Climate and Biomes of the Middle East PDF

Climate and Biomes of the Middle East The Middle East is a large region that spans from the eastern Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf. Within this area, there are several different climate zones and biomes. From the arid deserts of the Arabian Peninsula to the Mediterranean climate of the Levant, t...

Climate and Biomes of the Middle East The Middle East is a large region that spans from the eastern Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf. Within this area, there are several different climate zones and biomes. From the arid deserts of the Arabian Peninsula to the Mediterranean climate of the Levant, the region's environmental diversity plays an important role in shaping its ecosystems, biodiversity, and human livelihoods. Arid Deserts The Arabian Desert, encompassing the Rub' al Khali (Empty Quarter) and the Syrian Desert, dominates much of the Arabian Peninsula. These deserts experience extreme temperatures, limited rainfall, and sparse vegetation, making them one of the driest and hottest regions on Earth. Adapted flora and fauna, such as drought-resistant plants and desert-adapted animals like camels and lizards, thrive in these harsh desert environments. Nomadic pastoralism and traditional Bedouin lifestyles have historically been practiced in these desert regions. These rely on the mobility of herds to move and find scarce water sources for their survival. Mediterranean Climate The Levant region, including Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, features a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. This climate supports a diverse range of vegetation, including evergreen forests, shrublands, and grasslands, fostering high biodiversity. The Mediterranean coastline is known for its rich marine ecosystems, supporting fisheries, tourism, and coastal communities. Agriculture, particularly olive cultivation and viticulture, thrives in Mediterranean climates, contributing to the region's cultural heritage and economic development. Semi-Arid Steppe Semi-arid steppe regions, found in parts of Iraq, Syria, and Iran, experience moderate rainfall and support sparse vegetation such as grasses, shrubs, and drought-resistant plants. These transitional zones between desert and Mediterranean climates provide vital grazing lands for livestock and support pastoralist communities. Conservation efforts are needed to mitigate desertification and land degradation in semi-arid steppe regions, safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem services. www.studentsofhistory.com>physical-geography-of-the-middle-east Countries of West Asia Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east and southeast, Jordan to the south, and Israel and Lebanon to the southwest. Damascus is the capital and largest city. With a population of 25 million across an area of 185,180 square kilometers (71,500 sq mi), it is the 57th-most populous and 87th-largest country. Syria's climate varies from the humid Mediterranean coast, through a semi-arid steppe zone, to arid desert in the east. The country consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. Al-Jazira in the northeast and Hawran in the south are important agricultural areas. The Euphrates, Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. Syria is one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "cradle of civilization". Its land straddles the northwest of the Arabian plate. Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940. Lebanon Lebanon, officially the Republic of Lebanon, is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula, it is bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west; Cyprus lies a short distance from the coastline. Lebanon has a population of more than five million and an area of 10,452 square kilometers (4,036 sq mi). Beirut is the country's capital and largest city. Lebanon has a coastline and border of 225 kilometers (140 mi) on the Mediterranean Sea. Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops. Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall, when measured annually in comparison to its arid surroundings, certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receives only little because of the rain shadow created by the high peaks of the western mountain range. Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories to the west. The Jordan River, flowing into the Dead Sea, is located along the country's western border within the Jordan Rift Valley. Jordan has a small coastline along the Red Sea in its southwest, separated by the Gulf of Aqaba from Egypt. Amman is the country's capital and largest city, as well as the most populous city in the Levant. Jordan sits strategically at the crossroads of the continents of Asia, Africa and Europe, in the Levant area of the Fertile Crescent, a cradle of civilization. Its area is 89,341 square kilometers (34,495 sq mi), and it is 400 kilometers (250 mi) long between its northernmost and southernmost points. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south and the east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north, and Israel and Palestine (West Bank) to the west. The east is an arid plateau irrigated by oases and seasonal streams. Major cities are overwhelmingly located on the north-western part of the kingdom with its fertile soils and relatively abundant rainfall. These include Irbid, Jerash and Zarqa in the northwest, the capital Amman and As-Salt in the central west, and Madaba, Al- Karak and Aqaba in the southwest. Major towns in the east are the oasis towns. In the west, a highland area of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry drops suddenly into the Jordan Rift Valley. The rift valley contains the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, which separates Jordan from Israel. Jordan has a 26 kilometers (16 mi) shoreline on the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea but is otherwise landlocked. The Yarmuk River, an eastern tributary of the Jordan, forms part of the boundary between Jordan and Syria (including the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights) to the north. The climate varies greatly; generally, the further inland from the Mediterranean, there are greater contrasts in temperature and less rainfall. The average elevation is 812 m (2,664 ft) above sea level. The highlands above the Jordan Valley, mountains of the Dead Sea and Wadi Araba and as far south as Ras Al-Naqab are dominated by a Mediterranean climate, while the eastern and northeastern areas of the country are arid desert. Although the deserts reach high temperatures, the heat is usually moderated by low humidity and a daytime breeze, while the nights are cool. Summers, lasting from May to September, are hot and dry, with temperatures averaging around 32 °C (90 °F) and sometimes exceeding 40 °C (104 °F) between July and August. The winter, lasting from November to March, is relatively cool, with temperatures averaging around 11.08 °C (52 °F). Winter also sees frequent showers and occasional snowfall in some western elevated areas. Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. It is bordered by Lebanon and Syria to the north, the West Bank and Jordan to the east, Gaza and Egypt to the southwest, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. The country also has a small coastline on the Red Sea at its southernmost point, and part of the Dead Sea lies along its eastern border. Israel's proclaimed capital is in Jerusalem, while Tel Aviv is the country's largest urban area and economic center. Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the Negev Desert in the south to the inland fertile Jezreel Valley, with mountain ranges of the Galilee, Carmel and towards the Golan in the north. The Israeli coastal plain on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to most of the population. East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, a small part of the 6,500-kilometer (4,039 mi) Great Rift Valley. The Jordan River runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from Mount Hermon through the Hulah Valley and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth. Gaza Gaza is a small territory located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea; it is the smaller of the two Palestinian territories, the other being the West Bank, that make up the State of Palestine. Inhabited by mostly Palestinian refugees and their descendants, Gaza is one of the most densely populated territories in the world. An end of 2024 estimate puts the population of the Strip at 2.1 million. Gaza is bordered by Egypt on the southwest and Israel on the east and north. The territory has been under Israeli occupation since 1967. Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is a country in West Asia. Located in the center of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about 2,150,000 km2 (830,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the largest in the Middle East, and the 12th- largest in the world. It is bordered by the Red Sea to the west; Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north; the Persian Gulf, Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east; Oman to the southeast; and Yemen to the south. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from Egypt and Israel. Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland, steppe, and mountains. The capital and largest city is Riyadh; other major cities include Jeddah and the two holiest cities in Islam, Mecca and Medina. With a population of almost 32.2 million, Saudi Arabia is the fourth most populous country in the Arab world. Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula (the world's largest peninsula). It is geographically the largest country in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert, associated semi- desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The 647500 km2 (250001 sq mi) Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in the southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert. Though there are lakes in the country, Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world by area with no permanent rivers. Wadis, non-permanent rivers, however, are very numerous throughout the kingdom. Kuwait Kuwait, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in West Asia and the geopolitical region known as the Middle East. It is situated in the northern edge of the Arabian Peninsula at the head of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to the north and Saudi Arabia to the south. With a coastline of approximately 500 km (311 mi), Kuwait also shares a maritime border with Iran, across the Persian Gulf. Most of the country's population reside in the urban agglomeration of Kuwait City, the capital and largest city. As of 2024, Kuwait has a population of 4.82 million, of which 1.53 million are Kuwaiti citizens while the remaining 3.29 million are foreign nationals from over 100 countries. Located at the head of the Persian Gulf in the north-east corner of the Arabian Peninsula, Kuwait is one of the smallest countries in the world in terms of land area. Kuwait is generally low-lying, with the highest point being 306 m (1,004 ft) above sea level. Kuwait's Burgan field has a total capacity of approximately 70 billion barrels (11 billion cubic meters) of proven oil reserves. During the 1991 Kuwaiti oil fires, more than 500 oil lakes were created. The resulting soil contamination due to oil and soot accumulation had made eastern and south-eastern parts of Kuwait uninhabitable. Sand and oil residue had reduced large parts of the Kuwaiti desert to semi-asphalt surfaces. The oil spills during the Gulf War also drastically affected Kuwait's marine resources. Bahrain Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is an island country in West Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an additional 33 artificial islands, centered on Bahrain Island which makes up around 83 percent of the country's landmass. Bahrain is situated between Qatar and the northeastern coast of Saudi Arabia, to which it is connected by the King Fahd Causeway. Bahrain spans some 760 square kilometers (290 sq mi), and is the third-smallest nation in Asia after the Maldives and Singapore. The capital and largest city is Manama. Bahrain is a generally flat and arid archipelago in the Persian Gulf. It consists of a low desert plain rising gently to a low central escarpment. Bahrain had a total area of 665 km2 (257 sq mi) but due to land reclamation, the area increased to 780 km2 (300 sq mi). Often described as an archipelago of 33 islands, extensive land reclamation projects have changed this; by August 2008 the number of islands and island groups had increased to 84. Bahrain does not share a land boundary with another country but does have a 161 km (100 mi) coastline. Bahrain has mild winters and very hot, humid summers. The country's natural resources include large quantities of oil and natural gas as well as fish in the offshore waters. Arable land constitutes only 2.82% of the total area. About 92% of Bahrain is desert with periodic droughts and dust storms, the main natural hazards for Bahrainis. In Bahrain forest cover is around 1% of the total land area, equivalent to 700 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 220 hectares (ha) in 1990. Environmental issues facing Bahrain include desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, distribution stations, and illegal land reclamation. The agricultural and domestic sectors' over-utilization of the Dammam Aquifer, the principal aquifer in Bahrain, has led to its salinization by adjacent brackish and saline water bodies. A hydro-chemical study identified the locations of the sources of aquifer salinization and delineated their areas of influence. The investigation indicates that the aquifer water quality is significantly modified as groundwater flows from the northwestern parts of Bahrain, where the aquifer receives its water by lateral underflow from eastern Saudi Arabia to the southern and southeastern parts. Qatar Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a country in West Asia. It occupies the Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East; it shares its sole land border with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. The Gulf of Bahrain, an inlet of the Persian Gulf, separates Qatar from nearby Bahrain. The capital is Doha, home to over 80% of the country's inhabitants. Most of the land area is made up of flat, low-lying desert. Qatar is a peninsula protruding 160 kilometers (100 mi) into the Persian Gulf, north of Saudi Arabia. Most of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Persian Gulf. The Jebel Dukhan area contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula. Qatar's geography is defined by its flat, dry desert scenery and sunshine all year. The winters are mild, with average temperatures of 17°C in January, and the summers are very hot, with temperatures often reaching 40°C. The country only gets 70 mm of rain a year on average, and most of that falls between October and March. These weather conditions make it possible to enjoy outdoor sports and travel for most of the year. United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates is a country in West Asia, in the Middle East, at the eastern end of the Arabian Peninsula. Abu Dhabi serves as its capital. It shares land borders with Oman to the east and northeast, and with Saudi Arabia to the southwest; as well as maritime borders in the Persian Gulf with Qatar and Iran, and with Oman in the Gulf of Oman. As of 2024, the UAE has an estimated population of over 10 million, of which 11% are Emiratis; Dubai is its most populous city and is an international hub. The United Arab Emirates' oil and natural gas reserves are the world's seventh and seventh largest, respectively. The United Arab Emirates borders the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Oman and Saudi Arabia; it is in a strategic location slightly south of the Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil. The UAE shares a 530-kilometer (330 mi) border with Saudi Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, and a 450-kilometer (280 mi) border with Oman on the southeast and northeast. The UAE coast stretches for nearly 650 km (404 mi) along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf, briefly interrupted by an isolated outcrop of the Sultanate of Oman. Six of the emirates are situated along the Persian Gulf, and the seventh, Fujairah, is on the eastern coast of the peninsula with direct access to the Gulf of Oman. Oman Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. The capital and largest city is Muscat. Oman has a population of about 5.28 million as of 2024, which is a 4.60% population increase from 2023. and is the 123rd most-populous country. The coast faces the Arabian Sea on the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. Like the rest of the Persian Gulf, Oman generally has one of the hottest climates in the world --- with summer temperatures in Muscat and northern Oman averaging 30 to 40 °C (86.0 to 104.0 °F). Oman receives little rainfall, with annual rainfall in Muscat averaging 100 mm (3.9 in), occurring mostly in January. In the south, the Dhofar Mountains area near Salalah has a tropical-like climate and receives seasonal rainfall from late June to late September as a result of monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean, leaving the summer air saturated with cool moisture and heavy fog. Summer temperatures in Salalah range from 20 to 30 °C (68.0 to 86.0 °F)— relatively cool compared to northern Oman. Some parts of the coast sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate is generally very hot, with temperatures reaching around 54 °C (129.2 °F) (peak) in the hot season, from May to September. Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to the north, Oman to the northeast, the Red Sea to the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south, sharing maritime borders with Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia across the Horn of Africa. Yemen is the second largest country on the Arabian Peninsula. Sana’a is its constitutional capital and largest city. Yemen's estimated population is 34.7 million, mostly Arab Muslims. Yemen is located at the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of Aden to the south, and Oman to the east. Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Turkey to the northwest and Iraq to the west, Azerbaijan, Armenia, the Caspian Sea, and Turkmenistan to the north, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. With a multi-ethnic population of about 86 million in an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population. It is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and one of the world's most mountainous countries. Officially an Islamic republic, Iran has a Muslim-majority population. The country is divided into five regions with 31 provinces. Tehran is the nation's capital, largest city and financial center. Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi). It is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and the second-largest in West Asia. Central Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries; its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate basins or plateaus. The populous west part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros, and Alborz, the last containing Mount Damavand, Iran's highest point, at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is the highest volcano in Asia. Iran's mountains have impacted its politics and economics for centuries. The eastern part of Iran consists mostly of deserts. The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the north end of the Persian Gulf. Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a smaller part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran to the east; Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south; and the Aegean Sea, Greece, and Bulgaria to the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people; most are ethnic Turks, while ethnic Kurds are the largest ethnic minority. Officially a secular state, Turkey has a Muslim-majority population. Ankara is Turkey's capital and second-largest city, while Istanbul is its largest city and economic and financial center. Other major cities include İzmir, Bursa, and Antalya. Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometers (302,535 square miles). With the Turkish straits and the Sea of Marmara in between, Turkey bridges Western Asia and Southeastern Europe. Turkey's Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often called Anatolia. Eastern Thrace, Turkey's European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east. Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to the north, Saudi Arabia to the south, Iran to the east, Syria to the west, the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast, and Jordan to the southwest. With a population exceeding 45 million, it is the 35th-most populous country. The largest city is Baghdad, its capital. Most Iraqis are Muslims. Minority religions include Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish; others also recognized in specific regions are Assyrian, Turkish, and Armenian. Spanning 437,072 km2 (168,754 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It has a coastline on the northern Persian Gulf. Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab, thence the Persian Gulf. Broadly flanking this estuary are marshlands and semi-agricultural lands. Flanking and between the two major rivers are fertile alluvial plains, as the rivers carry about 60,000,000 m3 (78,477,037 cu yd) of silt annually to the delta.  Piran and Mount Piran seen from Kure Hure summit The central part of the south, which slightly tapers in favour of other countries, is natural vegetation marsh mixed with rice paddies and is humid, relative to the rest of the plains.[citation needed] Iraq has the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range and the eastern part of the Syrian Desert.[citation needed] Rocky deserts cover about 40 percent of Iraq. Another 30 percent is mountainous with bitterly cold winters. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 m (11,847 ft). Iraq is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Zagros Mountains forest steppe, Middle East steppe, Mesopotamian Marshes, Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous- broadleaf forests, Arabian Desert, Mesopotamian shrub desert, and South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert. Climate How Many Countries Are There in The Middle East? ▪ Middle East includes 15 countries. These are Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Gaza (Palestine), Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen. ▪ Middle East includes countries that share common factors like ethnic groups, geographic features, religious beliefs, and political history. What Makes Middle East? As mentioned above, the countries of the region share several features in common. For example, the Middle East region has Arabs as the largest ethnic group. Iranian peoples and Turkic speaking peoples are the next two common ethnic groups. Islam is the largest religion in the region. In fact, the region is the birthplace of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. As expected, Arabic is the most spoken language here. Other popular languages include Persian, Kurdish, Hebrew, and Turkish. Bahrain Bahrain is an archipelago nation, located in the Persian Gulf between Saudi Arabia and the peninsula of Qatar. It covers an area of 760 km2 and has a population size of just over 1.64 million. Nearly half of Bahrain's population is foreign nationals. The 2011 Index of Economic Freedom designated the country as having the most independent economy in the Middle East. Before that, Bahrain was recognized for its banking and financial services sector, which are the fastest-growing in the world. Iran Iran has coastlines along the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea, and the Gulf of Oman. It covers an area of 1,648,195 km2 and has a population size of approximately 83 million. Iran is home to the largest supply of natural gas in the world and the fourth- largest supply of oil reserves. The country is a member of both OPEC and the United Nations, as well as several other international organizations. The economy and gross domestic product (GDP) of Iran rely on the services sector. Iraq Iraq is almost entirely landlocked, except for a 36-mile long area located along the Persian Gulf. The country covers an area of 438,317 km 2 and has a total population of 39 million. Iraq's economy has an unemployment rate that averages between 18% and 30%, and a GDP per capita of only $4,000. The majority of employment opportunities (roughly 60%) are in the public sector. The oil industry of Iraq makes up about 95% of its foreign exchange revenue. Israel Israel has coastlines along both the Red and the Mediterranean Seas and shares borders with several countries, including Jordan, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and the Gaza Strip. It covers an area of 20,770 km2 and has a population size of approximately 9 million. The majority of the population of Israel (around 74.7%) identify as Jewish. The country was created as a homeland for people of Jewish ethnicity and religion, and accordingly, it is often known as the Jewish State. Israel's economy is based on the technology and industrial sectors and is considered the most advanced in the Middle East. Jordan Jordan is located between the continents of Europe, Africa, and Asia, and has coastlines along both the Dead and Red Seas. It covers an area of 92,300 km 2 and has a population size of over 10 million. The vast majority (92%) of the population identify as Sunni Muslims. The country is known as a safe haven for refugees in the area fleeing their homes due to terrorism and political instability. Jordan is considered one of the most politically stable countries in the Middle East. Kuwait Kuwait is at the northernmost edge of the Persian Gulf, where it covers an area of17,820 km2. The population of this country is just over 4.2 million, and approximately 70% of these individuals are foreign nationals. This high percentage of foreigners is primarily due to Kuwait's petroleum industry, which attracts a number of foreign workers. At least 87% of the country's exports are petroleum- based. The sector makes up around 50% of Kuwait's GDP. Lebanon Lebanon is one of the smallest, non-island countries in the Middle East, covering an area of 10,400 km2. It has a population size of just over 6.8 million, which is recognized for its diverse cultural and ethnic background. Lebanon's economy was able to resist the global economic crisis of 2008, managing to grow at a rate of 8.5% in 2008 and 9% in 2009. The services sector makes up the largest part of the country's economy and employs approximately 65% of the population. Oman Oman is located along the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, giving it a long coastline along the Arabian Sea. The country covers an area of 309,500 km2 and has a population size of around 4.97 million. Its government is considered an absolute monarchy and all government responsibilities carried out by the Sultan, which a hereditary position. The economy of Oman depends on the oil and petroleum industry, particularly as its largest export contributor. However, the tourism industry in Oman is growing rapidly. Gaza (Palestine) Palestine shares borders with both Israel and Jordan and the country claims ownership of the Gaza Strip and West Bank regions. Palestine covers an area of 6,020 km2 and has a population size of 4.68 million. The nation has engaged in the decades-long conflict with Israel over Israeli-occupied lands, which were ruled by the Israeli Military Governorate from 1967 until 1982. The services industry in Palestine makes up 82% of the country's $10 Billion GDP. Qatar Qatar is along the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, where it covers an area of 11,586 km2. This country has a population size of over 2.83 million, 2.3 million of which are foreign nationals. This large percentage of foreign-born residents is due to the natural gas and oil industries, which draw a significant number of immigrant workers every year. Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the Middle East and covers an area of 2,149,690 km2. It has a population size of approximately 34 million, 90% of which identify as Arabs. The country's population had grown significantly since 1950, when it was only around 3 million, due to a faster-than-average birth rate. The majority of individuals in Saudi Arabia speak 1 of 3 Arabic dialects: Najdi, Hejazi, and Gulf. Syria Syria is located in the western region of the Middle East and covers an area of 187,437 km2. The country's population is estimated at approximately 17 million, although that number may be inaccurate given the inability to perform an accurate census in recent years. The population represents a decrease over previous years, given a large number of people who have been killed or fled the country due to civil war, military violence, and political instability. At least 5 million individuals have sought refuge in other countries, while another 7.6 million are internally displaced. Turkey Turkey is located between Europe and Asia and is considered a transcontinental country. It covers an area of 783,562 km2 and has a population size of around 83.4 million. Between 70% and 80% of this population identifies as ethnic Turks. Turkey is newly industrialized and has a GDP of $2.199 trillion, over half of which is generated by the services industry. United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is along the southeastern edge of the Arabian Peninsula. It covers an area of 83,600 km2 and has a population size of approximately 9.7 million. This country has one of the largest economies in the Middle East, with a GDP of around $377 billion. Like most economies in this region of the world, the UAE depends heavily on the oil industry. Yemen Yemen is along the southwestern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, where it covers a total area of 527,968 km2. The country has a population size of over 29 million, nearly half of which is 15 years of age or younger. Because of these demographics, as well as various other factors, Yemen's population is expected to reach 60 million by 2050. The economy of Yemen, like many other middle eastern countries, focuses on the petroleum industry, which also makes up 73% of its exports. www.worldatlas.com>articles>which-are-the-middle-eastern-counries Levant Levant, historically, the region along the eastern Mediterranean shores, roughly corresponds to modern-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Gaza. The Levant is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west and core West Asia, or by the political term, Middle East, to the east. In its narrowest sense, which is in use today in archaeology and other cultural contexts, it is equivalent to a stretch of land bordering the Mediterranean Sea in western Asia i.e. the historical region of Syria ("Greater Syria"), which includes present- day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Gaza. Its overwhelming characteristic is that it represents the land bridge between Africa and Eurasia. Middle East What is the Middle East and What Countries are Part of It? The Middle East is a geographical and cultural region located primarily in western Asia. The western border of the Middle East is defined by the Mediterranean Sea, where Israel, Lebanon, and Syria rest opposite from Greece and Italy in Europe. South of the Mediterranean Sea are the Red and Arabian Seas that surround the southern part of the Middle East. Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Oman border these waters, with Iraq and Jordan connecting them to the western part of the region. At the center of the Middle East rests the Persian Gulf, cutting into the region and giving it its hook-like shape. Countries along the Persian Gulf include the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Iran. The eastern and northern borders of the Middle East are somewhat difficult to define. Both Afghanistan and Pakistan border Iran to the east, but Pakistan’s shared history with India causes it to sometimes be seen as part of South Asia instead of the Middle East. Some of the countries bordering Iran and Afghanistan’s north, such as Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, are sometimes included within the northern borders of the Middle East, but are other times seen as their own Central Asian region alongside Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. There are also several unrecognized or partially recognized states within the Middle East. Palestine, which is made up of the Gaza Strip and West Bank regions in and around Israel, declared its independence in 1988 and is currently recognized as independent by 134 countries, though it is not an official member of the United Nations and is not considered to be its own countries by every G-8 nation except Russia. Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, and South Ossetia are all located within the Caucasus region around Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Russia and all declared their independence during the 1990s, with limited recognition internationally. Northern Cyprus declared its independence in 1983 but is only recognized as a sovereign state within the UN by Turkey, with every other member considering it as simply part of Cyprus. Some borders within the Middle East are similarly difficult to define as a result of territorial disputes between countries within the region. Some examples include the island of Abu Musa in the Persian Gulf, which is administered by Iran by claimed by the United Arab Emirates, the Golan Heights plateau, which was part of Syria until it was occupied and annexed by Israel during the Six-Day War, and the region of Kurdistan, which is officially a part of northern Iraq but also has an autonomous status. Geography of the Middle East The majority of the Middle East region is characterized by a warm desert climate. Weather in this climate is very high during the summer and can reach dangerous levels, with parts of Iraq and Iran having recorded feel-like temperatures of over 160 degrees Fahrenheit (71 degrees Celsius). Average temperatures during the summer usually rest at around 120 degrees Fahrenheit (49 degrees Celsius), while the winters are somewhat milder. This climate also has very little rainfall, resulting in large desert regions. Areas of the Middle East surrounding the Mediterranean, such as Israel and Lebanon, instead boast a warm Mediterranean climate similar to parts of Greece and Italy, while Turkey’s territory stretches over a variety of arid and continental climate. The northern regions of the Middle East in Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia are closer to a steppe climate, with colder winters but still very little precipitation. As a result of its arid climate, the Middle East is home to several of the world’s largest deserts. The Syrian Desert, which also stretches into Jordan, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia, combines both traditional desert and steppe geography, while the Arabian Desert around Yemen, Oman, Jordan, Iraq, and the Persian Gulf contains more of the rolling sand dunes which often characterize desert imagery. Indeed, the Rub ‘al- Khali, or Empty Quarter, at the center of the Arabian Desert is the largest sand-only desert on the planet and receives as little as 1.2 inches (30 millimeters) of rainfall per year. The Sahara Desert, which stretches across northern Africa and which is perhaps the best-known desert in the world, reaches into the Middle East by way of Egypt. Despite the proliferation of deserts within the region, the Middle East also has several seas, gulfs, and rivers. It shares the Mediterranean Sea with Africa and Europe and the Black and Caspian Seas with Eastern Europe. The famous Suez Canal and Gulf of Suez run between Egypt’s African territory and its Sinai region bordering Israel in Asia, while the equally renowned Nile River flows from the Mediterranean Sea through Egypt and well into the African continent. The Dead Sea borders Israel to the West and Jordan to the East and is among the saltiest lakes in the world and is also lowest point on the Earth’s land surface, while the Red Sea is shared by both the Western Middle East and parts of Eastern Africa. The massive Tigris and Euphrates rivers begin in the mountains of eastern Turkey, flowing through Syria and Iraq out into the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with the Gulfs of Aden and Oman, connect the central and southern regions of the Middle East to the Arabian Sea and ultimately the Indian Ocean. Using the most inclusive possible definition of the region as per the outlines listed previously, the total landmass of the Middle East is roughly 3.82 million square miles (9.9 million square kilometers). The largest countries in the region are Saudi Arabia (800 thousand square miles or 2.1 million square kilometers), Iran (580 thousand square miles or 1.5 million square kilometers), Egypt (384 thousand square miles or 995 thousand square kilometers), and Pakistan (340 thousand square miles or 881 thousand square kilometers). The smallest countries in the Middle East are Bahrain (295 square miles or 765 square kilometers), Cyprus (3,568 square miles or 9,241 square kilometers), Lebanon (3,950 square miles or 10.2 thousand square kilometers), and Qatar (4,473 square miles or 11.6 thousand square kilometers). www.worldatlas.com>webimage>countrys Physical Geography of the Middle East While most people picture the Middle East region as an expansive hot desert, it actually includes mountains, fertile river valleys, and coastal plains. These physical features influence the region's climate, biodiversity, and human activity. The Middle East is home to several mountain ranges, including the Zagros Mountains in Iran, the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, and the Alborz Mountains in northern Iran. These mountains serve as natural barriers, affecting regional climate patterns, water distribution, and biodiversity. They also hold strategic importance, providing natural defense barriers, mineral resources, and grazing lands. Vast areas are, of course, still covered by deserts. The Rub' al Khali (Empty Quarter) is a "hyper-arid" region with less than 2 inches of rain each year. It is located in Saudi Arabia; it is sometimes called “Arabian Desert.” The Syrian Desert covers most of Jordan and Syria and features rocky or gravelly desert with occasional wadis or riverbeds. These deserts are rich in oil and natural gas reserves, making them significant economic resources for countries across the Middle East. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq, and the Jordan River are key river systems in the Middle East. These river valleys support fertile agricultural lands that enabled the development of ancient civilizations such as Mesopotamia and influenced settlement patterns. Control over water resources in these river valleys has been a source of tension and conflict among neighboring countries, leading to geopolitical issues. The Red Sea is a crucial waterway for shipping and trade while also boasting coral reefs. It is connected to the Mediterranean Sea by the man-made Suez Canal, 120- mile waterway that opened in 1869. The Persian Gulf, between Saudi Arabia and Iran, is rich in oil and natural gas, making it one of the most important regions for energy resources in the world. It narrows to the Strait of Hormuz before emptying into the Gulf of Oman and Indian Ocean. Coastal plains in this region that border the Mediterranean Sea, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and Arabian Sea are vital for maritime trade, fishing, and urban development. Cities like Beirut, Tel Aviv, and Dubai are located on coastal plains, allowing them to serve as economic and cultural hubs. These coastal regions are vulnerable to environmental threats such as sea-level rise, pollution, and coastal erosion, that have impacted local communities and ecosystems. www.studentsofhistory.com>the-geography-of-the-middle-east The Geography of the Middle East The Middle East is a large and diverse geographical area located in southwest Asia. It extends over 2,000 miles from the Black Sea in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south, and about 1,000 miles from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the mountains of Iran. The term “Middle East” came into common use in the early twentieth century, but remains loosely defined. One term sometimes applied to part of this area is “Fertile Crescent,” which was coined by James Henry Breasted in 1914 to refer to the arc of fertile agricultural zones that formed the basis for early civilizations, in what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. Scholars studying the ancient past usually use the term “Near East” for this area. Mountains and deserts divide the Middle East into six zones that are both geographically distinct and have influenced the development and maintenance of cultural traditions through much of the history of the region. In the first of these zones, the Nile River flows northward through the Sahara Desert from Khartoum in Sudan (where its two major tributaries join), through Egypt, and to the Mediterranean Sea. As a source of water, food, and fertile soil deposited in annual floods as well as a transportation route, it was the ecological basis for ancient Nubian and Egyptian civilization. In the southern part of this region, the broad alluvial plain is broken by six “cataracts”—areas in which the narrow river valley, strong current, islands, and rapids make navigation difficult. The rich mineral resources of the deserts around the Nile, particularly gold, have historically been important to economic development in this area. East of the Nile Valley, across the Eastern Desert and the Sinai Peninsula, is the eastern Mediterranean coastal plain, which has historically been connected with mountains and river valleys that run parallel to it. Comprising the modern countries of Israel, Lebanon, and western Syria, as well as parts of Jordan and Turkey, this region is sometimes called the Levant (after the French term for “rising,” here referring to the rising sun). Located in the Mediterranean climatic zone with rich agricultural land and relatively abundant rainfall, and having easy access to land and sea routes, the Levant has always been a cultural crossroads and has frequently been conquered. Among the first areas to develop agriculture (as far back as 11,000 BCE), ancient cultures that developed in this region include Canaanite, Amorite, Israelite, and Phoenician. The Levant is bordered on the north by the Taurus Mountains reaching up to 12,000 feet in elevation, which separate the Levant from the Anatolian plateau in modern Turkey. The Anatolian plateau is a relatively isolated but fertile agricultural zone, and the Taurus Mountains are rich in metals and minerals—they were known as the “silver mountain” in some ancient texts, but copper was even more abundantly available. The western coast of Turkey had closer contact with cultures of Greece and the Aegean Sea than with the rest of the Middle East through much of its early history. Ancient cultures in Anatolia included the Hittite empire and a Hurrian- speaking population. Southeast of the Levant is the Arabian Peninsula with its extensive deserts, oases, and coastal regions along the Red Sea, Arabian Sea, and Persian Gulf that were more often suited to permanent settlement. Today, this area includes the countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Distinctive ancient cultures of this area include the South Arabian kingdoms in what is now Yemen that traded incense to the Levant and communities in Oman that were rich in copper and hard stone. Arab culture first appears in the historical record after the introduction of the camel in about 1200 BCE, which allowed more extensive use of arid zones of Saudi Arabia, and Islam first developed in the oasis towns of Mecca and Medina before spreading over much of the Middle East by 700 CE. East of the Levant and south of the Taurus Mountains is the area of Iraq defined by the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers, that has sometimes been called Mesopotamia (the “land between the rivers”), now encompassing eastern Syria, Iraq, and a small area of southwestern Iran. In many ways, what we call Mesopotamian civilization is a series of diverse languages and cultures bound together by a common script and written tradition. Ancient languages in the area included Sumerian, Akkadian, Amorite, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Aramaic. Mesopotamia is a particularly fertile agricultural zone with vast areas available for cultivation. Northern Mesopotamia receives enough rainfall to grow grain crops, while southern Mesopotamia receives virtually no rain, so agriculture there depended on extensive networks of irrigation canals. At the southern end of the Tigris-Euphrates course, a series of marshes has maintained a distinctive environment and culture for millennia. Apart from water and fertile soil (and later oil), Mesopotamia contains few natural resources, and has depended on trade with people in the mountainous regions to the north and east for stone, copper, and timber. Mesopotamia is bordered on the east by the Zagros Mountains of western Iran and eastern Turkey (elevation up to 15,000 feet), whose highland valleys were home to Elamite and Persian civilizations as well as later powerful nomadic confederations including the Bakhtiari. The Zagros are a rich source of stone and timber. The climate of the Middle East ranges from the warm summers and cold winters of highland Turkey and Iran, through hotter summers and cool winters of northern Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean coast, to the extreme temperatures of the Arabian desert. Most, but not all, of the region is arid. As this outline suggests, geography plays a significant role in the formation and maintenance of cultures. The earliest civilizations with large population centers developed near abundant sources of water and agricultural land, rather than in areas of other valuable raw materials, like metals, semi-precious stones, building stone, or timber. Geography also provides a basis for distinctive attributes of regional cultures, like the importance of olive oil and wine in the cuisine of the eastern Mediterranean region (where grapes and olives can easily be cultivated), or the extensive use of incense in daily life, ritual practice, and in economic exchange in the cultures of south Arabia. Scholars debate the extent to which geography shapes culture and the direction of historical change. Some see geography as destiny, while others see a more complex set of changing opportunities and constraints that geography poses through history. teachmiddleeast.lib>uchicago.edu>foundations>geography