Geography Secondary 2 PDF

Secondary 2 Geography Chapter 1: Building Sustainable Cities What are cities? A city is an urban area in a country The size of a city can vary from place to place A city has certain characteristics ○ Population size is large ○ Population density is high ○ Urb...

Secondary 2 Geography Chapter 1: Building Sustainable Cities What are cities? A city is an urban area in a country The size of a city can vary from place to place A city has certain characteristics ○ Population size is large ○ Population density is high ○ Urban built-up area ○ Provides a variety of functions and services / range of functions Population Density Cities have larger population sizes compared to rural areas within a country Cities population size vary across the world ○ A city can be populated by just 500 people, or millions of people Cities can grow because of ○ Rural-urban migration, i.e. people moving from the countryside to cities; and ○ Urban to urban migration, i.e. people moving from one city to another Population Size Population density refers to the number of people per unit area of land Population density is described as either low or high Formula: population density = no. of people/land area Built-up Area A city is a a built-up area Built-up areas refer to areas covered by buildings and infrastructure, e.g. tarred roads Natural vegetation has been removed or altered in urban built-up areas. A city has extensive infrastructure, which usually includes ○ Electrical services, e.g. power grid; ○ Sanitation, e.g. water pipes and sewage canals ○ Telecommunications, e.g. telecommunication towers; and ○ Transport, e.g. roads and railways Variety of Functions and Services The functions of a city are varied ○ Administrative, e.g. parliament / town council ○ Commercial, e.g. shopping areas / town centres ○ Educational, e.g. higher education ○ Industrial, e.g. factories ○ Entertainment, e.g. amusement parks ○ Healthcare, e.g. hospitals and ambulance services  The variety of goods and services found in cities is large and complex ○ Mega shopping malls ○ Specialist medical care for illnesses ○ Theme parks and casinos Urban Growth and Urbanisation Urban growth: Increase in urban population and / or urban area Urbanisation: Increase in proportion / percentage of a population living in urba areas, where the urban population is growing more rapidly than the population as a whole Difference between Rural and Urban Areas Rural areas Factor Urban areas Smaller (usually) Population size Larger (usually) Lower Population density Higher Primary industries, e.g. Main economic activity Secondary industries, mining, farming e.g. manufacturing Tertiary industries, e.g. services Simple services, e.g. Services Complex services, e.g. provision shops and clinics hypermarkets and large hospitals Natural environment Environment Built-up areas retained More pollution Less pollution (usually) Simple infrastructure, e.g. Infrastructure Extensive infrastructure, e.g. limited public transport, water well-connected public tanks transport networks, comprehensive sewage system Relationship between Rural and Urban Areas Rural-urban Migration Rural-urban migration is the internal movement of people from rural areas to urban parts of a country, e.g. from villages to towns and cities People who move are known as migrants There are many reasons why people move, known as pull factors and push factors ○ Pull factors are factors that attract people to migrate to another settlement ○ Push factors are factors that push people out from their original settlement  Push Factor Pull Low pay Economic Better pay Few jobs Better job Lack of services, e.g. opportunities poor educational Better range of opportunities and lack services, e.g. of medical care institutions of higher education Unstable government, Socio-political Peace and stability e.g. war or threat of Tolerant society war Better quality of life Ethnic / Religious / To live near friends Cultural prosecution and family Poor quality of life Social isolation Dangerous or unattractive Environmental Safe and attractive environments, e.g. places environments affected by natural disasters, places with an undesirable climate Suggested answers: Pull Factor (varied job opportunities, better paying jobs, bright lights of the city, better education opportunities) Job opportunities are more varied and more for different industries. The young man can choose from secondary and tertiary industries. More choices in career options. More job offers in each type of industry. Better paying jobs so that he can earn more. Salaries are higher in the urban area. With income increase, he is able to enjoy a better standard of living and better quality of life and get out of poverty. He may be attracted to the bright lights of the city as city life is viewed as more exciting with better facilities and amenities, more entertainment and leisure. City life may offer him the freedom he wants. More and better education opportunities to better himself. He may want higher education or even specialists education which could better his life. Push Factor (few employment opportunities, crop failure, mechanisation of farm work) Many migrants try to escape poverty and unemployment in the rural area. There are few employment opportunities in the rural areas besides farming which may not bring in enough income, this forces the migrants to leave. Crop failure due especially to severe climatic events would lead to starvation in the rural areas forcing migrants to leave. Mechanisation of farm work leading to unemployment How Cities Impact People and the Surroundings Opportunities for People in Cities 1. Education and Employment Education: Wide variety of courses available in institutes in cities which allows people to gain useful knowledge and skills. This then allows people to gain more employment opportunities which leads to higher income. The people will then be better able to purchase food and other necessities and they will have higher standards of living and improved well-being. Employment (for urban dwellers): Cities provide a large variety of goods and services. There are opportunities for employment in so many different aindustries and more job opportunities for inhabitants. Also, wages are usually higher in cities and this means inhabitants earn more money working in cities. Employment (for businesses): Cities have developed infrastructure (e.g. transport and communication networks) that allows businesses to thrive as their goods ad services are more easily accessible by consumers. Institutes of higher education (e.g. universities) and research and development centres are usually located in cities. Businesses can then hire directly from a pool of skilled employees towhich also offer work-study opportunities to train their employees. Cities are also densely populated, providing a large base of customers. 2. Technological Innovation Technological innovation: use of scientific knowledge to create new products or services Institutes of higher education (e.g. universities) and research development centres are usually located in cities which have many skilled people who can research and design. Government and investors also fund these research centres, leading to technological innovation and creative inventions. Challenges 1. Environmental Pollution There is a large population in cities which means there is a high demand and usage for water, food, energy, fossil fuels, land and there is a high waste production. This may result in environmental pollution, water, air and pollution. ○ High environmental / ecological footprint Environmental footprint: The effect a city has on the environment, such as the amount of natural resources used or the amount of waste produced Water pollution: Inadequate and poor water and sanitation facilities and waste from homes and industries may get disposed of directly or leaked into waterways (e.g. rivers, canals), which reduces water quality and threatens human health and aquatic life. Air pollution: To supply energy (electricity) needs of people living in cities, power transport systems and produce goods which burn fossil fuels and produce toxic gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. When mixed with air, it produces acid rain. High volume of vehicular traffic within cities also contributes to high level of pollutants.  Cities are also centres of trade and there is an increased movement of goods and services in and out of the city which leads to a higher carbon footprint. Prolonged exposure to air pollution can cause respiratory infection, lung cancer, heart diseases, death and poor public health may lead to increased demand for healthcare services. 2. Competition for natural resources Competition of all resources becomes more intense as more people live in cities. Competition for land: To cater to large and growing populations, more land is needed for various purposes (e.g. housing, medical facilities, transport, schools, etc.). Cities may expand into rural areas, replacing forests, farmlands or leveling hills and/or cities can replace low-lying buildings with taller ones. Land in the city is used more intensively as buildings are more densely packed. Due to the high competition for land space in cities, the price of land is expensive. The urban poor are unable to afford basic housing and may be forced to live in slums or squatters which have poor living conditions and increase the risk of developing diseases. Due to rapid increase in population in a small land space, congestion may occur on public transport and medical facilities. Competition for water: Due to the competition of land, natural vegetation may be converted to concrete surfaces which reduces groundwater storage and water catchment areas. Tight land space may also limit expansion of reservoirs. This may lead to a storage of water supply for city dwellers. Building and Managing Cities Sustainably Environmental Management What does it mean to ‘manage’ ○ Regulate use of natural resources ○ Minimise negative environmental impact from human activities What should we be managing? ○ Physical environment ○ Hazards How? ○ Use technology ○ Laws and regulations Managing the Physical Environment 1. Reduce water pollution through water treatment ponds Issue: In Singapore, reservoirs are water catchment areas which contribute to Singapore’s water supply. In some areas, reservoirs are located near agricultural areas. However, when it rains, rainwater may mix with nutrients from nearby farms and reduce the water quality of the reservoir Solution: Drains were constructed around farm plots to channel rainwater and excess nutrients to a water treatment pond. Plants like cattails and fragrant pandan are planted in the ponds to purify the water which reduces water pollution in the reservoir. 2. Reduce air pollution through laws  Issue: In some cities in China, coal is burnt to meet energy needs. Heavy vehicular traffic also produces pollutants, which can cover the city with smog. Solution: In Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei, the Environmental Protection and Air pollution Prevention and Control laws were implemented. This cities limited the amount of pollutants industries could emit. A license plate lottery policy also limits the number of new vehicles that can be registered. The vehicle restriction rule also limits the use of private cars to selected days in a week according to the last number of their license plates. In addition to lowering air pollution, this also helped to lessen traffic congestion. Managing Hazards What are hazards? Hazards are events that negatively impact the physical environment (e.g. flora and fauna, lakes and forests) and human environments (e.g. urban areas, the economy, society in general) Hazards can be human-induced, caused by human actions or inaction ○ Examples of human-induced hazards are Oil spills Industrial accidents Fires Hazards can be induced by nature (natural hazards) ○ Examples of natural hazards are Earthquakes Tsunamis Volcanic eruptions Droughts Typhoons Use better quality building materials In areas that are prone to earthquakes, cities can ensure buildings are built to withstand the intense shaking of ground. In Japan, they have earthquake resistant buildings. Oil-filled shack dampeners help to stabilise the movement of buildings should shake due to the strong winds or tremors. Land use planning Issue: Cities are built-up areas with multiple land uses. Sometimes, there will be a conflict in land use and safety issues may arise. Solution: Planning agencies make decisions on how land resources are used for various purposes. They ensure that construction does occur in unsafe locations to minimise hazards. Property developers and land-owners are then also expected to comply with regulations. In New York City, developers cannot construct in ‘red zones’ that are located at coastal parts of the city. This is because these areas that are at risk of coastal erosion. Improve Quality of Life  Quality of life: People’s well-being. It is affected by many factors such as physical and mental health, level of independence, sense of security, wealth and relationships with others. Ways to improve quality of life ○ Providing safe housing ○ Providing a variety of transportation modes ○ Consider needs of different groups 1. Providing Safe Housing Issue: As cities expand and the population increases, there may be a shortage of basic housing. People may resort to building houses in locations that may not be suitable for construction (e.g. steep slopes, along railway tracks. These are known as squatter settlements) Solution: In Singapore, the Singapore Improvement Trust, now known as the Housing and Development Board was set up to build affordable public housing for the masses. Today, >80% of population lives in good quality public housing surrounded by many amenities 2. Providing a Variety of Transportation Modes Cities with high population sizes will face issues of traffic congestion and air population. Solution: To minimisee the number of vehicles on the road, public transportation modes (e.g. buses, trams, trains must be made available and accessible to people. Transportation modes reder to the ways in which people and goods move from one location to another. If more people use public transport, these vehicles can carry more passengers than cars, and traffic congestion will be reduced. As less fossil fuels will be used, there will be less carbon emissions. 3. Consider Needs of Different Groups Issue: Given that cities have a large population, there will be diverse needs among the population. For example, many cities in the world face ageing populations, when there is a growing proportio of elderly persons aged >65 years old. As one ages, there will be a need to design cities wisely. Solution: Singapore adopts a Universal Design concept for public areas, whereby it is safe for all to access. For example, pedestrian paths are widened in public spaces, as well as HDB blocks. Traffic crossings also have tactile warnings to aid people with visual impairments and elderly pedestrians. Chapter 2: Housing and Where It Is Found Defining Housing Housing is a basic need. It refers to structures or buildings to protect people from the elements of weather (e.g. rain, snow, temperature and the wind). It refers to places for interactions security and rest. Housing in a city can generally be catergorised as formal or informal ○ Formal housing  ○ Informal Housing Features of Formal Housing Built by the government or private developers with legal rights to use the land Permanent High-quality building materials Access to basic services Features of Informal Housing Self-built by individuals or communities with no legal rights to use the land Little to no access to basic services Reasons Why Informal Housing Develops For the past few decades, large numbers of people have been moving to cities to build a better life for themselves and their families every year. Many city governments are unable to cope with the large influx of people entering the cities and a housing shortage ensues. People who cannot afford the available formal housing end up building informal housing in undesirable parts of the city or on the city outskirts. Such people are known as squatters and large concentrations of such housing form squatter settlements. Why do the Governments view Squatter Settlements as Undesirable? They tend to suffer from various problems ○ Social unrest ○ Degradation of the environment ○ Vulnerable to the spread of infectious diseases Differences Between Formal and Informal Housing Formal Housing Informal Housing Built by the government or private developers Self-built Legal right to use the land No legal right to use the land Access to basic services Lack of access to basic services Use of high-quality building materials Use of poor-quality building materials Suggested answers: In terms of the planning and building of housing, formal housing developments are part of urban planning process. Land would have been zoned and assigned for housing purpose. The housing development are usually undertaken by the government or private developers and sold to individual buyers. However, for informal housing, the structures  are built out of desperation and are unplanned for on any available land in the urban area. Formal housing is housing built and owned by people with legal right to ownership and to occupy the land, whereas informal housing is built out of necessity and on any available plot and are illegal occupants of the land and can be cleared away and evicted. As urban planners determine the sites for formal housing, basic services and supporting infrastructure are also planned for. These include easy access to water electricity and provision to sewage are built. However, informal housing lack access to any basic services as these were not planned for so not supporting infrastructure would have been built to provide for them. As formal housing is regulated, these developments must conform to building guidelines and use proper high-quality building materials. These housing development are therefore safe and would protect the occupants. But for informal housing, the structures are constructed from discarded and scavenged materials. The inferior building materials and the haphazard construction poses great danger to the lives of the residents. Factors Affecting Housing Location There are 4 factors that affect the location of housing Land-use planning Developers Land prices Housing financial support 1. Land-use Planning Guidelines drawn by planning authorities. Zoning as planning control tool to ensure built environment is well developed. 2. Developers Private developers (e.g. Far East, CDL, CapitaLand) ○ For profits ○ Sites that are commercially viable Public developers (e.g. HDB) ○ Consider people’s needs more than profits 3. Land Prices The higher the land prices, the higher the prices of the houses ○ Affordability affected ○ Prices to be regulated by the government If the prices are too high, informal housing will spring up to accommodate the rural-urban migrants and urban poor. 4. Housing Financial Support Lower cost of building the houses Build more houses and prevent shortages  Sell houses at affordable prices Chapter 3: Developing Housing Sustainably Impact of Housing on the Environment Water resources ○ Extraction of groundwater is needed to supply water to homes for cooking, cleaning and washing Energy resources ○ Electricity is needed to power lights, air-conditioning, and appliances at home. Fossil fuels need to be extracted through mining processes. Food resources ○ Croplands, grazing land and fisheries are needed to support population needs Building materials ○ Building materials (e.g. steel) are needed to build homes. Precious metals and other minerals are required to make smartphones (e.g. silver, gold, palladium, aluminum) ○ Both building materials and minerals are acquired through mining Land / Space ○ Forested land may be cleared to make space for the building of homes and other infrastructure Environmental Pollution Pollution: Introduction of substances that do not normally belong in the environment in which, in large amounts, can have harmful effects on plants, animals and humans. Besides the extraction of resources, the usage of resources can lead to pollution of air, water and land. Given the high housing and residential density in cities, the amount of waste produced is concentrated in an area. Subsequently, disposing of waste collected in a big city risks water and/or land pollution. 1. Land Pollution Daily domestic activities like cooking and cleaning produce waste (e.g. food waste, plastic, sanitation waste). Waste is disposed of in landfills or incinerated. Incinerated waste produces leftover materials which still need to be properly managed. Decomposition of waste in landfills produces large amounts of methane, a greenhouse gas. Landfills may also leak and contaminate the soil and groundwater and surface water supplies. 2. Air Pollution To power homes, fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. Burning of fossil fuels produces toxic gases and pollutants, causing air pollution.  Air pollution poses a risk to health. ○ City dwellers may develop respiratory illnesses like asthma. 3. Water Pollution Direct washing, disposing of waste and/or defecating into water bodies near informal housing contaminates water sources. ○ Costs government money to treat contaminantes water supplies. Leaking landfills may introduce high levels of ammonia into water sources which will cause eutrophication (rapid growth of algae) and reduces amount of oxygen available and kills aquatic life. Access to Housing and How it Affects People 1. Provision of Basic Needs Housing provides people with shelter, which keeps them safe from weather elements (e.g. heat, rain) Formal housing is usually built with accompanying infrastructure: electrical, telecommunication, sanitation and water Residents therefore have easy access to basic services like electricity, waste disposal and clean water supply 2. Provision of Amenities Facilities: Intended to serve a key function ○ E.g. bus station (transport), schools (education), hospitals and clinics (healthcare) Amenities: Desirable or useful features that make life more pleasant or comfortable for its residents ○ E.g. grocery shops, restaurants, markets, hair salons, swimming pools 3. Sense of Community Beyond meeting material needs of residents, housing can also meet social needs: the need for interaction and the formation of bonds By having common spaces that promote interaction among residents of different races and religions, it creates a sense of belonging and inclusivity Strategies to Manage Housing 1. Intergrated Land Use Planning Map out spaces for different functions in a manner that meet social, environmental and economic needs. Ensure that housing is not built away from other functions like entertainment and transport. ○ E.g. new town planning develops self-contained towns that include public housing, amenities, retail, industries, education, healthcare and rea creation  services. This ensures the needs of an urban population is met which makes it more liveable. Challenges Integrated land-use planning is a great solution to sustainable housing, but it is difficult to achieve. It requires ○ Coordination between the stakeholders; and ○ Conflict resolution as stakeholders often have competing or different interests, needs and perspectives 2. Inclusive Housing Provide a range of housing types to cater to different family sizes (smaller idiots for smaller families, and vice versa) Provide facilities, amenities and features in the neighbourhood to cater to the needs of people to different ages and physical abilities ○ E.g. ramps to assist wheelchair bound residents, wider corridors to allow movement of wheelchairs and stretchers, braille and tactile markings on lift control buttons to cater to the visually impaired, fitness corners and social spaces to promote interaction among elderly Challenges Costly to build these facilities Requires sound urban planning to vary designs of public housing 3. Environmentally Friendly Features Tap on technology to install environmentally friendly features in buildings and homes ○ Use of solar panels → Reduce electrical consumption → Reduce reliance on fossil fuels as a source of energy ○ Water-efficient fittings → Reduce water consumption ○ Green roofs → Redice surrounding temperatures → Use less air conditioning to cool homes → Reduce electrical consumption ○ Recycling programmes → Bins and recycling stations → Reduces waste, recycle waste Challenges Environmentally friendly technologies are costly to implement initially (e.g. solar panels) Retrofitting older buildings with environmentally friendly technologies can be complicated and expensive Public education on the importance of such measures is not widespread. (E.g. People see recycling as time-consuming and inconvenient. It is easier to simply throw away things compared to spending time to sort recyclable materials and take them to recycling stations.) 4. Slum Upgrading 1. Self Help Schemes Partnership between government and local people Goverrnment supplies building materials, and locals work on upgrading their houses themselves, at their own pace Money saved on labour costs can be channelled to providing basic services: clean water supply, sanitation, electricity, waste disposal Challenges Poor construction work (e.g. electrical infrastructure) poses risk to health Extent of slum upgrading may have been hindered by lack of funding by government or international organisation 2. Sites and Service Schemes Residents can pay a nominal sum of money forr rent for a site ○ Residents are legal occupants of a house Borrow money to buy building materials to build or improve their house Money earned from rent is then channelled into providing basic services Challenges Rental at temporary housing / cost of new houses may still be too high and unaffordable for some low-income families New squatters may form elsewhere as a result Some households rent out new flats and move to other slum areas so as to earn an income 3. Local Authority Scheme Residents are relocated to temporary housing equipped with basic services while the government reconstructs proper housing They then return to their newly upgraded units New dwellings are then sold below market price Challenges Rapid increase in population in LDCs also mean there is increased rural-urban migration. Most live in informal settlements as result. Population increase will continue to place a strain on housing infrastructure. Chapter 4: Transport Systems Transport systems enable the movement of people and goods and services Characteristics of Transport Systems 1. Density of Networks A transport network comprises nodes that are linked by routes.  ○ Node: a location that provides entry to the transport network ○ Route: the path for travel between nodes The nodes and routes can be represented on different scales: local (e.g. city bus network), regional (e.g. train network in a region), global (e.g. ports in countries) The greater the number of nodes and routes in an area, the denser the transport network density More places are easily accessible by public transport and hence are more well-connected. This allows people and goods to be moved easily from one place to the other 2. Quality of Infrastructure Coverage: How far passengers must travel to reach nearest transport node ○ Improves accessibility and convenience for the commuters Capacity: How many people or goods can be moved at once ○ More can be transported from one place to the other efficiently Frequency: How often a service runs ○ Services running on high frequency allows more people to travel from place to place efficiently Convenience: Ease of movement ○ Commuters can make seamless connections at interchanges between transport modes Environmental sustainability: Environmental impact of transport infrastructure ○ Since public transport is able to move a larger number of people from place to place at once, this reduces one’s carbon footprint 3. Variety of Transport Modes Transport mode: How one gets form one place to place, either by land, water or air transport Public (e.g. bus train) vs private transport (e.g. taxi, car) Motorised (e.g. cars, buses, taxis) vs non-motorised transport modes (e.g. walking, cycling) Shared mobility (e.g. bike-sharing, car-sharing) Variety of transport modes caters to people of all ages, income-groups and physical abilities Location of Transport Nodes in a City 1. Concentration of activity around the place Different parts of the city have different functions (e.g. manufacturing, retail, leisure, commercial, tourism) In turn, the land use determines the concentration of activity in an area ○ Commerical areas offer a range of tertiary services related to banking and finance, and have the bulk of office buildings ○ Transport nodes are often located near these activities so that more can access them 2. Level of Accessibility Some areas are geographically more ‘central’ Confluence of transport routes leading in and out of an area makes it more accessible Able to reach this location within a shorter time and hence for a lower cost Major transport nodes are therefore located in areas with high accessibility to allow the ease of travel to and from these areas Reasons Why Transport Systems Are Located in Cities Movement of People Transport systems allow people to commute to work An individual’s place of residence and his workplace is usually in separate locations, so people generally need to commute regularly. ○ Work opportunities tend to be concentrated in the city centre while affordable housing is found further away The time taken to commute as well as the cost of commuting can be important factors that determine if an individual decides to accept an employment opportunity or not. Transport systems allow for access to social activities and amenities ○ This helps in the emotional and social well-being of the population Movement of Goods and Services Transport systems facilitate ○ Economic activities; and ○ The movement of goods and services (from businesses/service providers to consumers) The rise of e-commerce has resulted in a greater movement of goods that are delivered from door to door Transport systems also allow essential services to be delivered to communities that lack access ○ E.g. water trucks deliver to households with no access to piped water in Mexico City and areas stricken by drought in California also get their water from water trucks Connecting Different Transport Modes Transport systems eases the connections between transport modes and between cities Connecting Transport Modes Within Cities Unimodal Intermodal Use only one mode of transport Use two or more transport modes  Movements are limited, where people More ways to move around via and goods can only travel between different transport modes two points More destinations can be reached Between Cities Point-to-Point Network Hub-and-Spoke How does it work? Point-to-point network Hub-and-spoke network connects a set of locations connects every location directly without any through one intermediary interruptions of services location called a hub Advantages More direct way of Every location can be travelling from Point A accessed from an to Point B with no intermediary location interruptions of services Faster Lower cost Disadvantages Assumes every node No direct access from is connected by a point A to B direct route Congested hub Requires extensive Longer travelling and construction of waiting times transport infrastructure across country/city While the role of a transport network is to facilitate the movement of people with goods/services, an efficient network supports connections by having good intermodal activity. Chapter 5: Managing Transport Systems Sustainably Why is it important to manage transport systems sustainably? This ensures that transport systems resources meet the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs What are the strategies to make transport sustainable? Improve economic growth ○ Reduce traffic congestion by using laws and policies to manage road usage ERP COE Car-lite initiatives ○ Ensure efficient use of traveling time by integrating land use and planning transport  Environmentally friendly ○ Harness technology in the research and development of transport Information technology Electric vehicles (EVs) Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) Improve accessibility for all ○ Remove physical and financial constraints by providing a range of mobility options for different people Laws and Policies 1. Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) What is it? Road pricing is a strategy where drivers are charged when they use roads Especially in areas that are more prone to congestion, such as the Central Business District (CBD) Implemented through Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) gantry system Operates during specific times of the day (e.g. rush hours) How does it work? Higher costs of driving during peak hours → Makes traveling on private transport costlier than public transport → Deters motorists from using private vehicles → Decrease in traffic volume Multi-lane gantry operation → Cars do not need to stop → Ensure smother vehicular movement In turn, money collected can finance maintenance and upgrading of transport infrastructure Limitations Motorists use roads before/after restriction period → Traffic is diverted elsewhere → No marked change in road usage Regulations on vehicle usage must be tightly enforced to ensure compliance of drivers 2. Certificate of Entitlement (COE) What is it? COE is a form of vehicle quota system, where anyone who wishes to own a new vehicle must bid for COE So, the higher the demand for private vehicles, the higher the price of COE The owner then has the right to owwn and use the vehicle for 10 years, after which is can either be renewed or the vehicle must be scrapped or exported How does it work? Additional cost can sometimes exceed the value of the car itself, making owning a car extremely expensive → Deters car owners Limitations COE does not deter those who can afford it → May not reduce road usage 3. Car-lite Intiatives What is it? Aims to reduce Singaporeans’ reliance on cars and promote sustainabl alternatives like public transport, walking and cycling How does it work? Build more cycling and walking paths to cater for more pedestrians and cyclists → Reduce cars on road Implementing rules of conduct on use of shared paths to make it safe for both cyclists and pedestrians → Encourage more to walk/cycle Allow foldable bicycles and PMDs to be brought onto trains and buses at all hours of day → Improves first-last mile connectivity Creates car-free zones in the CBD, as well as car-free Sundays at Orchard Road to promote pedestrianisation and reduce number of cars on the road Limitations Reallocating road space to bike lanes may be seen as compromising drivers’ interests May also be seen as unfair as car users pay more money to purchase permits and use roads Promoting cycling as part of ‘car-lite’ initiatives may only be targeted problem of traffic congestion, and not necessarily achieving broader environmental, health and social goals for all Integrated Land use and Transport Planning What is it? Land use planning: Where and how land should be used Transport planning: Forecasting operation, provision and management of infrastructure and services for transport modes to meet current and future needs How does it work? By planning business parks and commercial centres (workspaces) are to be in proximity to residential areas, this minimises long-distance commutes Futhermore, ensuring key transport facilities are made availabel to residents can help them move from place to place easily Limitations Integrating land use and transport requires close coordination and communication between different stakeholders to balance social, economic and transport needs Takes time and involves huge investments in infrastructure design and development ○ E.g. Ensuring walkable distance from a location i.e. pedestrian shed is kept to a 5 minute / 400-metre walk ○ E.g. Ensuring wide, shaded paths to provide comfortable walking experiences Provision of a Range of Mobility Options for Groups of People What is it? Developing inclusive transport systems that are barrier-free for people with diverse mobility needs How does it work? Installing barrier-free facilities with special for aged and PWDs ○ E.g. Green Man+ scheme allows elderly pedestrians and PWDs up to 13 seconds more when crossing the road ○ E.g. Pedestrian audio signal systems emit beeping sounds to help visually impaired cross the road Limitations Expensive to install barrier-free transport facilities with special features Requires some time and effort in ensuring these special features are deployed effectively to areas that are most needed to prevent wastage of resources Research and Development 1. Information Technology What is it? Use information technology to make transport systems more user-friendly e.g. Google Maps, on-demand ride-hailing services (e.g. Grab, Uber, Gojek) How does it work? Apps like Google Maps provide real-time traffic information on travel time, cost and possible routes to take → Shapes commuters travel habits and choice of transport Providing information on bus arrival times and presence of wheelchair facilities helps commuters plan their journeys → Make public transport an attractive mode of transport On-demand ride-hailing services allows commuters the convenience of accessing any destination from any given location for a fee Limitations Inaccurate information of bus arrival timings can cause additional inconvenience to commuters Safety n ride-hailing services can be an issue for some 2. Electric Vehicles (EVs) What is it? EVs are vehicles that are partially or fully powered on electric power How does it work? Given that 14.5% of global greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions are contributed by the transport sector, transitioning to electric vehicles will reduce carbon emissions and sloww down climate change ○ E.g. 60 electric buses can reduce carbon emissions of 1700 cars a year This will also help to reduce noise pollution Limitations Cost 50-100% more than diesel buses Buses have too be charged regularly and each charging session can be up to 4 hours 3. Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) What is it?  They are driverless vehicles which use sensors to detect vehicles and pedestrians How does it work? Potentially prevent road accidents and improve road safety Fuel-efficient technology reduces carbon emissions and energy consumption Limitations Requires huge amounts of investments Safety and cyber security challenges persist as there is always room for error Still requires rigorous testing before rolling out for public use as navigation abilities differ under different weather conditions