the ads are portrayed as being independent, sexual prowess, virility etc. Scholars like Jackson & Gee (2020) and Finlay et al. (2020) investigate how sports-themed beer ads reinforce and portray stereotypical masculinity traits e.g. physical power, aggression and competitiveness. Comparably, Wörsching (2000) demonstrate how hypermasculine imagery and sports metaphors align with traditional portrayal of men and hegemonic masculinity such as physical prowess, being powerful and stoic. These studies support and reinforce the research and findings on how masculinity is portrayed in ads that aligns with hegemonic masculinity. There is limited research into evolving portrayals of masculinity in ads, especially in the less traditional male-dominated industries. However, there has been some recent studies on masculinity portrayals within the grooming industry. Kenalemang-Palm (2023) examines intersectionality of masculinity in skincare ads, investigating how the ads try to encourage men to have a beauty routine, but still maintaining masculine ideals. Scholars like Coffey-Glover (2023) and Scheibling & Lafrance (2019) analyse how skincare and grooming products employ a type of ‘hybrid masculinity’ in their ads by mixing traditional hegemonic masculinity with evolving masculinities e.g., promoting self-care and vulnerability alongside confidence, strength and being physical attractive. Whereas these studies underscore grooming ads as an industry for evolving masculinity portrayals, Lirola (2023) critiques that grooming ads often rely on stereotypical visual ideals of masculinity e.g., visuals of muscular, well-groomed men. Thus, 12 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker suggesting that grooming ads still fail to portray evolving, diverse masculinities e.g., portraying emotional depth and intersectional identities. Considering these studies we have explored on masculinity portrayals in ads across multiple industries, we argue that our project can contribute to the research. A notable amount of studies have made significant findings on how masculinity portrayals in ads typically align with traditional hegemonic masculinity. However, the studies’ focus has been mainly on traditional ‘male-dominated’ industries like sports, alcohol and automotives. Contrarily, less traditional male-dominated industries e.g., the grooming industry, have comparatively limited research, emphasizing a possible research gap. Thus, we argue that our project on Gillette can contribute to this research gap in masculinity portrayals within the grooming industry. Moreover, we argue that our project’s diachronic approach can contribute in expanding the research on how a brand’s portrayal of masculinity in ads can reflect changing shifts in the expectations and ideals of masculinity. Thus, helping to bridge the gap between traditional and evolving masculinity portrayals in ads. Trend 3: Predominance of TDA over MMDA One significant trend in the study of gender in advertising is the predominant reliance on content analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), with limited integration of Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MMDA). CDA has been instrumental in examining how power and knowledge shape discourses, as Fairclough (1992b) outlines. The use of CDA and content analysis in understanding gender in advertising has been widely explored, but the use of MMDA remains underdeveloped in current research on this topic. Scholars like Islentyeva et al. (2024) highlight the construction of masculinity through verbal narratives in print ads, uncovering themes of strength and competitiveness tied to hegemonic masculinity. Their approach combines CDA with visual analysis, yet it falls short of true multimodal analysis by not addressing the interaction between different modes, as emphasized by Kress (2012). Similarly, Scheibling & Lafrance (2019) analyse grooming product ads, showing how textual elements reflect societal shifts in masculinity. While these studies provide valuable insights, they neglect to explore how visual and auditory modes reinforce or challenge these portrayals. Stoica et al. (2011) apply CDA to Romanian television ads, revealing the reinforcements of traditional gender roles within a cultural context. However, they too focus on textual discourse, overlooking the interplay of multimodal elements in constructing gender narratives. This highlights the gap for a multimodal analysis, taking all the different modes into consideration when examining the ads and how these contribute to the discourses. In contrast, the study from Rasmussen et al. (2021) that critiques Nike's ads for marginalizing women while reinforcing traditional gender roles, highlights the limitations of 13 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker CDA in capturing the full complexity of gender narratives. While textual analysis exposes the power dynamics, it misses how visuals and sound amplify or contest these dynamics. This trend extends to a study from Yue et al. (2023) examining PROYA’s 2021 campaign, noting its progressive stance in challenging stereotypes, as well as the study from Baiata & Pacetti (2023) of Italian children’s toy ads, showing how gender roles are constructed through language. Both studies demonstrate a growing interest in examining stereotypes in ads but fall short in analysing the multimodal strategies that could deepen our understanding of how such stereotypes are constructed or dismantled. Despite significant contributions from CDA in the analysis of masculinity and gender roles in advertising, a clear gap remains regarding how visual and auditory elements interact with textual content. While CDA has effectively revealed how gender is embedded in the language of ads, our project advances this by applying a multimodal lens, which allows us to examine how masculinity is constructed not only through words, but also through the interplay between text, visuals, and sound, providing a rich and more nuanced understanding of the evolving representation of masculinity in ads. Thus, this study contributes to the literature by offering a more holistic approach that bridges the gap between textual and multimodal analysis in the context of gender in advertising. 14 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Theory - Hegemonic Masculinity Connell’s theory and concept of hegemonic masculinity has its origin in the 1980’s but has later been reformulated by Connell & Messerschmidt (2005) after evaluating principal criticisms. Hegemonic masculinity refers to the most dominant masculinity and culturally exalted, with its ascendancy being achieved through the current culture, discursive centrality, institutions and persuasion (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). Connell & Messerschmidt (2005) explain the relational nature of hegemonic masculinity both in terms of the subordination of women, but also other forms of masculinities and their hierarchies. Hegemonic masculinity thus involves the subordination of non-hegemonic masculinities e.g., non-heteronormative or marginalised men shaped by intersections of class, race etc., creating a hierarchy of masculinities. Hegemonic masculinity is not the statistically common form of masculinity in society, only a minority of men might actually enact it, but it is normative (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005, p. 832). Instead, hegemonic masculinity represents the most socially esteemed, idealized form of masculinity, requiring all other men to position themselves in relation to this ideal. Thus, hegemonic masculinity isn’t the: “… commonest pattern in everyday lives of boys and men. Rather, hegemony works in part through the production of exemplars of masculinity …, symbols that have authority despite … most men and boys do not fully live up to them” (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005, p. 846). van den Hoonaard (2009) has grouped the characteristics that are often related to hegemonic masculinity into three categories: Moral components, activity and doing aspects of masculinity, and accomplishments (van den Hoonaard, 2009, p. 71). The moral components include manifesting power and control, being independent and self-reliant, stoicism (in terms of denying physical comfort and ignoring emotional agony), self-control, heterosexuality, youthful appearance and embodiment. The second category focuses not only on what men should do, but how men should do things. This includes participating in sports, competitiveness, risk-taking, heroic acts, bravery in the face of danger, sexual virility and prowess, and objectification of women. The third category defines how a man is successful in the social world. This includes achievements in work (i.e. breadwinning), highly educated, technical competence, being in the male sphere and scientific attitude. However, as emphasized by Connell & Messerschmidt (2005) hegemonic masculinity is not fixed, but historically and socially constructed and reconstructed. Both at a local, regional and global societal level can hegemonic masculinity and gender hierarchies be subjects to historical, cultural and societal changes. Thus, older characteristics of hegemonic masculinity and 15 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker hierarchy of masculinities might be replaced or changed throughout time. Hence, our diachronic analysis and ontological position. In their revision, Connell & Messerschmidt (2005) argue that hegemonic masculinity is constructed by the dynamic interplay between global, regional and local masculinities and gender orders. Global processes, at the global level, shape the regional and local constructions of hegemonic masculinity, while the regional level may give cultural materials adopted or reflecting in global processes that may influence local constructions of hegemonic masculinity. Thus, we argue that Gillette as a transnational, global company and its ads are social agents at the global and regional level, influencing the local level, by constructing ideals of hegemonic masculinity in their ads during different social and cultural shifts throughout time. Critiques While foundational, the theory of hegemonic masculinity has faced criticism. Some scholars criticise the concept of masculinity as being defined within a heteronormative conception of gender, focusing on the male-female differences and ignoring difference and exclusion within the gender categories (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005, p. 836). To this Connell and Messerschmidt answer: “Masculinities are configurations of practice that are accomplished in social action and, therefore, can differ according to the gender relations in a particular social setting” (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005, p. 836). Some scholars also critique hegemonic masculinity as being a singular definition, not defining various hegemonic masculinities across cultures and different local levels (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). However, as mentioned above, Connell & Messerschmidt (2005) have reformulated that hegemonic masculinity is constructed in three levels (global, regional and local). Moreover, while hegemonic masculinity is context-dependent, thus important to distinguish the different levels of masculinities, it’s important that we, in a globalised world, don’t see cultures and discourses as totally independent from the world. Relevance to our project We find the theory of hegemonic masculinity relevant to our project as it helps us to analyse the evolution of Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity in its ads from the 1989s to nowadays with hegemonic masculinity as social practice. By applying this theory, we can examine how Gillette’s portrayals of masculinity reflect and contribute to societal and cultural shifts in the ideals and expectations of men. 16 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Analysis Analysis 1 – 1989: “The best a man can get” This Gillette “Atra Plus” ad was released in Jan.1989 during the Super Bowl XXIII (NN). The ad is a montage of men each reflecting aspects of masculinity, which collectively portrays ideal masculinity as being successful. The ad’s portrayal of masculinity is represented via yuppies, athletes, and men with their relations. Thus, this MMDA is also divided as such. Multimodal text Part 1: Yuppies Gillette’s emphasis on portraying masculinity as being successful and praising men’s achievements is already evident by the third line of Gillette’s jingle: “You’ve come so far”, with the visual of a businessman gesturing that he succeeded in his work as he clenches his fits and smiles after his boss claps his shoulder. Since the businessman literally looks up to the male boss, it possibly reflects an importance in other men’s approval. Later in the ad we see businessmen in a Wall St. setting, thus the businessmen in the ad reflect the yuppies, who had a big influence on the social practice of that time regarding masculinity (see Social practice). The lyric: “Where the race is run…” is played while changing scenes of the yuppies being successful and Gillette’s product is shown. This underlines the ad’s portrayal of masculinity as a kind of individualistic race to be the most successful in order to achieve ideal masculinity, which was a prominent part of the social practice in terms of masculinity in the late 80s. Showing Gillette’s product between the scenes with the yuppies emphasizes Gillette’s discourse that their product is an important tool in the race to be a successful, masculine man. The lyric then continues with: “…you’re the champion” while showing scenes of athletes being champions, succeeding. This leads to the second representation of masculinity, athletes. 17 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Part 2: Athletes Masculinity is also portrayed through the athletes in the ad by showing scenes of athletes succeeding and being “… the champion”. Athletes are explicit symbols of being successful in their achievements as they literally strive to be champions in their sports. The first scene of an athlete is right after the lyric: “You’ve come so far”, showing him giving his all. The next scene of athletes is American football players winning, which is shown after the lyric: “We know how to make, the most of who you are”, implying that men who give their all are successful, masculine men. Thus, Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity is also supported by the athletes as examples of men achieving success and being champions due to their physical prowess, determination and giving their all: Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity is further supported later in the ad with the lyrics: “We give you all we have to give, for all a man can be” while a montage of a man flirting with a woman, a man shaving, a baseball player, football player and lastly astronauts is shown. This sequence emphasizes Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity as giving your all to be successful in all the roles a “masculine” man must undertake whether it be professionally, physically, or in their social relations. Part 3: Men and their relations Whereas the yuppies and athletes portray masculinity with traits of more individualistic success, the men portraying masculinity in relation to their family, romantic partners or their sons, are portrayed as more caring and softer. Compared to the athletes, representing strength, determination etc., the men with their relations are shown smiling and with caring physical touch e.g. embracing each other, kissing etc., while the athletes’ and yuppies’ 18 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker bodies are gesturing their own success or more aggressively hugging each other when winning. However, the scenes of the men with their family or romantic relations also portray masculinity as being successful. The men’s relational success is signified by the man’s relations hugging him, kissing him or smiling, which shows that the men have achieved social success. Thus, adding a third aspect of what men need to successfully achieve in life to be ideally masculine. A notable section of men with their relations, is the parts aligning the lyrics: “Father and son, it’s what we always done”, where the fathers pass on (Gillette’s) values of masculinity to their sons. The scene showing a son lifting his father’s dumbbell while the father is cheering him shows the passing on that masculine men need to be strong. The portrayal of grooming as masculine is of course a vital message to communicate for Gillette. This portrayal is seen when the father plays pretend-shaving on his son’s cheek, and a scene of a boy mimicking his father combing his hair. Discursive practice Gillette’s combination of yuppies, athletes and men with their relations collectively portray masculinity as successfully excelling in all aspects of a “masculine” man’s life, suggesting that the “best” man is both physically, occupationally, and relationally successful. Thus, Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity emphasises perfection in masculinity, creating a discourse of ideal masculinity. A discourse of ideal masculinity is also seen in cultural industries like 19 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker the imaginary of masculinity in the 1980s Hollywood films, where especially the white male body was a display of musculature, beauty, toughness and physical feats (Jeffords, 1993, p. 245). Thus, it can be argued that Gillette draws from films’ idealised discourse on masculinity, as the men in the ad also are displayed as such. Gillette’s ad focuses on men’s individualistic success, drawing heavily on the broader cultural discourses of the ideology of individualism, where one of the key features is the primacy of individual goals (Dubois & Beauvois, 2005, p. 127). Thus, Gillette refers to this individualistic belief to create the discourse that men must achieve these idealised individual goals to successfully become, as the slogan says: “The best a man can get”, supported by the lyrics e.g., “You’re the champion”. Wall St. and yuppies are used as intertextuality e.g. the clip of the Wall St.-sign. Yuppies were a cultural symbol of individualism in the 1980s as yuppies believed that their professional, educational and intelligent competences secured their success (Gottlieb, 2021, p. 964). Social practice Since the ad was released in 1989, we will draw on the social practices of the late 1980s and the early 1990s. Yuppies The yuppies play a relevant factor in the social practice of that time in terms of hegemonic masculinity. The peak of Wall St. and yuppies was in the 1980s, declining in the early 1990s. Yuppie is a term that describes the emergent category of young, urban, professional men working white collar jobs, especially in Wall St. (Gottlieb, 2021). Gottlieb (2021, p. 962) defines yuppies as “…essential to understanding how the booming financial and professional sectors remade America in the closing decades of the twentieth century”. The yuppies split the then American broad middle class in two; to an upwardly mobile college-educated metropolitan class, and a downwardly mobile class of workers (Ibid, 962). Thus, a societal shift in the American middle class. The increase of yuppies was able to reshape American politics, economy and social life (Ibid, 962). Meaning, the yuppies played a vital role in the 80s-early 90s’ hegemonic ideology of individualism, and the ideas that success meant to be professionally and financially successful, striving for perfection and successful excellence in all roles in life. Thus, yuppies represented a new hegemonic, masculine hero in America due to their embodiment of financial and professional success. Yuppies portray values of 20 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker hegemonic masculinity like competitiveness, achievements in work (i.e. breadwinner), and being in the male sphere (van den Hoonaard, 2009, p. 71). Gillette’s portrayal of yuppies shows how the ad reflects and is influenced by the social practice by portraying yuppies as ideal masculinity. The crisis of (hegemonic) masculinity In the early 90’s a so-called ‘crisis of masculinity’ arose of what it means to be a man, which was a central issue at the time (Levant, 1992, p. 381). In Levant (1992) study, he states how many men, especially men in mid-life, questioned what it means to be a man today (the early 90’s). The crisis emerged due to societal shifts in the early 1990s, particularly in gender roles dynamics in the work field. Women in the work field were over 74%, joining traditionally male-dominated industries as their educational level increased, which decreased the wage gap between genders significantly (Yellen, 2020). This societal shift challenged broader patriarchal power structures that historically positioned men as breadwinners and hegemonic ideology that men are dominant and powerful in the work field and the sole provider of the family (Levant, 1992, p. 381). Men were increasingly expected to adapt to roles that contradict hegemonic masculinity e.g. nurturing children, showing weakness, and be a fully committed partner in raising their children (Levant 1992, 381, 385). The emergence of reconstructing hegemonic masculinity resulted in men’s demoralisation, low self-esteem and defensiveness. Thus, we argue that Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity reinforces hegemonic masculinity to regain men’s lost self- esteem and pride with being a traditional, masculine man. This is underlined with the yuppies and athletes and the celebratory lyrics e.g. “You are the champion”, “You have come so far”. The athletes portray hegemonic masculinity e.g. physical prowess, stoicism, competitiveness and achievements (van den Hoonaard, 2009, p. 71). As Connell & Messerschmidt (2005, p. 846, 850) note, athletes and successful participation in sports are exemplars of hegemonic masculinity, so releasing the ad during the Super Bowl further reinforces Gillette’s portrayal of hegemonic masculinity, since the Super Bowl typically is associated with and celebrates traditional masculine ideals like physical prowess, competitiveness and achievements. The Super Bowl’s dominantly male audience and cultural significance, thus provide an ideal setting to market Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity. The ad also reflects the newer expectations of men via the caring fathers and committed romantic partners. However, the ad still reflects aspects of hegemonic masculinity in the way the fathers pass on hegemonic values in masculinity. As Connell & Messerschmidt (2005) and Levant (1992) state hegemonic patterns of masculinity are engaged with as children grow up, often taught by their fathers. 21 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Moreover, Gillette only portrays ideal, hegemonic masculinity. Ergo, not portraying subordinated masculinities except three black men portrayed as athletes or a yuppie, so they fall under hegemonic masculinity traits. 22 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Analysis 2 – 1999: “Mach 3” The Gillette ad: “Mach 3” was released in 1999 (frankmat, 2013). This MMDA divides the ad in two parts: the scenes of the fighter jet and the fighter pilot shaving. Multimodal text Part 1: Fighter jet The first part of the ad is rapidly changing scenes of a fighter jet flying through the sky in supersonic speed and close ups of the fighter pilot. The sound-effects e.g., the sound of flying in supersonic speed, plays a vital role to support the visuals in the ad, both contributing to give the feeling of action, speed and power. The viewer then sees through the fighter pilot’s point of view with visuals of breaking the sonic barrier, which makes the viewer feel the action as if he is the heroic fighter pilot. Thus, Gillette portrays the traditional notion that masculine men like action and action heroes. As the sonic barrier breaks a sonic boom sound-effect is added and the text: “MACH1” appears with explosion- effects in the background. Reminiscent of explosion-effects often used in action movies. As the fighter pilot flies even faster, more parts of the jet fall off with smacking sound-effects. He breaks another sonic barrier with “MACH2” appearing the same way as “MACH1”. After breaking the “MACH2” sonic barrier all the layers on the pilot fall off, revealing a shirtless, muscular man with focused, determined eyes and a stoic face who breaks into a third sonic barrier, “MACH3”, the razor’s logo. 23 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Part 2: Fighter pilot shaving The second part of the ad is a seemingly naked pilot who has, as the voice-over says: “Break through to the new world of MACH3 from Gillette”. The man has a toned, muscular body with a conventionally attractive masculine face, thus Gillette is idealising a certain look to portray ideal masculinity. The razor flies from the sky directly into his hand, as if the man is the Norse mythology god, Thor, and the razor is his Mjöllnir. Continuing Gillette’s use of elements from action movies and action heroes to portray masculinity as action heroes. Even when he shaves sound-effects of a jet are added. As the man is feeling himself after he has shaved, a silhouette of a woman in the background walks towards him. With this Gillette creates a discourse that shaving is a ritual that reinforces ideal masculinity, attractiveness and confidence, which attracts women. Discursive practice In this ad, Gillette clearly draws from popular culture influenced by cultural industries, particularly the way action movie discourses portrayed imaginary, ideal masculinity at that time. Gillette uses elements from the action movies discourse such as sound-effects of speed, explosions etc. The voice-over explaining the razor has a deep, manly dramatic voice reminiscent of voiceovers in action movie trailers. Gillette also idealises a specific masculine look by selecting a man that looks like a typical action hero to represent the fighter pilot in the ad. Gillette uses the action movie Top Gun as intertextuality to portray masculinity. The Top Gun reference is seen in the ad with its shared themes of speed, male-dominated military field, action and high-tech innovation. Gillette’s portrayal of masculinity is represented via the fighter pilot in the ad, channelling the masculinity traits, the protagonist in Top Gun has such as physical prowess, bravery in the face of danger, control, risk-taking, technical competence and competitiveness, which align with the hegemonic masculinity at 24 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker that time. Thus, Gillette portrays masculinity like an action hero with hegemonic masculinity traits as ideal masculinity, which generally reflects action movie discourses on masculinity during the 1980s (Top Gun from 1986) and 1990s. Gillette employs interdiscursivity by mixing action movie discourse and a commercial discourse with traits of metrosexuality that grooming is an important ritual to become an attractive, masculine hero. Thus, the act of shaving is portrayed as a ritual to achieve the female gaze and a tool to be the best man, like a hero controlling a powerful tool e.g. Thor and his Mjölnir. Social practice As mentioned in the first analysis, a crisis in masculinity arose, which challenged hegemonic masculinity and its power structures. The crisis in (hegemonic) masculinity further developed in the 1990s due to social and cultural shifts from the causes of feminism, changing gender roles in the work field, and the perceived feminisation of men (Shugart, 2008, p. 280, 281). Critics suggest that the masculinity in crisis at that time was due to the emerging phenomenon of ‘commercial masculinity’, which objectified and commodified men and masculinity, challenging hegemonic masculinity (Shugart, 2008, p. 281). Shugart (2008) argues that metrosexuality served as a vital function within commercial masculinity. Commercial masculinity and metrosexuality In 1994 the term ‘metrosexuality’ was coined by cultural critic Mark Simpson to describe the growing segment of young, heterosexual men shamelessly engaging in beauty care, grooming and style-consciousness (Peitsch, 2004, p. 53; Shugart, 2008, p. 283). The term had less currency the few years after, but the trend of metrosexuality continued to escalate in the late 90’s and Simpson’s term was reintroduced in 2002 (Peitsch, 2004, p. 53). So, the term and visibility of metrosexuality peaked in early to mid 2000s. Shugart (2008) marks metrosexuality as the heir of the yuppies in the lineage of commercial masculinity, which is notable to mention since the first Gillette ad we analysed portrayed yuppies. Thus, an evolving shift in social practice in terms of masculinity. Metrosexuality challenged hegemonic masculinity by adding beauty as a masculine value, which traditionally was perceived as a feminine value (Shugart, 2008, pp. 280–281). However, metrosexuality still align with the ideology of maculine dominance, since metrosexual men tried to fulfil society’s expectations by portraying wealth, superiority and competency through their groomed and polished appearance (Pan & Jamnia, 2015, p. 23). Despite this, metrosexual at that time was characterised as a feminised masculinity, which left some critical (Peitsch, 2004). Metrosexuality is reflected in Gillette’s ad by the emphasis on portraying shaving as a grooming ritual to achieve ideal masculinity e.g. confidence and attractiveness. This is relevant for Gillette, since they are selling a grooming product. The man’s appearance in the ad shows that he pays attention to perfecting his look with his muscularly toned body and a clean, shaved face. His hair is also styled with hair products. It’s noticeable that his face is 25 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker shaved in the entire ad even before he is shown shaving, which underlines that a shaved face is the ideal masculine look. The late 1990s saw a cultural shift in mainstream media’s portrayal of masculinity, with the increasing exposure of the male body being displayed in an eroticised or objectified (Peitsch, 2004, p. 50). Ads featuring exposed male bodies became increasingly common: “…the new man shamelessly peeled off his clothing to expose his (well-toned) body to women, and other men” (Peitsch, 2004, p. 48). This shift reflects an ideological crisis in hegemonic masculinity by changing the male body from being idealised for its strength, to become objectified and eroticised. This shift is reflected in Gillette’s ad by displaying the man almost naked. The explicit display of the male body made it open for the objectifying gaze of both women and men, which made it difficult to control the homoerotic potential (Peitsch, 2004, p. 48). This ‘queering’ of male heterosexuality as Peitsch (2004, p. 50) calls it, challenges hegemonic masculinity with its characteristics of homophobic distancing of homosexual men (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). While mainstream ads invited undifferentiated (female, male, hetero or homo) gaze of the eroticised male images, others made efforts in asserting the displayed male’s heterosexuality (Peitsch, 2004, p. 48, 50). Gillette’s ad is an example of the latter, by asserting the man’s heterosexuality with the scene of the woman walking towards him after he has shaved. Thus, only promoting the hetero, female gaze. His masculinity is portrayed with hegemonic masculinity traits by representing him as a fighter pilot, a traditionally male- dominated field and an exemplar of a traditionally masculine hero as seen in Top Gun. Thus, Gillette still portrays masculinity with hegemonic masculinity traits by emphasising heterosexuality and portraying a hegemonic masculine hero. 26 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Analysis 3 – 2006: “Gillette fusion” In the Gillette Fusion ad from 2006 (RetroCommercials, 2024), there are several different modes that work together to represent masculinity, with the primary focus on the modes of sound, appearance, actions, and facial expressions. The ad’s portrayal of masculinity is represented through the action genre and metrosexuality. Thus, this MMDA is also divided as such. Multimodal text Part 1: Action hero The ad begins with a close-up shot of a man’s illuminated face as he puts on dark sunglasses, an action accompanied by a deep, dramatic sound effect. The combination of sound and visuals builds suspense and signals an imminent, significant event, as well as adding to the building image of a cool and mysterious man. The sunglasses reflect the colours of blue and gold, each carrying distinct connotations: blue symbolizes technology, stability, and control, while gold evokes feelings of luxury, energy, and power. Together, these colours could work to represent a balance of modernity and strength, qualities often linked to masculinity. Simultaneously, a strong male voiceover introduces the product, describing the Gillette razor as innovative and a "miracle" to be discovered. The authoritative tone of the voice reinforces reliability and leadership, aligning the razor with traditional masculine ideals of strength and dominance. This complements the visual elements as both contribute to creating an image of the protagonist as confident and powerful. 27 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker The subsequent scenes introduce a futuristic setting, with a dark colour palette where the man is standing in a completely unlit room, only punctuated by two glowing orbs bathed in blue and gold light, racing through a long hallway. Their rapid movement with rapid cuts and dramatic close-ups, introduces an action-oriented dynamic, further reinforced by the dramatic interplay of lighting and the man's poised stance. The combination of these modes—sound, colour, lighting, and movement—together depict masculinity as composed, in control, and equipped to handle high-intensity situations. When the orbs approach, their reflection in the man's sunglasses could symbolize duality and merging forces. His smirk and prominent facial features—broad chin, sharp nose, and defined jawline—are highlighted through strategic lighting, centralizing him as the epitome of masculinity. The climax occurs when the man is using his strength to stop and fuse the orbs, stumbling a bit when he grabs the orbs to emphasize the otherworldly strength he is possessing, which he then uses to fuse the two bolts together in a visually explosive sequence. The voiceover declares, “It’s time you did,” acting as a motivational call to action. 28 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker In this part of the ad, the man is portrayed through the action genre, with all modalities working together to elevate him as an extraordinary figure of strength, control, and innovation. The dramatic visuals, including dark sunglasses reflecting blue and gold hues, paired with a deep sound effect, immediately set a tone of mystery and power. These elements establish the man as a cool and strong character, ready to confront challenges with calm confidence. Together, all modes—sound, visuals, voiceover, and movement— work cohesively to represent masculinity as heroic, invincible, and aspirational—qualities traditionally associated with iconic male superheroes, as well as aligning with the traditional archetype of a cool, powerful, and aspirational male figure. Part 2: Metrosexual In the second part of the ad, the lighting changes significantly from the dark, dramatic tones of the earlier scenes to bright, clean illumination. This transition reflects a move toward highlighting cleanliness and self-care, aligning masculinity with the growing trend of metrosexuality (Peitsch, 2004). We see the same man use the Gillette razor, with his wet, sleek hair and fresh appearance of his skin emphasising hygiene, portraying self-grooming as a vital aspect of masculinity. This focus on grooming reframes masculinity as not only about strength and dominance but also about taking pride in one's appearance. 29 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker In the final scene of the ad, the narrative culminates in a tender moment where the man smiles as a woman gently caresses his freshly shaven face. This is the only moment in the ad where he visibly softens, suggesting that masculinity is not only about strength and success, but also about desirability and intimacy. This part further implies that adopting this type of masculinity—focused on self-grooming, hygiene, and a polished appearance—leads to social and romantic success. This interaction between the man and the woman reinforces the idea that achieving this version of masculinity, makes men more desirable to women. The interplay of modes—lighting, facial expressions, close-ups, and narrative structure— works to craft a multidimensional image of masculinity. It moves beyond the earlier action and mysterious archetype to present a version of masculinity that is approachable, cool, and cares about hygiene and self-care. This balance of strength and intimacy reinforces the ad’s message that grooming is essential to achieving modern masculine ideals. The choice of framing—a heterosexual romantic encounter—also reflects and reinforces traditional gender norms, aligning masculinity with heterosexuality. Discursive practice The Gillette ad draws heavily from popular culture trends of the time, particularly the aesthetics of superhero and science-fiction narratives. The futuristic setting, combined with the protagonist fusing two bolts of lightning to create the new razor, suggests parallels to iconic action heroes, including The Matrix movies and Superman. In the first part of the ad, intertextuality with The Matrix universe is evident through the character’s styling, setting, and overall aesthetic. The man is dressed in all black, reminiscent of Neo's iconic attire, and wears similar dark sunglasses, which are a signature feature of the film's characters. The futuristic and high-tech setting, with glowing orbs racing through a dark corridor, further aligns with the Matrix universe's themes of advanced technology and otherworldly environments. 30 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Neo from The Matrix franchise embodies the “chosen one” narrative – a man destined to lead, overcome challenges, and achieve greatness, which ties into traditional masculine ideals of heroism and strength. Furthermore, The Matrix is associated with futuristic technology and control. In the ad, the man “fuse” lightning bolts together, a metaphor for harnessing power and innovation. This links masculinity to competence with advanced tools and modernity. Gillette’s intertextual reference draws on the cultural aspect of The Matrix to communicate a vision of masculinity that balances tradition (heroism and strength) with modernity (technological mastery). Moreover, Gillette also wields the idea of extraordinary power (lightning bolts) that aligns with Superman as a symbol of strength, and a hero, akin to how Superman has been the ultimate ideal of masculinity. Apart from the ads use of intertextuality to portray masculinity, it also employs interdiscursivity by blending two distinct discourses of masculinity which is seen in the ad: the action hero archetype and the intimate, self-grooming individual. The action hero discourse is characterized by the protagonist's representation as a cool, stoic figure facing challenges with strength and determination. This is depicted through dramatic sound effects, dark and mysterious lighting, and the fast-paced editing of the action sequences, where he is shown stopping and fusing glowing orbs with overwhelming strength. These elements evoke traits traditionally associated with hypermasculinity, such as bravery, resilience, and dominance in high-stakes situations. In contrast, metrosexuality discourse is portrayed through a calmer and lighter tone in the shaving scenes. The man is bathed in bright lighting, emphasizing cleanliness and precision as he uses the razor. His facial expressions remain confident and controlled, but the emphasis shifts to his attention to hygiene and self-presentation. The ad culminates in a romantic moment where a woman affectionately caresses his clean-shaven face, suggesting that this form of masculinity is also desirable, attractive, and socially rewarding. Social practice Hegemonic masculinity achieves dominance through persuasion, cultural centrality, and institutional reinforcement (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). This ad reflects this by presenting a man who is admirable and aspirational, combining cultural traits of heroism and self-care. The first part of the ad positions the man as a superhero, a figure of bravery, strength, risk-taking, and technical competence, qualities traditionally aligned with hegemonic masculinity. However, hegemonic masculinity isn’t static but evolves alongside cultural and societal shifts, which is reflected in the ad by blending the heroic masculinity with a softer, more self-groomed version of masculinity. This duality illustrates the contemporary reconfiguration of masculinity, where traditional ideals of toughness coexist with emerging values of care and hygiene in the 2000s. Thus, some research suggests that men are not rigidly committed to a singular model of masculinity. Instead, they strategically adopt or 31 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker distance themselves from hegemonic ideals depending on their goals or circumstances (Connell, 2005). As mentioned in the 1999 analysis, metrosexuality peaked in the early to mid 2000s. In this ad, these influences are evident in how masculinity is represented. While embodying hegemonic masculine ideals like bravery, strength, heterosexuality and technical competence, the ad also incorporates metrosexual traits through scenes of grooming and cleanliness, suggesting that men began to explore “female domains". Connell (2005) also highlights how media and cultural narratives of masculinity often align with global political dynamics. For instance, the Western attack on Iraq in 2003 drew on a media imagery of toughness and resilience. The ad similarly taps into this imagery of masculine strength and control, positioning the man as a figure of authority and capability in a high-tech, action-oriented narrative. This alignment reflects how hegemonic masculinity also borrows from broader global discourses of power to maintain its cultural dominance. 32 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Analysis 4 – 2016: “Perfect Isn’t Pretty” The 2016 campaign “Perfect Isn’t Pretty” from Gillette (Tennant, 2017), features Gillette’s global athlete ambassadors and their disciplines, including Ashton Eaton (Great Britain, Decathlon), Neymar Jr. (Brazil, Soccer), Ning Zetao (China, Freestyle Swimming) and Andy Tennant (Great Britain, Team Persuit Cycling) (NN, 2016). The visual and auditory modality is heavily relied upon in the representation of masculinity, which can be divided into two parts: Vulnerability and perseverance. Multimodal text The ad begins with a dark, almost oppressive atmosphere, established through a dark colour palette of black, white, grey, and faded hues, as well as the depiction of stormy, rainy weather. These visual elements serve as metaphors for the emotional and physical “storms” the athletes endure, illustrating vulnerability as a key theme. Part 1: Vulnerability Neymar Jr., Ashton Eaton, Ning Zetao, and Andy Tennant are shown in moments of struggle, with facial expressions and body language emphasizing their internal conflicts. Neymar Jr.’s silent scream directly at the camera acts as a striking visual metaphor for inner turmoil and the stoic composure required to meet external expectations. His slumped posture after losing the ball on the field and his exhaustion on the couch at home depict his struggle to balance professional demands and fatherhood. Similarly, Ashton Eaton’s relentless running—both on the track and in a shadowy forest—depicts his physical endurance and psychological battle, with the black wolf chasing him symbolizing personal demons like self- 33 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker doubt and societal pressure. Notably, these expressions of hardship and vulnerability are portrayed in private moments, emphasizing the expectation of emotional suppression in public. Andy Tennant’s heated argument with his partner highlights the impact of societal expectations on personal relationships, as his frustration underscores how stoic endurance limits emotional expression. Meanwhile, Ning Zetao’s reflection as the Chinese flag is raised intertwines masculinity with national pride, symbolizing the weight of representing his country on a global stage. The tagline “PERFECT ISN’T PRETTY” further emphasises the campaign’s core message: the pursuit of perfection is gruelling, yet resilience defines masculinity. The text reinforces this through subtitles translating Chinese dialogue, emphasizing the universal nature of discipline and sacrifice while showcasing cultural specificity. The interplay with public moments of success with private struggles through rapid cuts between settings and timelines, further highlights the duality of masculinity: the need to project strength outwardly while managing internal hardships. Auditory elements further enhance this representation of masculinity, with a haunting, low-tempo background music, establishing a dramatic tone, while the silence during Neymar Jr.’s scream amplifies the emotional intensity. The voice of Ning’s coach yelling, “Faster! Faster!” reflects relentless external pressures, while Sia’s song “Unstoppable” underscores the athletes’ resilience. Lyrics like “I put my armour on” metaphorically link to the athletes’ gear, representing emotional protection and the suppression of vulnerability, consistent with hegemonic masculinity ideals. This armour the athletes are wearing connects to the line “I’m unstoppable until you look the other way”, symbolising how masculinity’s performance is only successful as long as others uphold the illusion of invulnerability. The ad’s scenes of athletes alone serve to underline the pressure to keep up appearances, even as internal conflict threatens to undermine the athlete’s constructed image of strength and control. 34 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Part 2: Perseverance The ad’s visual modality in the second part emphasizes the transformation from struggle to triumph, constructing masculinity as a journey of overcoming challenges through resilience, physical prowess. The part opens with a wide shot of a city at dawn, symbolizing renewal and the promise of progress. This contrasts with the earlier darker tones, reflecting a shift from adversity to clarity. Ashton Eaton is depicted shirtless surrounded by nature, with his muscular physique accentuated by the lighting. This visual emphasizes physical readiness and determination, reinforcing masculinity’s association with power and discipline. Similarly, Ning Zetao’s walk through a dimly lit hallway lined with bunk beds suggests camaraderie and structure, foundational elements of a disciplined, masculine environment. 35 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker The tone shifts further as Ning is shown swimming under the approving nod of his coach, contrasting earlier moments of pressure with a sense of accomplishment. Neymar is shown playing with his child, integrating a nurturing, traditionally feminine element into the depiction of masculinity. This contrast broadens the definition of masculinity by pairing emotional connection with achievement. Ashton Eaton’s decathlon training on the track, culminating in a celebratory clap, emphasises perseverance. However, the presence of a black wolf persistently chasing him in a foggy landscape underscores the idea that challenges, both external and internal, are never fully conquered. The wolf serves as a metaphor for obstacles that continue to test resilience, framing masculinity as an ongoing pursuit of success. The textual elements further reinforce these themes, with the line “THE BEST A MAN CAN GET, ISN’T ALWAYS PRETTY” highlighting the central message that masculinity is not about achieving a flawless image but about enduring struggles and imperfections. The follow-up line, “BUT ALWAYS WORTH THE CHASE,” ties the pursuit of excellence to effort and resilience, framing masculinity as a continuous journey rather than a static achievement. Auditory elements complement the visuals and text, with Sia’s “I’m Unstoppable” playing throughout, reinforcing themes of perseverance and empowerment. Pusha T’s lyrics, “Pretty isn’t perfect, they told me I was worthless,” echo societal pressures on men to conform to external ideals of perfection. The line “What don’t kill you only makes you stronger" further aligns with the depiction of masculinity as an embodiment of resilience. The lyric “I got the will to go a little longer” reflects the athletes’ relentless determination, tying the auditory elements to the visual representation of masculinity of athletes pushing through physical and emotional barriers. 36 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker The Gillette ad "Perfect Isn’t Pretty" portrays masculinity through two key themes: vulnerability and perseverance, combining visual, textual, and auditory modalities. The Gillette ad portrays masculinity as a challenging yet worthwhile journey, emphasizing traditional values of endurance, sacrifice, and persistence. While it introduces a more emotionally nuanced view by showing athletes' vulnerabilities (e.g., injury, doubt), the ad still stresses the importance of perseverance to achieve success. Featuring athletes from diverse backgrounds, it highlights the universal nature of this struggle, reinforcing those men, regardless of culture, must endure hardships to gain success. Ultimately, the ad blends emotional vulnerability with physical strength, aligning with traditional views of masculinity while offering a broader, more inclusive perspective. Discursive practice This ad blends traditional and contemporary discourses of masculinity, reflecting the evolving social narratives about what it means to be a man. There is the traditional masculinity, with core values like strength, discipline, and the strive for success (Connell, 2005) which is seen in the ad through the portrayal of the athletes’ intense training, mirroring the classic hegemonic portrayal of masculinity as tough and unyielding. The ad briefly references Gillette's original slogan, "The Best a Man Can Get,", which in its original use, celebrated men achieving peak societal standards, often tied to appearance, professional success, and dominance see analysis 1989. By using the tagline, the ad acknowledges the traditional narrative, while also challenging it by portraying masculinity as vulnerable. We see this in the scenes where the athletes are showing emotions and hardship, which introduces a more nuanced, emotional side of masculinity, which contrasts with the traditional portrayals seen in the ad as well. The blend of these two portrayals is further emphasised in the choice of song in the ad. Gillette collaborated with singer and songwriter Sia to create a remix of her song “Unstoppable”. This mix introduces a subtle but impactful lyrical change: while the original version repeats "I'm unstoppable today," the remix for the campaign shifts to "I'm unstoppable, until they look the other way”. By including Sia, a female singer, with the obvious reference to the original song, the ad subtly hints to feminist “girl power” and other 37 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker inclusive movements. Furthermore, the addition of the hip-hop artist Pusha T can be tied to the urban and youth hip-hop cultures, where masculinity often intersects with strength, dominance and success, with hip-hop artists often rapping about the realities and struggles of the ghetto and the “hard life” (Patton et al., 2013). Lastly, the ad touches upon national identity and masculinity, which we see in scenes like Ning Zetao running on the Great Wall of China, and the Chinese national flag being raised, which link individual achievement with national pride. The Olympics is a moment when individual masculinity intersects with the collective identity, as victories are seen as a symbol of a nation’s strength and unity. Hegemonic masculinity is central in sports due to its focus on competition and winning, reinforcing specific masculine ideals such as toughness and competitiveness. These ideals are built around narrative myths, such as “winner takes it all” (English, 2017) elements reinforce the portrayal of masculinity as multidimensional: tough but vulnerable, resilient but emotionally aware. While the ad aligns with traditional ideals of men, it also signals an evolving societal expectation that men balance these traits with emotional expression. This duality reflects the ongoing negotiation between hegemonic and inclusive masculinities in contemporary culture. 38 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Social practice As mentioned, the ad acknowledges the evolving portrayals of men, such as the acceptance of vulnerability and showing emotions, which aligns with the growing recognition of harmful gender stereotypes during the 2010’s. Movements like #HeForShe encouraged men to fight against these stereotypes (Tewari, 2021). While the ad maintains the narrative that success is worth the struggle, a key element of hegemonic masculinity, it hints at a shift toward a more inclusive masculinity, where men from various cultures and backgrounds experience similar hardships. Ralph & Roberts (2020) highlight the rise of more inclusive forms of masculinity, marked by reduced hierarchical power struggles, where men adopt more positive attitudes toward women, and previously feminized behaviours, such as emotional expression, gain acceptance. In the past, male athletes often concealed emotions, fearing perceptions of weakness, but changing norms now promote openness and acceptance, as we see in the Gillette ad. This is also seen in the way Neymar Jr. is taking on the nursing role for his child, which further reflects the movement where men are increasingly taking on caregiving roles. However, some studies find that traditional gender roles and stereotypes still dominate the representation of men (Gentry & Harrison, 2010). The text "THE BEST A MAN CAN GET, ISN’T ALWAYS PRETTY" and "BUT ALWAYS WORTH THE CHASE" reinforce this message, highlighting that while the path to excellence might be challenging and imperfect, it is ultimately worthwhile because of the rewards of success, strength and recognition, which draws on hegemonic masculinity in how men expected to navigate societal pressures (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). 39 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker Analysis 5 – 2019: “We believe the best a man can get” The Gillette campaign “We Believe The Best Men Can Be” was shared in Jan.2019 on its social media accounts (McCluskey 2019). This MMDA divides the ad in two parts: First, the ad’s section showing toxic masculinity. Second, the ad showing that Gillette believes in the best in men. Multimodal text Part 1: Toxic masculinity The ad opens with middle-aged, older men of different ethnicities looking themselves in the mirror. Their facial expressions portray uncertainty and reflection. Their facial expressions and looking themselves in the mirror signify that they are figuratively looking themselves in the mirror. Possibly self-reflecting whether they are practicing toxic masculinity, or what masculinity means today amidst the social movements and progression in society in terms of gender norms. This is hinted by the audio of news clips saying: “Bullying”, “The MeToo movement against sexual harassment”, “toxic masculinity” in the background. A close-up of a redheaded, young man is then shown, where the voiceover asks: “Is this the best a man can get?”. The choice of the redheaded man is possibly to symbolise a beginning of reconstructing masculinity, since male ‘gingers’ have been ascribed by society with traits white heteronormative men don’t want to be associated with e.g. weakness, nerdiness and unattractive (O'Malley, 2018, p. 3). Thus, they are distanced from normative masculinity. A fictional montage of old TV shows sexually harassing women is shown on a TV, with the voiceover “It has been going on for far too long” hinting at the historical sexual harassment of women. The TV shows young men and women having a pool party, where the camera then turns to three teenage boys watching the shows. The three boys’ look don’t align with 40 Thea Juhl Larsen, 1st Semester Project – Global Processes 18.12.2024 Michelle Kofod Leidecker hegemonic masculinity e.g. physical prowess. Their facial expressions are sad when watching the people partying to show that they don’t align with the portrayal of masculinity in TV shows, making them feel like a subordinated masculinity. We then see the laughing track of the TV show with the man groping the maid with the voiceover: “We can't laugh it off", implying that men need to take sexual harassment seriously. An example of ‘mansplaining’ is then shown. The woman’s facial expression shows the effect mansplaining has she looks down and slightly moves her head from the table. Visuals of two young boys fighting (notably the redheaded boy is attacked) is aligned with the voiceover: “Making the same old excuses”. Three fathers, and then an infinitive row of fathers over their grills then say: “Boys will be boys”, a sentence used to excuse men’s aggressive behavior (Kaplan, 2020). The

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