Yabelo Ifa Boru Boarding Secondary School Geography Notes - Grade 10 - Unit 1 - Landforms of Africa PDF

YABELO IFA BORU BOARDING SECONDARY SCHOOL Geography Short Notes For Grade -10 Unit: 1 Landform of Africa By: Kemal Aman (MA) Septemper, 2017/2024 Yabelo, Ethiopia 1|Page ...

YABELO IFA BORU BOARDING SECONDARY SCHOOL Geography Short Notes For Grade -10 Unit: 1 Landform of Africa By: Kemal Aman (MA) Septemper, 2017/2024 Yabelo, Ethiopia 1|Page  UNIT: 1 1. LANDFORMS OF AFRICA 1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE WORLD’S MAJOR LANDFORMS 2 1.2 LOCATION AND RELATED FEATURES OF AFRICA 1.3 MAJOR LANDFORMS OF AFRICA Landforms are physical features on the Earth’s surface that form terrain of an area. Example: Such landforms are grouped into; - I. Major landforms, such as - Mountains, plateaus and plains They are widely distributed on the earth’s surface. II. Minor landforms, such as - Hills, gorges, valleys and, basins etc. What are the responsible factors for landforms occurrence? These landforms are the work of two opposite forces: A.Internal (endogenic) process They are the force that originates from inside the earth. For example: - Tectonic plate movement (Folding and Faulting process) - Volcanic activities - Earthquakes Internal processes such as, tectonic plate movement and volcanic activities in the Earth’s interior can create landforms by pushing up mountains, plateaus and hills. B. External (Exogenic) process They are the force that acts up on the surface of the earth (erosion and denudation). For example: -by running water (Gorges, Gullies, and River valleys) - Winds action - Sea waves - Glaciers External process, through erosion by water and wind can create minor landforms like gullies, river valleys, and gorges. It is a combination of these two forces that created the existing landforms of the World. Both processes happen over a long period. 2|Page Example: Abay gorge due to running water (Nile River) The surface of the Earth is covered by land and water. The landforms make up continents and the water forms oceans. 1. Continents of the World. Continents are the largest landmasses in the world. The Earth is divided into seven continents, from largest to smallest are: Continents of the World 1.Asia 2. Africa 3. North America 4. South America 5. Antarctica 6. Europe, and 7. Oceania (Australia). Figure 1.2 Map of Continents and Oceans of the World 3|Page 2. Oceans of the World. Oceans are large areas of salt water between the continents. It accounts about 71% of the earth. There are five interconnected ocean of the world.  The Arctic Ocean  The Atlantic Ocean  The Indian Ocean  The Pacific Ocean  The Southern Ocean Major coastal land features Such as are: - islands, Peninsulas, and Isthmuses etc An island is a piece of ground that is completely surrounded by water. It can be big or small in any part of the world. The largest island in the world is Greenland. A peninsula is a piece of land that has water on three sides but it is connected on the fourth side to the mainland. Example: Italy and Florida. An isthmus is a narrow strip of land with water on both sides connecting two larger pieces of land. Example is the Isthmus of Panama that connects North America to South America. Activity 1.2 1. List sovereign island countries of the world within their respective continents. 4|Page The major landforms of the world I. Mountains: They are the largest elevated and most recognizable landforms on the Earth’s surface. They have steep sides, high peaks and stand out from the surrounding land. They are usually formed when rock layers are pushed together from opposite sides. Thus, the pressure exerted from the movement forces the land in the middle to rise. The low areas between mountains are called valleys. They are also be formed by volcanic activity when lava and other materials build up on the surface of the earth. What are the factors for mountains formation?  Tectonic activies (folding and faulting process).  Volcanic activities Example: Himalayas' mountain range.  Its highest landform on Earth is Mt. Everest. (8,849m)  It is a peak in the Himalaya’s Mountain range.  It is located between Nepal and Tibet.  It runs across several countries in South and Southeast Asia such as India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Afghanistan.  It formed when the Indian tectonic plates collided with the Eurasian plate (40-50 million years ago). Landforms can also exist under oceans in the form of mountain ranges and basins. The Mariana Trench, the deepest landform on Earth, is in the South Pacific Ocean. II. Plains: Plains are large areas of flat low land with no hills or mountains in them. Example: The Great Plains in the mid United States. They are very important areas for crop cultivation and animal husbandry (ranch). III. Plateaus: Plateaus are large areas of raised land that are flat on top. They are formed by volcanic activity, when magma cools and solidifies within crust of the earth. 5|Page 1.2 LOCATION AND RELATED FEATURES OF AFRICA 1. What is location? 2. Mention the ways of describing location of a place? Location: is the position of a place. Location can be expressed in two ways, namely, relatively and absolutely. A. Relative location of Africa Relative location expresses the position of place in reference to closest landmasses or water bodies. Relative location of Africa The continent of Africa is bounded by:  Mediterranean Sea (north)  Red Sea  Gulf of Aden  Indian Ocean, and,  Atlantic Ocean. 1. Explain the relative location of Africa in reference to surrounding water bodies? 6|Page A.Absolute location of Africa Absolute location of a place expresses by using the network lines of latitudes and longitudes. Absolute location of Africa. The four extreme points of the continent Africa are: 1. Extreme North - Cape Bon (Tunisia) -37 21'N 2. Extreme South - Cape Agulhas (RSA) - 34 52'S 3. Extreme East - Cape Guardafui (Somalia) - 51 28'E 4. Extreme West - Cape Verde (Senegal) - 17 33'W Africa's Astronomical Location General characteristics of the continent of Africa Africa is a continent that occupies a central position in the world.  Astronomically it is located 37 21' N and 34 52' S lat and 17 33' W and 51 28' E long.  Almost ¾th of the continent's total area is found within the tropics.  It is crossed by the equator, Greenwich meridian, Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.  It is close to Europe and Asia along the strait of Gibraltar and the Isthmus of Suez, respectively. Africa is the second largest in areal size (30.37 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑚 ).  It covers 6% of the Earth’s total surface area and 20% of its land area.  It is also the second most populous continent on the world.  Its total population was estimated to be 1.3 billion people in 2020.  It accounts for about 16% of the world’s population.  It has about 54 recognized sovereign states.  It divided almost in two equal parts (lengthwise) across the equator.  It has relatively compact shape. 7|Page 1.3 MAJOR LANDFORMS OF AFRICA Why do we study about landforms? Understanding landforms is very important because of,  They greatly affect human perception and interactions with the environment.  They help to describe the landscape, topography, and ecological units within the environment.  They help to understand the temporal and spatial scales of ecosystems.  They help to understand physical elements in ecosystems and material and energy flows occur within the landform system.  They also affect, modify, and influence climate either at macro or micro level areas. Effects of landforms on ecosystem patterns and processes include: 1. Landform attributes (elevation, steepness of slope, and aspect) produce many different patterns which determine the ecological potential of an area. 2. Landform regions affect the flow of organisms, energy, and material in ecosystem. 3. Landform regions affect the spatial pattern of non-geomorphic disturbance such as fire and wind. 4. Landforms may resist changes that geomorphic processes create; hence they protect biotic features and processes. The major landform regions of Africa In Africa, there are four significant landform regions. 1. African Alpine System 2. African massif 3. East African highland and rift valley system 4. Southern African platform These landform regions, divided into eight major physical regions: The Atlas Mountains, Sahara, Sahel, savanna, rainforest, Rift Valley and African Great Lakes, Ethiopian and Eritrean Highlands, mountains and desert systems of South Africa. Some of these regions cover large bands of the continent, such as the African massif of the Sahara and Sahara Desert. 8|Page  1.3.1 African Alpine System i. Atlas Mountains: It contains a range of mountains in North Africa that extends from Morocco to Tunisia. It forms a series of mountain chains including, the Anti-Atlas, High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Rif Mountains, Tell Atlas, and Sahara Atlas. It makes up the Maghrib (‘west’) region including Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The mountain range extends for more than 2,000 kilometers, from the Moroccan port of Agadir in the southwest, to the Tunisian capital of Tunis in the northeast. 9|Page 1.3.2 African Massif I. The Sahara Desert The Sahara is a desert on the African continent. It is the largest hot desert in the world with 9,200,000km2. It covers the entire region of North Africa, from the Atlantic coast in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Sahara borders the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains in the north, extending south into Sudan and a region known as the Sahel. The Sahara encompasses ten countries in North Africa. These countries are Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, and Tunisia. 10 | P a g e The landscapes of Sahara desert covered by Erg or Reg sands. An area of Sahara desert that has covered by enormous quantities of reddish sand dunes that is weathered from sandstone and that makes up a great sand sea, called an erg, whereas Reg is desert pavement of pebbles on top of vast flat-surfaced sheets of sand in Sahara desert. Sahara desert landscape II. The Sahel Sahel is a vast semiarid region of North Africa and south of the Sahara. It forms a transitional zone at the south of the desert It refers to the 5,000 kilometers stretch of savanna that is the shore or edge of the Sahara Desert. It spreads west to east from Mauritania and Senegal to Somalia. Countries in the Sahel include: Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Chad, Sudan and Eritrea. 11 | P a g e   The Sahel lands are grasslands and savannahs, with scrub areas to the north, alternating areas of trees, mainly acacias in the south.  It has natural pasture with low-growing grass and tall herbaceous perennials.  It has plenty of forage for the livestock (camel, pack ox, and grazing cattle and sheep). The Sahel region III. The Savanna It is a transitional region between rainforest and the Sahel grassland. It is tropical grassland with few trees and shrubs Shrub is a woody plant smaller than a tree and has a very short stem with branches near the ground. The trees (shrubs) in the Savanna region are: They are drought resistant trees. They are usually shed their leaves during the dry season to reduces water loss. Based on vegetation types, the Savanna region has two important parts – i. Thorn tree tall grass Savana. ii. Woodland savanna region i. Thorn tree tall grass Savanna. The thorn trees are growing in widely spaced with grasses.. More grasses grown than trees The trees are largely of thorny species 12 | P a g e ii. Woodland savanna. In the tropical savanna woodland of Africa, The trees are growing in widely spaced due to lack of soil moisture during the dry season. They have an open, park-like appearance. The trees are of medium height. Tree crowns are flattened or umbrella-shaped, and the trunks have thick, rough bark. Example: - xerophytic tree forms – adapted to the dry environment with small leaves and thorns. - Broad-leaved deciduous species- that shed their leaves in the dry season. IV. The Tropical Rainforest i. Location of tropical rainforests in Africa. It occurs both to the north and south of the Equator. It is mainly located in six African countries of Congo basin Cameroon Central African Republic Republic of the Congo Democratic Republic of the Congo Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea. 13 | P a g e They are also found in Ghana, Ivory Coast and Madagascar.. Tropical rainforest in Africa The characteristic of the tropical rainforest They are very diverse and large number of plant and animal species. The majority of these plants grow closely together. They form a thick continuous canopy, some 25 to 35 meters tall. They are broad evergreen with large, dark green, leathery leaves. Example: - Epiphytic plants - Herbaceous plants - Vines (lianas) and - Ferns plants ii. Tropical Rainforest climate  The rainforest climate is wet all the year or it has a short dry season.  Annual rainfall, (>2000 - 2250 mm),  Temperature and humidity are evenly distributed and relatively high throughout the year. iii. Tropical Rainforest soil  In the tropical rainforests, the process of decomposition is rapid because of high temperature and moisture.  Due to the frequent and heavy rainfall in the area, tropical soils are subject to extreme chemical weathering and leaching.  These environmental conditions also make tropical soils acidic and nutrient poor. 14 | P a g e  1.3.3 East African Highlands and Rift Valley System I. The Rift Valley and African Great Lakes  Great East African Rift System is a set of fractures in the earth’s crust, which begins from the Red Sea and extends through the Ethiopian landmass to the Lake Victorian region where it subdivides into an east and west segment and continues southward through Lake Malawi to Mozambique. It was formed as the land stretched by forces moving in opposite direction creating rupture and splitting apart the land in between. This creates an area called graben. The Rift Valley of East Africa was formed by normal faulting. Its total length in Africa is estimated to be 5,600 km. Great East African Rift System Major Characteristics of Great East African Rift Valley  Many structural basins (lakes) occupy the floor of the Rift Valley.  It is bounded by steep escarpments (edges).  It has numerous active and dormant volcanoes  It is often affected by earthquakes, and volcanism which making the Rift Valley very unstable region.  Has a hot and dry climate in its many parts, making the place difficult for human habitation; 15 | P a g e i. African Rift Valley lakes They are series of lakes in the East African Rift valley that runs from Ethiopia in the north to Malawi in the south. Many of these lakes are with freshwater and great biodiversity while others are alkaline or salty lakes. ii. Ethiopia Rift Valley Lakes. They are found northernmost of the African Rift Valley lakes. They are mainly found in central of Ethiopia. They split the Ethiopian highlands into northwestern and southeastern highlands. They occupy the floor of the rift valley between the two highlands. II. The Ethiopian and Eritrean Highlands The major landform features in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa i. Highlands: is set of high plateau, with a massive central highland complex of mountains. ii. The Great Rift Valley iii. Plains (lowlands) is a series of lowlands along the periphery (edges) of the higher elevations. The wide diversity of terrain produces regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns. 16 | P a g e 1.3.4 Southern Africa Platform I. Mountains and Desert Systems of Southern Africa It’s the region to south of the Congo and Tanzania is Southern Africa. This landform region has a very diverse landscape. Example: The Ukhahlamba (Drakensberg) escarpments The grasslands The desert landscapes The Tropic of Capricorn runs straight through the middle of this region. Landforms of South Africa Major land features of South Africa 1. The Ukhahlamba (Drakensberg) escarpment It is the most recognizable landscape in the region. The average altitude of the escarpment is almost 3,000 m a s l. It separates the Highveld from KwaZulu-Natal. It forms the boundary between KwaZulu-Natal and Lesotho. 2. The deserts landscape in southern Africa Two important deserts form large part of southern Africa. i. The Kalahari Desert: It lies mainly in Botswana. It is an extensive desert region with an arid mixture of grasslands and sand. When there is adequate rainfall, the grasslands provide excellent grazing for wildlife. It is the home to game reserves and national parks. 17 | P a g e ii. The Namib Desert: It is found along the west coast of Namibia. It is a desert land affected by the cold ocean current of Benguela that borders the area. It was formed partly because of the cold ocean current nearby. 3. Highveld landscape. It is the portion of the South African inland plateau. It slopes gently downwards. It is bounded by the Great Karoo to the south, the Kalahari Desert to the west and the Bushveld to the north. It is most important area for commercial farming. It’s the concentration of metropolitan centers, (Gauteng conurbation) which accommodates one- third of South Africa’s population. It separates from KwaZulu-Natal by Great escarpment. The different landforms of the earth’s surface Basins- are an area with water deposit/container. Gorge is a deeper and narrow cut/valley formed at the upper course of river. Gully- is the widest and deepest cut/ditches that formed when the floods water join together. Hills - is an area of high ground but is lower than a mountain in elevation Mountains - is a high land with steep slopes and a peak. Plateaus- are upland areas with surface of some degree of altitudinal uniformity and delimited usually by steeper slope, sometimes known as tableland. Plains- are areas of low relief with more or less flat surface configurations. Valleys- are a long low-lying area of land, often with a river running through it or without river that is surrounded by higher ground. Peak/Summit – the highest point or top of a mountain. 18 | P a g e  UNIT: 2 CLIMATE OF AFRICA 2.1 OVERVIEW OF WORLD CLIMATIC REGIONS AND TYPES 2.2 CLIMATE TYPES AND REGIONS OF AFRICA 2.3 BENEFITS OF CLIMATE FOR THE LIFE OF PEOPLE IN AFRICA 2.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS CHALLENGES TO AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT VISION Climate is an average of weather conditions in a place over a long period – 30 years or more. It represents the sum of all interacting atmospheric processes over a given period. Weather refers to a short- term atmospheric condition such as the temperature and precipitation on a certain day, the state of the atmosphere with respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness, calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness. Climatic zones are spacious areas with a climatic similarity. The climate zones spread in an east- west direction around the Earth and can be classified using different climatic parameters. Climatic region refers to any geographic area in which similar climate characteristics are observed. Such as temperature, precipitation, and natural Vegetation 2.1 OVERVIEW OF WORLD CLIMATIC REGIONS AND TYPES Global climate is a description of the climate of the Earth as a whole, with all the regional differences averaged. Geographers and climatologists defined climatic region based on different climatic elements. In fact, the Earth’s climate is driven by energy from the sun which arrives in the form of radiation. 2.1.1 Climate Classifications Knowing a location’s climate classification:  Help people know what types of climatic conditions a region usually experiences throughout the year. 19 | P a g e   Can be useful to choose appropriate building materials for protection and durability  Helps considering what crops are likely to thrive in a region.  Help for tourists, to select and pack appropriate clothing. There are various classification schemes used by climatologists for categorizing world’s climate into different regions. Example: i. Ancient Greek world climate classification ii. Kðppen System of Climate Classification i. Ancient Greek world climate classification. The first attempt at climate classification was made by the ancient Greeks that divided the World into three zones: i. The torrid (tropical) zone ii. The temperate zone iii. The Frigid Zone Today, climate scientists split the earth into approximately five major types: tropical, dry, temperate, continental, and polar considering a variety of factors including altitude, air pressure, wind patterns, latitude and geographical characteristics such as mountains and oceans. 20 | P a g e ii. Kðppen System of Climate Classification. It is one of the most widely used classification schemes of climate. It was made by the German Climatologist and Botanist WladimirKöppen (1846-1940). He divided the world’s climates based upon general temperature profiles related to latitude. He uses easily regarding mean monthly and annual values of temperature and precipitation. ` He believed that the distribution of natural vegetation was the best expression of an overall climate. Köppen recognized five principal climate groups, each designated with a capital letter: A: Humid tropical climate B: Dry climate C: Humid middle-latitude, mild winters D: Humid middle-latitude, severe winters E: Polar climate H: Highland climate. Note: Four groups (A, C, D, and E) are defined by temperature. The fifth, (group B), has precipitation as its primary criterion, while H is determined by altitude 21 | P a g e 2.1.2 World Climate Zones and Regions Climate zones are areas with distinct climates, which occur in the east-west direction around the Earth, and they can be classified using different climatic parameters. Generally, climate zones are belt-shaped and circular around the poles. In some areas, climate zones can be interrupted by mountains or oceans. The world’s climate pattern reflects a regular and dependable operation of the major climate controls. The solar radiation reaches the ground on different parts of the Earth at different angles. On the equator, the sunlight reaches the ground almost perpendicularly, while at the poles the angle of the Sun is lower or even under the horizon during the polar night. Thus, the sunlight warms up the Earth around the equator much more strongly than at the poles. Due to temperature differences caused by the differences in radiation, recurring climatic conditions develop. There are four major global climate zones: 1. Tropical Zone (between 0°– 23 N and S)  It located between the equator and the tropics.  It receives high solar radiation which reaches the ground nearly vertically angle at almost the entire year.  Thereby, it is very warm, high temperatures, more water evaporates and often moist air.  The resulting frequent and dense cloud cover reduces the effect of solar radiation on the ground temperature. 2. Subtropics Zone (between 23 °– 40° N&S) It receives the highest radiation in summer, since the Sun’s angle at noon is almost vertical to the Earth, while the cloud cover is relatively thin. This region has less moisture which increases the effect of radiation. Therefore, most of the deserts in the world are situated in this zone. In winter, the radiation in these regions decreases significantly, and it can temporarily be very cool and dry. 3. Temperate Zone (between 40°– 60° N&S) The temperate zone climate is characterized by:  It receives low solar radiation that arrives at ground at a lower angle.  The average temperatures much cooler than in the subtropics.  The seasons and day length differ significantly in the course of a year.  The less frequent extremes, more regular distribution of the precipitation over the year.  The longer vegetation period – therefore, it is named as “temperate”. 4. Cold Zone (between 60°N– 90°S) 22 | P a g e The climate of this region is characterized by: The polar area lies between 60° latitude and the poles. It receives less heat throughout solar radiation, since there is very low angle of the Sun. Because of the changes of the Earth axis angle to the Sun, the day length varies most in this zone. For instance, in the summer, polar days occur. Therefore, this region has experienced low vegetation during a few months per year and even it is often sparse. The conditions in these regions make life very challenging. The characteristics of the climate zones change with great altitude differences within a small area, like in mountain areas, since temperatures decrease rapidly with altitude. 2.2 CLIMATE TYPES AND REGION OF AFRICA The climate of Africa is characterized by a range of climates such as the equatorial climate, the tropical wet and dry climate, the tropical monsoon climate, the semi-arid climate (semi-desert and steppe), the desert climate (hyper-arid and arid), and the subtropical highland climate. Africa’s position is relatively unique in the sense that it almost has a mirror image of climate zones to the north and South of the Equator with regard to latitude. General characteristic of African Climate  Its climate is more variable in rainfall amount than in temperatures.  Its deserts climate is the sunniest and driest parts of the continent.  It’s the hottest extended region year-round.  Warm and hot climates prevail all over Africa.  Its northern part is marked by aridity and high temperatures. 23 | P a g e   Its has Mediterranean climate at northern and the southern fringes.  It is the most tropical of all the continents.  It is the continent that it has almost a mirror image of all climate zones. 2.2.1 Types and Characteristics of Climate region in Africa Africa climate is regulated by the apparent movement of the sun between the two tropics and the associated movement of winds. Based on these factors, African climate divided into eight climatic regions. These are: I. The equatorial (tropical wet) region II. Tropical wet-and-dry climatic region III. Semi-arid climatic region IV. Hot desert climatic region V. Mediterranean climatic region VI. The Warm Temperate East Coast Climate Region VII. Warm temperate upland and mountain regions VIII. The Mountain Climatic Region I. The Equatorial Climate Region The equatorial climates are: It experienced in the lowland area between latitudes 5 N and 5 S of the equator. It covers mainly parts of Central Africa which includes the Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Cameroon. It is also experienced in the Southern part of Nigeria, Ghana, Benin and Sera Leone. Highland and coastal areas, especially in Eastern Africa, experience modified equatorial climate where the temperature is much lower than it is experienced in the true equatorial climate. The Equatorial climate is characterized by: It has temperatures are very high throughout the year averaging about 26°C. The hottest months in the year are March and September; occur when the sun is overhead at the equator. 24 | P a g e The diurnal temperature range is very low, about 3°C. It is has often heavy cloud cover and humidity throughout the year. This region mainly receives convectional rainfall. II. The Tropical Wet-and-Dry climate Region The tropical wet-and-dry region is often called the savanna climatic region. This region covers nearly to half of the total surface area of the continent, extending toward the Equator from the semi-arid areas. In Eastern Africa, the tropical climate type is experienced in Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Somalia. In South Africa, it is experienced in Zambia, Malawi, Angola, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe. The tropical wet and dry climate is characterized by: Its rainfall is seasonal character. It has seasonal rainfall, and has double passage of the ITCZ, hence has double peaks of rainfall. This region is under the influences of maritime air masses and harmattan wind. Example: During the period of high sun, the maritime air masses produce up to six months of rainfall, the length of the rainy season depending on the nearness to the Equator. The rest of the year is dry. In a few places, for example, on the coast of Mauritania and Senegal, there is also a little rainfall in the period of low sun. As in the desert and semi-arid climatic zones, mean monthly temperatures show less variation than daily temperatures. In western Africa, the period of low sun corresponds to the harmattan season. The harmattan is a warm, dry, northeasterly or easterly wind that blows out of the southern Sahara and is frequently laden with large quantities of sand and dust. There are two peak periods of rainfall corresponding to the double passage of the inter- tropical convergence zone (ITCZ). Clear and blue skies are the common characteristics of this climate region in winter season. III. Semi-arid Climatic Region 25 | P a g e This region fringes the desert areas and includes the greater part of the land south of the Zambezi River. They differ from true desert regions in being just within reach of the ITCZ in the course of its seasonal movement and therefore, this region receiving more rainfall. Temperatures are about the same as those in the desert regions. IV. The Hot Desert Climatic Region Hot deserts are places where there is little or no rainfall. It Sahara and Kalahari deserts, which are always under the influence of dry continental tropical air masses, and the northern Kenya–Somali desert, the aridity of which is principally caused by the stable nature of the maritime air masses that pass over it throughout the year. The stability of these maritime air masses is induced by their passing over the cool body of water offshore. Its climate is characterized by:  It has high mean monthly temperatures.  Its diurnal (daily) temperature range is greater than the annual range of the temperature. The daytime temperatures are:  Extremely high.  Day’s temperatures usually range between 30ºC - 40ºC.  Some places in the Sahara Desert experience above 40°C.  The highest ever recorded temperature in the world was 58°C in Azizia, Libya. At night, temperatures are very low, dropping to below 10 C. The skies are clear and because of this, the heat received from the sun during the day is quickly lost back into the atmosphere at night. V. Mediterranean Climate Region It is also called Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate. It is experienced in very small areas of the continent. It is best developed on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and in the South western tip of Africa. It temperatures range from 10 C in winter to about 21 C in summer. The Mediterranean areas lie in the path of westerly winds. Therefore this region is under the influence of westerly winds. Example: 26 | P a g e In the summer season, winds blow from the land to the sea carry dry air to region. Therefore, the region is characterized by A hot, sunny, bright and dry summer. In the winter season, cool moist winds blow towards the land from the sea. The influence of moist westerly winds also makes the winters mild/wet season. The average amount of rainfall each year is about 500-750 mm. VI. The Warm Temperate East Coast Climate Region The climate is experienced between latitudes 30 - 40 north of the Equator and 30 - 40 South of the Equator. It is experienced along the Eastern coast of South Africa, especially in Natal and Cape Provinces, as well as in Mozambique. These areas are under the strong influence of the warm Mozambique current and the warm southeast trade winds. Summer temperatures are generally high with an average of about 26 C and winter temperatures are low, averaging about 10 C. Annual rainfall is between 1000 - 1500 mm/year but it decrease, westwards into the interior. VII. Warm Temperate Continental Climate Region This climate is mainly experienced in the interior of South Africa, between the Drakensberg Mountains and the Kalahari Desert. It receive low amount of rainfall because the area is inland and the winds blowing from the sea reach here when they are already dry. Most of the rain falls during the winter season and averages about 700 mm per year. The Eastern areas are wetter than those in the West which are close to the Kalahari Desert. The annual temperature ranges from about 26 C in summer to about 10 C in winter. The region is the smallest of all the climatic zones. Rainfall is controlled mainly by the onshore winds that come from Indian Ocean. VIII. The Mountain Climatic Region It is found on the high mountain areas of east Africa Mount Kenya, Ethiopia and the lakes region of East Africa.  Its climate is similar to the warm temperate upland climate, except the temperatures are even lower and snow occurs on the tops of the highest peaks, such as Kilimanjaro.  The area receives more rainfall than the surrounding areas. 27 | P a g e   It mostly receives relief rainfall, formed as the warm moist winds are forced to rise up the highlands.  The highest amount of rainfall is received on the windward slopes. At the lower slopes, the mountains are warmer and wetter.  The slopes facing away from the sea are called leeward or rain shadow slopes. They receive little or no rain.  The winds here are descending and have a cooling effect. Humid subtropical climatic region  Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.  At the very top of high mountains, temperatures are below freezing point.  It is found in eastern side of continents between 20 - 35 north and south latitudes.  It is a transitional between the tropical and temperate climates.  In Africa it confined to the southeastern coast of south Africa.  It relatively high temperature with warm and wet climate.  In koppen’s classification the humid subtropical is constitutes of two climate ( Cfa & Cwa). 28 | P a g e 2.2.2 Factors Controlling Climate of Africa There are several factors that influence the climate of the African continent. These includes,  The latitude (the angle of the sun).  The air pressure, wind system and the Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ).  The major ocean currents.  The land and water (maritime versus continental) influence  The altitude. These factors determine the amount of temperature and precipitation. I. Latitude and its influence on Solar Radiation received 29 | P a g e Africa straddles the Equator from 37⁰ N - 34⁰S; hence it lies within the tropics. The variations in the receipt of solar energy and temperature differences are largely a function of latitude in Africa. Temperature is high throughout the continent because of the continent’s location relative to Equator. As latitude increases, the sun shines more obliquely and provides less energy. The equator, however, faces the sun’s rays directly, so the climate is warm year-round. II. Pressure Systems, Winds, and the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Located on about Latitude 30 North and south of the Equator are Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts that dictate surface wind patterns and influence rainfall and temperature regimes on the continent. The Subtropical High-Pressure Systems on both sides of the Equator generate two wind systems that converge on the equator in a zone termed as Inter-Tropical Converge Zone (ITCZ). From the north, Subtropical High-Pressure Belt zone blows the Northeast Trade Winds (locally called Harmattan). The Harmattan is dry and cool and blows over Sub-Saharan Africa from about November to April. From the south Sub-tropical High Pressure belt zone blows the Southwest Trade Winds (locally called Monsoon). The Monsoon winds are moist and bring rainfall to the coasts of West Africa. The African continent does not extend much beyond 35 of latitude from the equator. The implication is that the range of climatic conditions is limited and that the general direction of wind movement is towards the equator or towards the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ shifts with the seasonal movement of the sun across the tropics: In June: the northern summer season, the ITCZ is located at about 13 degrees of latitude in North Africa at the southern boundary of the Sahara. In December, the Northern winter season, the ITCZ moves southward along the West African Coast and to the northern and eastern margins of the Congo basin and continues to Madagascar. Movements in the ITCZ are closely related to the distribution of rainfall and climatic zones. The climatic zones assume symmetry around the equator, although the high altitudes in some parts of the continent and the adjacent disturb the symmetry 3. Major Ocean Currents Winds that tend to blow persistently over the ocean tend to drag a thin surface layer of the water in their direction of flow. This layer of ocean water called Ocean Current dictates the temperature and moisture characteristics of the wind and the coastal regions over which the wind blows. When ocean currents blow from low latitudes (near to the equator) 30 | P a g e towards higher latitudes (towards the pole) the currents carry Warm ocean water into relatively cool regions. Two types of ocean current i. Warm Ocean Current. Warm Ocean Currents supply moisture to winds blowing over them to develop rainfall on the adjacent coasts. In Africa, Warm Ocean Currents are:  Warm Guinea Currents in West Africa.  Warm Mozambique Currents in Southeast Africa. ii. Cool Ocean Currents Cool ocean currents causes’ moisture in winds blowing over them to condense and form fogs, etc. Cool currents, cause dry conditions and bring dry air to the adjacent coastal areas. In Africa, cool ocean currents are:  the Cool Canary Currents- the western coast of the Sahara Desert,  the Cool Benguela Currents – the Western coast of Nimib Desert. The cool ocean currents tend to create rich fishing grounds. Rich fishing grounds exist along the Morocco and Spanish Saharan Coasts that are washed by the Cool Canary Currents. The Namibian coast that is washed by the Cool Benguela current also has rich fishing grounds. 4. Distribution of Land and Water Large water bodies such as the Ocean and huge lakes modify climates in adjacent lands. In the continental interior, a land where there are no large bodies of water closest to it. The solid and thin land surface gets heated and released heat very rapidly. Therefore, land temperatures get very warm in summer or during the day while very cool at night and in winter. These extremities in climate affect all states located in the interior of continents. Such climates are called Continental Climates as against Maritime Climates experienced on lands located along coasts. In places such as Timbuktu in Mali the diurnal and annual ranges in temperature are very high because of continentality. 5. Altitude 31 | P a g e Since energy from the sun is transformed into heat on the surface of the earth, air temperature decreases with altitude at an average rate of 6.4 per 1000 meters. This change in temperature with altitude is called the Lapse Rate. Because of this decrease in temperature with height, mountainous regions such as the Ethiopian highlands have very cool temperatures. Very high peaks such as Mountain Kilimanjaro located along the equator even have permanent snow cover. 2.3 BENEFITS OF CLIMATE FOR LIFE OF PEOPLE OF AFRICA Climate affects nearly every aspect of people’s lives It affects our food sources. It affect Transport infrastructure. It affects what clothes wear. It affects tourist recreation. In general it has a huge effect on our livelihood, health, and our future. It also determines people’s settlement, distribution and way of living. For instance, some places are overpopulated while the others are few with people. Example: Areas where the better climate and associated factors are support large population. On the other hand, regions of extreme climatic conditions like the deserts, rainforests, and polar regions have fewer people. Africa is a continent with a diversity of climate landscapes. It has a climate that ranges from intense heat to bitter cold in its different parts. This diversity in turn influences the living style of people including settlement patterns, livelihood options, resource endowments, health, and wellbeing. Climate plays significant role in people’s lives by sustaining agriculture, creating healthy environment, and providing vital water resources. 2.3.1 Climate and Agriculture in Africa Agriculture is the backbone of Africa’s economy and accounts for the majority of livelihoods across the continent. It is an extremely important sector on the African continent, on average accounting for 70% of the labor force and over 25% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Agriculture and Nature Agriculture in Africa It deeply dependent on the weather, with farmers needing a steady mixture of sun, warmth, and rains to reliably produce the crops they need. 32 | P a g e The bulk of agricultural systems in Sub-Saharan Africa are highly climate-dependent: the region is marked by a strong dependence on rain-fed agriculture and natural resources. The majority of Africa’s farmers working on a small-scale or subsistence level and have few financial resources, and limited access to infrastructure, and, etc. Africa is one of the continents that are most highly affected by climate change for two reasons:  Its geographical characteristics of having a major land lying across the warming tropics.  Most of it countries has limited human, social, and economic capacity to adapt to the impacts of climate change. A change in a climate, therefore, exacerbates the complexity of issues in the continent due to few technological inputs, the majority of Africa’s farmers working on a small-scale or subsistence level and have few financial resources, limited access to infrastructure etc. 2.3.2 Climate and Health in Africa Climate change has widespread effects on human health by impacting both environmental and social determinants. Humans have understood the importance of climate to human health since ancient times. For instance, a flood can cause drownings, a drought can lead to crop failure and hunger, and temperature extremes pose a risk of exposure. All climate impacts on health are mediated by some combination of natural and human dynamics that cause individuals or populations to be vulnerable to the effects of a variable or changing climate. Africa is commonly described as a “climate-vulnerable” continent in which rainfall variability, hydrological extremes, and anthropogenic climate change have the potential to inflict significant harm on a large population 2.3.3 Climate and Water Resources in Africa Water is the most important of all natural resources. Without water, life would not be able to thrive on the Earth. It has been argued that the level of streams, flow of streams/ rivers, the volume of underground water and the like all depend on types of climates and water availability. Therefore, persistent climate change may lead to shrinkage in the surface- water supply as well as the quantity and regularity of streams and rivers, and water supplies in Africa. 2.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS CHALLENGES TO AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT VISION 33 | P a g e Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system or due to anthropogenic (caused by human) external forcing. Climate variations occur with or without our actions. It is critical to assess precisely which human actions affect climate and those that do not. Climate change is a change in the state of the climate system, identified by changes in the average conditions and the variability of its properties that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer, due to natural or anthropogenic processes and drivers. Climate change in Africa is an increasingly serious threat for Africans as Africa is among the most vulnerable continents to climate change. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the vulnerability of Africa to climate change is driven by a range of factors that include,  weak adaptive capacity  high dependence on ecosystem goods for livelihoods  less developed agricultural production systems. The risks/impacts of climate change on Africa population and economy:  Reduce agricultural production,  Reduce food security, water resources and ecosystem services  Drying up of soils, increased pest and disease,  Shifts in suitable areas for growing crops and livestock,  Increases desertification, floods, deforestation, and erosion These activities will likely have increasingly severe consequences on lives and sustainable development prospects in Africa. The actual and potential impacts of climate change in Africa are large and wide-ranging, affecting many aspects of people’s everyday lives. Many climate models predict negative impacts of climate change on agricultural production and food security in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Therefore, this indicates that climate change is one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats facing Africa. The impact of climate change is more serious on the world’s poorest countries, most of which are found in Africa. Poor people already live on the frontlines of pollution, disaster, and degradation of resources and land. For them, adaptation is a matter of sheer survival. As far as development is concerned, climate change will have a strong impact on Africa’s ability to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Africa 2063 goal and on its development policies in general, with increased pressure on agriculture, water supply and demand, health, and political stability. In general, African has been seriously affected by climate change due to the following reasons. 34 | P a g e Firstly, the African society is very closely coupled with the climate system; hundreds of millions of people depend on rainfall to grow their foods. Secondly, the African climate system is controlled by an extremely complex mix of large- scale weather systems. Thirdly, the degree of expected climate change is large. The two most extensive land-based ends of- century projected decreases in rainfall anywhere on the planet occur over Africa, particularly in North and South Africa. Finally, the capacity for adaptation to climate change is low. UNIT: 3 NATURAL RESOURCE BASIS OF AFRICA Main Contents of unit 3.1 OVERVIEW OF MAJOR NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE WORLD 3.2 MAJOR DRAINAGE AND WATER RESOURCES IN AFRICA 3.3 MAIN TYPES OF SOILS AND MINERAL RESOURCES IN AFRICA 3.4 MAJOR VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE OF AFRICA 35 | P a g e 3.1 OVERVIEW OF MAJOR NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE WORLD Natural resources are parts of the environment that people can extract and exploit. Type of Natural resources I. Renewable Resources. They can be replenished by natural processes as quickly as humans use them. Examples: sunlight, wind, water, air, soil, flora and fauna etc. II. Non-renewable resources They exist in fixed amounts and can be used up sometime in the future. Examples: fossil fuels like petroleum and coal. Our quality of life and survival depends on our ability to use, rather than abuse the environment. Sustainable use refers to the use of resources in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term degradation of the environment, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations. It is a way that meets the needs of the present and also preserves the resources for future generations We need to practice the ideas and methods of Natural Resource Management (NRM) for sustainable use of resources. Natural resource management refers to the sustainable utilization of major natural resources such as land, water, air, minerals, forests, fisheries, and wild flora and fauna. These resources provide the ecosystem services that provide better quality to human life Sustainable management of resources involves effective utilization of the following key strategies.  Sustainable management of land resources  Maintaining and enhancing water resources.  Conserving and recovering biodiversity.  Enhancing skills, capacity, and engagement of people.  Protecting and enhancing the marine and coastal environment.  Delivering high-quality planning that leads to effective action. 3.1.1 The Major Natural Resources of the world The Earth is blessed with different natural resources. Natural resources provide fundamental life support in the form of both consumptive use and public good services. Consumptive use is the use of resources in ways that reduce supply. Examples: Mining and logging in a forest. Public good is a good that benefits many people whether or not they have paid for it. I. Water Resource Water is the most important of all natural resources. 36 | P a g e   About 71% of Earth’s surface is water.  the oceans hold about 96.5% of that total water of the earth.  the amount of fresh or drinkable water is very small in amount.  It is only 2.5% freshwater from the total amount of water on Earth. Most of the freshwater cannot easily be accessed since it is found underground or in a form of ice and snow in remote areas. Water in seas and oceans is saline, so it cannot be directly used for household use and drinking purposes. But it is possible to purify non-drinkable water into water safe for consumption through filtration methods. Climate change can affect freshwater by reducing its availability for humans. Climate change can:  Increase ice melts in the poles.  Change precipitation patterns. Disappear quickly reserves of freshwater. The Earth’s Water Resources 37 | P a g e II. Air atmosphere Resource Air is important natural resource which every living thing needs.  It helps to regulate temperature both on the surface and in humans.  It is very important for living thing to survive.  It is necessary since containing gases needed to keep the temperature of the Earth at a constant and warm enough to support life.  It regulates the wind to create energy and generate electricity. Air pollution can lead to many illnesses including cancer. There are many things that you can do to reduce air pollution most importantly by reducing the emission of carbon dioxide. III. Soil Resource Soil contains many minerals and nutrients that allow plants to grow.  it is important for the growth of plants and trees.  It an agent of the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen cycle is the process of taking nitrogen from the air and converting it into basic ingredients which let plants make their own food. Soil is another natural resource that is threatened by pollution.  Causes of soil pollution: Overgrazing, landfills, waste materials, fertilizers, pesticides etc  Consequences of soil pollution:  Low crop production which affect human consumption.  Expansion of desertification which makes land becomes barren and unable to support plant life. IV. Forest Resource Trees help us in many ways. 38 | P a g e   They are used to reduce level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  They allow people to heat their homes.  They are source of medicinal drugs are made of plants found in the rainforests.  They are home to incredible amounts of biodiversity, (tropical rainforests). Example: About 80% of the world’s species can be found in the tropical rainforests.  Forests are being constantly threatened by deforestation. This is unwise destruction of trees by cutting them down. The reason for this deforestation is for lumber, clearing of land for plowing, and other illegal logging and forest fires, etc. If we are to continue to thrive on this Earth, we have to start treating forests carefully and plant more trees annually. V. Minerals Resources Minerals are very important for industrialization. They are service as raw material for making electronics like computers and cellphones. They are highly used for building and construction purposes. Minerals are either metallic or non-metallic- that can be melted to gain new products or nonmetallic – a combination of minerals that do not produce new products by melting them. Since minerals are non-renewable resources, wise utilization or sustainable use of the resources is vital. Hence, reuse and recycling of the resources are the most common methods used in the world today. VI. Oil Resource Oil is very essential natural resource. It is one of the very scarce nonrenewable natural resources. It is the cause of pollution, wars and conflict in many parts of the world and it is also what powers our lives. Nearly all of our transportation and manufacturing industries rely on petroleum products. However, because we are almost reliant on oil, our rapid use has reduced the total amount of the resource by depleting it quickly. The general estimate is that the remaining reserves of oil will last possibly the next few decades. However, companies and governments are still pushing for fracking and drilling to continue at a rapid rate. If we want to hold oil resource we have, we need to:  Embrace other means of energy production. 39 | P a g e   Shifting our reliability on others renewable resources such as air, solar, and water.  Shift the need to green technology  Diversification of economies of countries away from oil. 3.2 MAJOR DRAINAGE AND WATER RESOURCES IN AFRICA A drainage basin is an area of land where surface water from rain converges to a single point at a lower elevation. This usually appears at the exit of the basin, where the main river joins another water body such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or ocean. Alternatively used term to describe a drainage basin, are catchment, catchment area, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin. Drainage basin also consists of parts such as tributaries, confluences and outlets. Watershed refers to a divide that separates one drainage area from another drainage area. The Major Drainage Basins of Africa Some of the world’s largest and longest rivers are found in Africa. The basins are:  The Nile Basin River  The Congo Basin River  The Niger Basin River  The Zambezi Basin River  The Orange Basin River  The Chad Basin River 3.2.1 The Nile Basin The Nile is about 6,650 kilometers long and it is the longest river in the world. Its main headstream rises from Lake Victoria of Tanzania and Uganda and makes the leftwing tributary called White Nile. The rightwing tributary of the Nile originates in Ethiopia and contributes the largest amount of the Nile’s water which accounts about (86%) of Nile water comes from Ethiopia. The main right-bank tributaries are the Baro River, the Abbay (Blue Nile) River, and the Tekeze River. The Blue Nile River flows into steep gorges in the Ethiopian Plateau and encounters swamps in South Sudan – the Sudd is the largest of the swamps which interrupts the river’s course. The Blue Nile River joined with the White Nile at Sudan to forms the Nile River and flows into low-lying desert areas of Egypt and finally empty into Mediterranean Sea. 40 | P a g e Therefore, if the Nile water is equitably shared among the countries in the basin, the Nile has huge economic potential for every country in the basin.  It could help generate hydroelectric power in Ethiopia, Congo, Tanzania and Uganda.  It used for irrigation for Sudan and Egypt.  It has limited use for transportation in its lower course in South Sudan and Sudan. The upper courses of the Blue Nile and White Nile are not navigable because of the  presence of rapids and waterfalls,  due to the annual fluctuation of the rivers.  Steep course of river with gorges The upper course of the Nile Rivers has huge potential for the generation of hydroelectricity. 3.2.3 The Niger Basin The Niger basin is the largest river basin in western Africa. It rises in the mountains of Guinea (the Futa Jalon highlands) and enters the Atlantic ocean through its delta in southern Nigeria, is about 4,200 km. It is the third longest river in Africa. Rapids interrupt the Niger basin’s course at several points. It affected by a long time of evaporation, form the inland Niger delta. The Niger receives water from its largest tributary, the Benue River, which flows from its left bank in Nigeria. The importance of Niger River 1. Fishing is an important activity across the river system. 2. Mineral extraction (petroleum in the delta region), which seriously disrupted fishing as a result of pollution of the basin. 3. Irrigation is largely practiced in the Niger valley. Many canals were constructed and huge tracts of irrigated land now produce rice, cotton, sugarcane, and vegetables. 4. It a source of hydroelectricity. The largest project is the Kainji Dam in Nigeria which was completed in the late 1960s. 5. The river is navigable by:  More than three-fourths of its total length is used by commercial shipping. 41 | P a g e   Large vessels throughout the year particularly from June – March. 3.2.4 The Zambezi Basin The Zambezi River is about 3,540 km in length, with an approximate area of 1,199,164 km2.  It has numerous waterfalls, like Victoria Falls.  It has number of deep gorges cut out of basalt and, after flowing through a broad valley, enters Kariba Gorge, which is more than 28 km.  It has two main tributaries the Kafue and the Luangwa, which both flow through gorges and join the Zambezi on its left bank downstream from Kariba.  At the mouth of the main river is a delta which is about 60 km wide. 1. It has little importance for navigation due to its numerous natural barriers at the mouth.  Such as: sandbar, shallowness, and rapids and cataracts.  However, about 2600 km of the river is navigable by small boats. 2. Hydroelectricity is harnessed at the Kariba across the Zambezi River at Kariba Gorge, on the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. 3.2.5 The Orange Basin The Orange basin is drained by Orange River in southern part of Africa. It is the longest in South Africa. It flowing across almost the entire width of South Africa, Orange River makes its way from the highlands in the east through the Kalahari depression in the west to empty into the South Atlantic Ocean. The Vaal River is one of its major tributary northern headwaters. The Orange and the Vaal rivers together have a combined length of about 2,092 km. 1. Navigation is impossible throughout the river’s course because of 42 | P a g e   its irregular flow.  its constant interruption by falls and rapids.  silting that occurs in its channels and at the river mouth. 2. Large irrigation and hydroelectric projects have been hampered on much of the Orange River by the enormous amount of waterborne silt that clogs up reservoirs and reduces the storage capacity of dams. 3.2.6 The Chad Basin The Chad basin constitutes the largest inland drainage area in Africa. The basin’s main water body is Lake Chad. It is a shallow lake on the borders of Chad, Niger, and Nigeria in north central Africa. Its size varies seasonally from about 10,360 km2 to about 25,900 km2. Lake Chad sites within the Sahel, it is being affected by high temperature of the region which leads to very high seasonal evaporation. Lake Chad is a shallow lake with a mean depth of 1.2 meters. Lake Chad is fed by four major streams, the Komadugu, Yobe, Logone, and Chari rivers. The importance of Chad basin 1. Agriculture production Cattle are the most important livestock raised in the Chad basin. Hence, pastoralists like the Fulani people pastoralist and the Hausa agricultural communities from West Africa enter the Lake Chad lowlands on a seasonal basis, are primarily depend on fishing, subsistence and commercial agriculture, and animal husbandry. 2. Lake Chad is little used for navigation,  There is intermittent boat traffic between Bol and N’Djamena (Capital of Chad) when the volume of the lake increases.  A variety of watercraft are used in fishing on the lake, including the papyrus-reed. Problems Facing African Water Resources Utilization 1. Seasonal fluctuations of the volume of the rivers, due to;  low rainfall,  irregular rainfall 2. Excess flow of water in some rivers,  great swamps exist  large areas suffer from periodic flooding. 43 | P a g e 3. Climate variation and change. Sustainable use of water resources 1. Efficient use of water 2. Recycling of waste water 3. Reducing water loss in irrigation 4. Storage of water in dams and ponds. 3.3 MAIN TYPES OF SOILS AND MINERAL RESOURCES IN AFRICA 3.3.1 Soil resource of Africa Soil is a complex mixture of weathered minerals, organic and inorganic compounds, living organisms, air and water. Soil product and forming processes are dependent on these interactions. Processes are generally significant up to 1-2 meters below the ground surface. The material below this depth is known as the soil parent material. Soil has a number of key environmental, social and economic functions to life on Earth.  It supplies water and nutrients to plants.  It protects water supplies by storing,  It buffering and transforming pollutants.  It is the medium that enables us to grow our food, natural fiber and timber.  It habitats for wildlife.  It reduces the risk of floods. Africa has very diverse soil types and soil qualities. Africa have many areas that have naturally productive soils, as well as large areas of severe limitations for growing crops because the soils are too shallow, too wet, or dry or lacking nutrients. 1. What are the reasons for differences in soil types and qualities in African the continent? 2. What are traditionally methods used to maintain soil fertility by practicing by African farmers? Major types of Soil in Africa 44 | P a g e Based on the areas they cover the major soil types of Africa are: 1. Arenosols, 2. Leptosols, 3. Cambisols, 4. Ferralsols 5. Calcisols. 1. Arerosols  They are easily erodible sandy soil with low water and nutrient holding capacity.  They develop as a result of the in-situ weathering of quartz-rich parent material or in recently deposited sands (e.g., dunes in deserts and beaches).  They are among the most extensive soil types in the world and dominant soil in Africa.  It covers 22% of soils of Africa.  The Kalahari Sands is the largest body of sand on Earth. 2. Leptosols 45 | P a g e   They are shallow soils over hard rock, very gravelly material or highly calcareous deposits.  They have a weak soil structure due to its limited pedogenic development.  They occur all over Africa, especially in mountainous and desert regions where hard rock is exposed or comes close to the surface and the physical disintegration of rocks due to freeze/thaw or heating/cooling cycles are the main soil forming processes.  It covers 17% of soils of Africa. 3. Cambisols Soil that is only moderately developed on account of limited age (to change)  They are young soils and lacking distinct horizons.  They exhibit only slight evidence of soil forming processes usually through variations in color, the formation of structure or presence of clay minerals.  They are extensive throughout Africa and constitute 11% of soils of the continent.  It can have varied characteristics depending on the nature of the parent material, climate and terrain. 4. Ferralsols 46 | P a g e   They are strongly weathered soils with low nutrient-holding capacity (from iron and alumen, alum)  They are widespread in Central, Eastern and Southern Africa covering 10% of the soils of Africa.  They are mostly associated with high rainfall areas and very old (Tertiary) land surfaces,  They are strongly leached soils that have lost nearly all of their weatherable minerals over time.  They are dominated by stable products such as aluminum oxides, iron oxides and kaolinite which give Ferralsols their strong red and yellow colors.  They contain very low levels of calcium and magnesium.  The binding of particles by iron oxides gives ferralsols an apparent sandy or silty feeling (pseudo-sand). 5. Calcisols  Soil with significant accumulation of calcium carbonates and generally found in dry areas.  They are occurring in many parts of Africa, especially where the climate is dry enough to allow the accumulation of calcium carbonate in the soil.  They form through the leaching of carbonates from the upper part of the soil which precipitate when the subsoil becomes oversaturated, from carbonate-rich water moving through the soil or by the evaporation of water which leaves behind dissolved carbonates.  Precipitated calcium carbonate can fill the pores in the soil, thereby acting as a cementing agent, and can form a solid hard pan (calcrete) that is impenetrable to plant roots.  It covers 6% of the soils of Africa. 47 | P a g e 3.3.2 Mineral Resources of Africa Africa has huge mineral wealth as a result of its long geological history.  The activities of mountains, rivers, volcanoes, lakes and forests further consolidate the appearance of minerals.  Ancient woodlands have been transformed over millions of years into fossil fuels such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal.  The courses of rivers and the disturbances of landforms have exposed to the surface deposits of metals such as uranium, iron, copper, zinc and tin, as well as rock minerals such as phosphates.  Africa’s rocks, soil, and volcanic activities are the source of some of the world’s greatest treasures – for example, platinum and cobalt. Example: 1. Industrial metals are a major industry in some African countries, making them key players in the global economy. Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia produce more than half of the world’s cobalt and a significant amount of its copper respectively. Other leading suppliers of industrial metals include Guinea of the bauxite (aluminum ore) and South Africa and Gabon of manganese 2. Africa produces petroleum for the global market. Algeria and Libya together possess about 3% of the world’s known petroleum reserves, and many North African countries earn much of their foreign income from petroleum and natural gas. Nigeria is the continent’s largest petroleum producer is the West African country. 3. Coal deposits exist in large reserves in the nations of Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. 48 | P a g e Problems faced by Mineral Resources Utilization in Africa Africa has vast mineral resources, but at present not being effectively used to benefit the peoples of the continent.  Legacy of colonialism impacts.  Poor management.  Lack of investment money.  Low selling prices raw material (raw ores export).  Political turmoil.  Outdated machinery and general neglect of the sector.  Reduction in demand for copper, iron ore, and other metals.  Mining industry in Africa poorly connected to other industries and transportation.  Diamond smuggling is widespread in illegal markets, drawing taxes and other profits away from African governments and companies.  Most mining operations in Africa today are on a large scale, and small companies find it hard to compete. Provide possible solutions to effectively use the mineral resources  proper management of resources,  building governments’ capacity to manage resources  sovereign exercise of contract and negotiation in mining licenses  Improved infrastructure (transport and power) and a legal business environment  Informed decision, well-informed governments perform well in negotiations. 49 | P a g e  3.4 MAJOR VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE OF AFRICA i. Vegetation of Africa Vegetation is refer to living plants – the trees and grasses that cover the earth’s surface. Biologically, vegetation is known as flora. The plant communities such as forests, shrubs and grasses are distributed across the surface of the earth. The plant communities contain different plant associations such as deciduous broadleaves, and evergreen broadleaves. They are usually found in similar environments. The distribution of the plants and its associations affected by the following factors. a. Climate: elements of climate such as, temperature, precipitation, humidity, light and wind are critical to the distribution of vegetation. Hence, the map of vegetation distribution is very similar to the map of the climate of an area. b. Landform: elevation, slope orientation, degree of slope and variation in rock type significantly affect the distribution of plant communities or vegetation. c. Soils: soils influence plant growth through their chemical constitutes, chemical reaction and capacity to hold water. d. Biotic factors: living organisms – plants or animals, affect plant growth through competition for available water, shading, and enhancing soil fertility. Distribution of Major Vegetation of Africa Based on climate, the natural vegetation types and their distribution in Africa are divided into two broad categories. These are the tropical category and subtropical category. I. Tropical Category 1. Tropical rainforest They are found in the central part of Africa, on both sides of the Equator and eastern coast of Madagascar. The rainforests are characterized by high temperature and high rainfall, ranging from 1000 to more than 2000 mm/year, due to the permanency of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITC) on the Equator. They are mostly found in the Guineo-Congolian lowland, concentrated in the Congo Basin.  They are tall dense forests, which are more than 30 meters, which forming several strata.  Some canopy species are deciduous.  They are evergreen or semi-evergreen. There is also abundant growth of Epiphytes - which grow on trunks and limbs of trees. 50 | P a g e 2. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest They are found around the Guineo-Congolian basin, along the south-eastern coast of Africa, as well as in the central part of Madagascar. The wet zone is bordered by an area where the dry season is always noticeable, for up to 6 months. There is a single rainy season, in summer, Annual rainfall varies between 800 and 1500 mm, locally up to 2000 mm. 3. Tropical Dry Forest Tropical dry forests occupy an area further from the Equator and from the wet southeastern coast.  The rainfall decreases and its vary between 500 and 1000 mm.  The dry season is always long, about 6 - 7 months in this area.  Temperature is always high, with mean temperature of the coldest month of 20°C.  In these drier conditions, the predominant vegetation type is woodland. 4. Tropical Shrub land In these areas close to the tropics, rainfall becomes lower and lower, while temperatures are still high. Tropical Shrubland found in the Sahelian zone, Kalahari, the southwestern part of Madagascar and large part of Somalia. Rainfall is always less than 1000 mm and scarcely reaches 200 mm in the drier parts of the Tropical Shrubland. The tropical shrubland is dominated by deciduous shrubland and thicket with Acacia. 5. Tropical Desert 51 | P a g e The tropical desert extends on the desertic African lands:  Sahara desert  Karoo-Namib desert.  the coastal zone of Somalia. The rainfall is lower than 200 mm and not allows the growth of a continuous vegetation cover. Example: Xerophytes plants which grow in desert condition can be found in these areas. Woody vegetation can be found along the wadis in Sahara. 6. Tropical Mountain Forest This is limited to highland areas above 800 to 1200 m above sea level. Here, as elevation increases temperature decreases and vegetation changes. All of them correspond with tropical vegetation types. The main mountains systems of tropical Africa are located:  the Cameroon highlands,  the mountains of Kenya, the Kivu ridge  the Ethiopian highlands. Some lower and isolated hills occur, such as:  Fouta Djalon,  Jos and Mandara plateau in West Africa.  Hoggar in Sahara or Windhoek Mountain in southern Africa.  The central part of Madagascar. The climatic type of each mountain is characterized by lower temperatures and, often higher rainfall. Vegetation is extremely diverse and varies with climate. Example of mountains vegetation: 1. Forest (lowland forest) - the lowermost vegetation. 2. Submontane forest- they grow in transition zone lowland forest and montane forest 52 | P a g e  - in many places they have been destroyed by fire and cultivation. 3. Montane forest- generally grow above 1500 - 2000 meters, - they are lower in structure than lowland and submontane forests. 4. Ericaceous belt forest - grow at upper part of the montane level and replaces the forest. 5. Afro-alpine shrublands and grasslands - they grow an area above 3000 meters. II. Subtropical Category 1. Subtropical Humid Forest This vegetation zone is restricted in Africa to a narrow zone along the east coast of Southern Africa, roughly between 25°S and 34°S. The coastal regions of the zone have moderately high and well-distributed rainfall. Its annual rainfall is 800 - 1200 mm and the mean temperature of the coldest month 7°C to 15°C. The natural vegetation is evergreen or semi-evergreen forest. 2. Subtropical Dry Forest The subtropical dry forests are confined to the Mediterranean climates of North Africa and South Africa, in an area that has:  a long dry season, 3 to 6 months in summer.  Most of the rainfall (400 - 1000 mm/year) occurs in winter. 3. Subtropical Steppe The subtropical steppe forms a continuous transitional zone northern Africa to separate the subtropical dry forest from the Sahara Desert.  Rainfall varies from 200 to 500 mm, with a long dry hot season of 6 to 11 months.  The mean temperature of the coldest month is always more than 7°C.  The vegetation is mostly dominated by acacia. 4. Subtropical Mountain Systems This is found in both northern Africa and southern Africa. i. In northern Africa It is found in the Atlas Mountains area, which extends for over 3000 km from northern Morocco (4165m), Algeria (2500m) to Tunisia (1500m), parallel to the Mediterranean coast. 53 | P a g e In the northern Atlas ranges, the lower slopes are covered by mixed forest with deciduous oaks. ii. In South Africa, It is found in the Highveld Region, which is more than 1000 m in altitude. - It is covered with grassland. It is found in the bordering the Ukhahlamba (Drakensberg) reaching more than 3000 m. Example: Evergreen montane forest with Podocarpus grows in on the Ukhahlamba slopes. II. Wildlife of Africa Africa has more diverse wildlife than any other continent. The diversity and wealth of wildlife found in Africa is the result of diverse climate of the continent – which ranges from intense heat to bitter cold. Its varied vegetation has given rise to a wide range of animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and insects. Africa is inhabited by the world’s fastest land animal cheetah, the biggest bird ostrich and the largest land animal elephant. 1. Mammals Africa is home to an astonishing variety of mammals.  Herbivores, or plant-eating animals, ranging from elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotamuses to hoofed mammals, such as the giraffe and the African buffalo.  Vast herds of grazing animals, such as zebras and wildebeests, roam the open plains and savannas.  Africa’s many varieties of antelope include the hartebeest, gnu or wildebeest, dik- dik, gazelle, impala, springbok, oryx, reedbuck, and eland, the largest antelope.  Africa is home to three kinds of large cats – lions, leopards, and cheetahs – and smaller felines such as the serval and wildcat, such as wild dogs, jackals, foxes, hyenas, civets, and weasels.  It has different species of monkeys and two species of great apes, the chimpanzee and the gorilla, live in Africa.  It also has many species of lemurs- small animals that belong to the primate family, like monkeys and apes. Most lemurs live in trees and are nocturnal, or active at night, although a few are active by day.  The island of Madagascar has the largest variety of lemurs in the world. Endemic mammals of Africa. Mammals that only live in Africa and found nowhere else in the world. 54 | P a g e These include: Walia ibex, Nyala, giraffes, hippopotamuses, jumping hares, and the long- snouted, insect-eating tenrecs of Madagascar. Another animal unique to Africa is the aardvark. Aardvark: It is a large nocturnal animal with a pig like body, long tail, rabbit like ears, and a long snout. The aardvark rips open termite nests with its sharp claws, then uses its sticky almost one-footlong tongue to lap up the insects inside. 2. Birds Nearly 2,000 species of birds spend at least part of each year in Africa. In addition to varieties of hawks, eagles, owls, larks, kingfishers, and other birds found elsewhere in the world, several bird species are native only to Africa. These include:  the ostrich - Africa’s largest bird.  the hamerkop, - which resembles a heron  touracos, birds with brightly colored feathers. Several species of small, drab birds are called honey guides because people follow them to honeybee nests. 3. Reptiles A great many reptiles and amphibians creep, slither, or hop along Africa’s varied terrain. Reptiles include lizards, tortoises, crocodiles, and many types of snakes. Some snakes, such as the mamba and the Egyptian cobra, are venomous enough to be dangerous to humans. Boa constrictors and iguanas live only on Madagascar. Among Africa’s amphibians are various salamanders and frogs, including the bizarre hairy frog of Cameroon. 4. Insects Of, several are regarded as pests. Locusts devour crops and other vegetation; mosquitoes carry malaria; and tsetse flies carry trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness, a disease that harms both humans and livestock. Other African insects include various species of large butterflies, dung beetles, stick insects that resemble twigs or leaves, driver or safari ants that travel in huge columns and termites that cooperate to build tall earthen mounds. Spiders are plentiful everywhere. 5. Marine life A wide variety of marine life exists off the coasts of Africa, and the continent has more kinds of freshwater fish than any other – about 2,000 species. Some freshwater creatures are ancient 55 | P a g e varieties that have changed little over millions of years, such as lungfish, lobefins, and reed fish, which can breathe air. Certain types of African catfish not only breathe air but also move across the land during rainy weather. Lake Nyasa alone has about 160 species of fish found nowhere else in the world. National Parks in Africa Many African governments have established national parks to protect the wildlife from human impact, and other purposes such as for scientific study, and educational and recreational opportunities for both local people and visitors. The oldest of the parks is South Africa’s Kruger National Park. Africa’s protected areas and parks vary greatly in number, size, and quality from country to country. Eastern and southern Major National Parks of Africa 56 | P a g e