General Chemistry All Lessons Quarter 1 PDF

**LESSON I: INTRO TO CHEMISTRY** **CHEMISTRY** - is the study of matter, its composition, its structure, its properties, the processes that the matter undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany these processes. **BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY** 1. **ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY** - the study...

**LESSON I: INTRO TO CHEMISTRY** **CHEMISTRY** - is the study of matter, its composition, its structure, its properties, the processes that the matter undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany these processes. **BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY** 1. **ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY** - the study of the quality and quantity of components of substances. 2. **BIOCHEMISTRY** - study of chemistry of living systems 3. **INORGANIC CHEMISTRY** - in general, the study of compounds that do not contain carbon. 4. **ORGANIC CHEMISTRY** - study of carbon-based compounds. 5. **PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY** - the study of mechanism, rates, and energetics of chemical reactions. **LESSON II: NATURE AND STATES OF MATTER** **ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS' UNDERSTANDING ABOUT MATTER:** ***Anaximenes of Miletus*** -- (c. 545 BCE) was an Ancient Greek, Ionian Pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Asia Minor, active in the latter half of the 6th century BC. He asserted that this [primal element] was ***[air]***; he is best known for his doctrine that air is the source of all things. ***Thales of Miletus*** -- (c. 6^th^ century BCE) was a Greek mathematician, astronomer and pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Ionia, Asia Minor. He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece; thought it was ***[water]*** as the [source of everything]. ***Empedocles*** (c. 490-430 BCE) - was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a native citizen of Akragas, a Greek city in Sicily. Empedocles\' philosophy is best known for originating the cosmogonic theory of the four classical elements - Later proposed that all matter is made up of four fundamental elements -- namely: ***earth, air, fire, and water.*** - A pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who has been credited as the first philosopher to develop a [theory of atomism] and a teacher of Democritus. - An Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher primarily remembered today for his formulation of atomism. - They held that the universe was composed of very small, indivisible, and indestructible atoms. - These Greek philosophers called this unit ["atomos"] meaning [uncuttable.] **The Five (5) Main Principles of Leucippus and Democritus:** 1. All matter is made up of atoms that are too tiny to be seen by the naked eyes. 2. Atoms are in constant motion around an empty space called *void*. 3. Atoms are completely solid. 4. Atoms are uniform, with no internal structure. 5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes. **MATTER:** - It is a fundamental knowledge in Chemistry that matter is anything that has ***[mass] and [volume.]*** - Matter has **[mass]** and occupies **[space].** - It is composed of tiny particles called ***[atoms].*** - **MASS --** is the amount of matter - **VOLUME --** is the space it occupies All things, living or nonliving, are made up of matter **ATOM** - Is the smallest and the basic unit of matter that forms a chemical element. - The building blocks of matter. - The term "atom" comes from the Greek word for **[indivisible.]** **STATES OF MATTER:** - **Matter exists in three states:** - **Solid:** a rigid substance with a definite shape - **Liquid:** has a definite volume but takes the shape of its container - **Gas:** takes the shape and volume of its container - **STRUCTURE OF A SOLID:** - Solids have definite shape and volume. - The particles are tightly packed together; thus are almost incompressible - Particles vibrate in a fixed position; they cannot move around or slide past each other - High densities and can expand only slightly when heated  - **STRUCTURE OF A LIQUID:** - Has no definite shape but has definite volume - Particles are close with one another, but not as close as those in solid - Particles are not arranged in a rigid or orderly manner; they can slide past each other - Liquids are almost incompressible, but they tend to expand slightly when heated - Have medium densities - **STRUCTURE OF A GAS** - Gases takes the shape of their container, however they have no definite volume - Gas can expand to fill any volume; thus it takes the shape and volume of its container - Particles are much farther apart than those in liquid - Easily compressed into smaller volume but greatly expand when heated  - **Phase transition** - Occurs when there is a change in temperature and pressure. - **PLASMA** - is the fourth state of matter. Formed by heating and ionizing a gas, plasmas are made up of groups of negatively and positively charged particles. - they have neither a definite volume nor a definite shape Examples: aurora borealis & aurora australis, lightning, and comet tails **LESSON III: PROPERTIES OF MATTER\ ** **PHYSICAL PROPERTIES** - A property of matter that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of the matter. - Physical properties identify matter. - How the object absorbs and reflects light - We can classify the objects based on their color. - Water and alcohol are colorless, but gold and silver have color. Sulfur is yellow, and copper is red. **Ductility** - The ability to be drawn or pulled into a wire - Example: Copper in wiring -- soldering wires or joints **Luster** - Refers to the quality of a mineral to shine by reflecting light (metallic, non-metallic, glassy, pearly, dull). **Solubility** - The ability to dissolve in another substance. - Example: - Sugar or salt dissolve in water - Three ways to increase solubility - Heat or make warmer - Grind or smash - Stir or mix  **State of Matter** The physical form in which a substance exists at room temperature, such as: **Solid** -- matter has a definite shape and volume **Liquid** -- matter takes the shape of its container and has a definite volume **Gas** -- matter changes in both shape and volume **Conductivity** Conductivity refers to how easily a substance conducts electricity or how well it can transmit heat. - Examples of good conductors of heat: silver, copper, aluminum, brass, iron, lead, stainless steel etc. - Examples of bad conductors of heat: air, water, cork, glass, styrofoam etc. **Melting Point** - The temperature at which a substance starts melting. At this point in temperature, a solid turns into a liquid. The melting point of pure water ice is 32°F (0°C). **Boiling Point** - The temperature at which a substance starts boiling. At this point in temperature, a liquid turns into a gas. Water boils at 100 °C (212 °F), so we can say that the boiling point of water is 100 °C (212 °F). **Density** - It expresses a relationship of mass to volume. - Density equals mass divided by volume. - **D = m / v** **CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:** A property of matter that describes a substance based on its ability to change into a new substance with different properties **Reactivity:** How likely and/or how quickly a substance will chemically react with another substance. A substance may be highly reactive with one substance, but not with another **Toxicity:** How much and how quickly a substance can damage an organism or part of an organism. **Oxidation:** If and/or how quickly a substance will react with oxygen. **Flammability:** The ability of matter to burn. When matter burns, it combines with oxygen and changes to different substances. **INTENSIVE & EXTENSIVE Properties** **(under physical properties)** **INTENSIVE PROPERTIES\ (intrinsic)** - They **do [not] depend on the amount of matter**. - These physical properties are used for sample identification because they are the same under different conditions and for all sample sizes. - **Examples of intensive properties include:** 1. Density 2. Color 3. Luster 4. Malleability 5. Conductivity 6. Hardness 7. Melting point 8. Freezing point 9. Boiling point **EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES\ (extrinsic)** - Extensive properties are physical properties that **do depend on the amount of matter** in a sample. - Extensive properties aren't useful for sample identification, they are great for describing it. - Examples of extensive properties include: - Size - Volume - Length - Mass - Weight **LESSON IV: CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER**  **PURE SUBSTANCE** - A pure substance may either be an [element] or a [compound]. **ELEMENT** - AN ELEMENT IS A SUBSTANCE THAT IS COMPOSED OF ONLY **[ONE TYPE OF ATOM].** 1. **METALS** - are generally shiny, malleable, and hard. Metals are also good conductors of electricity. 2. **METALLOID** - Characteristics of both metals and non-metals and are also called semimetals. - Metalloids are typically semi-conductors, which means that they both insulate and conduct electricity. This semi-conducting property makes metalloids very useful as a computer chip material. 3. **NONMETALS** - Do not conduct heat or electricity very well. Non-metals are typically brittle and are not easily molded into shapes. - Example: Hydrogen and Carbon **COMPOUND** - A compound is formed when [two or more elements are chemically bonded together. ] - The elements in any compound found are always found in fixed ratios. - **Examples of COMPOUNDS:** - Table salt (NaCl) Water (H~2~O) **MIXTURES** - MIXTURE are made up of **two or substances that are only physically combined and can thus be separated** into their components through simple physical means. - A MIXTURE is either: **HOMOGENEOUS OR HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE** **HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE** - **A MIXTURE having a single phase and a uniform composition.** - SOLUTIONS -- is a mixture formed when one or more solutes dissolve in a solvent - Example: Sugar solution - The **solute is the substance that is being dissolved**, while the **solvent is the dissolving medium**  **HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE** - **A MIXTURE consist of two or more phases.** - Does not have a uniform composition, and its components can be easily separated from one another. - **EXAMPLES: SUSPENSION & COLLOIDS** **SUSPENSION** - A MIXTURE in which solute particles **do not dissolve but get suspended** throughout the bulk of the medium. - Particles in suspension are [larger than those found in solution] - Examples: Powdered chalk in water **COLLOID** - A MIXTURE in which particles is in [intermediate size], [between those found in solutions and suspensions] can be mixed such that they remain evenly distributed without settling out. - EXAMPLES: - Emulsions: milk, mayonnaise, lotion - Gels: gelatin, butter, jelly - Aerosols: fog, insecticide spray, clouds, smoke and dust **LESSON V: METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURE** 1. **MAGNETIC SEPARATION** - Process of separating components of mixtures by using a magnet to attract magnetic substances. 2. **FILTRATION** - The most common method of separating a liquid from an insoluble solid is the filtration. 3. **SIEVING** - It is done to separate mixtures that contain substances mostly of different sizes. The mixture is passed through the pores of the sieve. All the smaller substances pass through easily while the bigger components of the mixture are retained. 4. **DECANTATION** - To pour off a liquid, leaving another liquid or solid behind. Takes advantage of differences in density. 5. **DISTILLATION** - The separation of a mixture of liquids based on the physical property of boiling point - When mixtures consist of two or more pure liquids then distillation is used. 6. **EVAPORATION** - Is the process of separating mixture involve heating until the solvent evaporates turn into gas leaving behind the solid residue 7. **CHROMATOGRAPHY** - is the method used to separate components of different degrees of solubility using a moving and stationary fluid.  8. **SEPARATING FUNNEL** - Separating funnel is used mainly to segregate two immiscible liquids. The mechanism involves taking advantage of the unequal density of the particles in the mixture. 9. **CENTRIFUGATION** - It is the process that uses a motor device known as centrifuge that speeds up the settling of the precipitate using centrifugal or rotating motion. As the mixture inside the test tube of the centrifuge is subjected to centrifugal force, the heavier component settles at the bottom and the less dense component settles at the upper portion. **LESSON VI: ATOMIC VIEW OF MATTER** **THE BIRTH OF ATOMIC THEORY** - **Democritus and Leucippus** **Democritus**- Greek philosopher (4th century BCE) - All matter consisted of minute particles, which He then coined "*atomos"* - But the community did not accept this idea of Democritus because He could not give a factual basis of His discovery. **John Dalton** - 19th century, a British scientist - He provided precise and detailed description of the building blocks of matter. - He formulated the atomic theory in an attempt to explain everything about matter. **Three Fundamental Laws of Matter** **1.) Law of Conservation of Matter\ -- French chemist, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794)** **-** States that in a chemical reaction, the mass of the substances produced is equal to the mass of the substances reacted. Ex. NaCl + AgNO~3~ AgCl + NaNO~3~ ~40g\ 30g\ (70g)\ 20g\ 50g\ (70g)~ **2.) Law of Definite Proportions** **- French chemist, Joseph-Louis Proust (1754-1826)** - States that any sample of a given compound will always be composed of the same elements in the same proportion by mass. Ex. If you will get the samples of water (H~2~O) from different areas and subject these to samples to chemical analysis, you will find that a molecule of a water, regardless of its source, is always composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. **3.) Law of Multiple Proportions\ -- British scientist, John Dalton(1766-1844)** - States that for elements that can form different compounds, the masses of the second element that can combine with a fixed mass of the first element are in a ratio of small whole numbers. Ex. carbon dioxide (CO~2~) and carbon monoxide (CO) are two compounds primarily comprising of C and O. Though both compounds are constituted by the same type of elements, they behave differently because they are composed of different number of atoms of an element. In ratio CO 1:1 while CO~2~ is 1:2. **DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY** In 1808, John Dalton published his book ***A New System of Chemical Philosophy***, where he proposed an atomic theory of matter that can explain chemical observations as predicted by the three fundamental laws. The atomic theory comprised of the following postulates: 1. Matter is made up of extremely indivisible particles called *atoms*. 2. Atoms of the same element are identical and are different from those of other elements. 3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in certain whole-number ratios. 4. Atoms rearrange only during a chemical reaction to form new compounds. **ATOM** is the basic unit of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. **ELECTRON** - **Negatively charged** subatomic particle with a mass of 9.11 x 10^-28^ g. - Discovered (1897) by **[Joseph John Thomson]** (1856-1940) using the [cathode ray tube experiment.] - He observed that cathode rays in an evacuated tube, called *cathode ray tube* (CRT), are *deflected* by a negatively charged plate and attracted by a positively charged plate as if the rays consisted of negatively charged particles. **PROTON** - **Positively charged** sub-atomic particle with a mass of 1.673 x 10^-24^ g. - Located in the center of an atom called the **[nucleus]**. Discovered (1917) by **[Ernest Rutherford]** (1871-1931) using gold foil experiment \-\-\-\-- Some alpha particles are deflected at an angle. (the nucleus is positively charged\-\-\-\-- **NEUTRON** - **Electrically neutral** subatomic particle with a mass of 1.675 x 10^-24^ g. - Discovered (1932) by **[James Chadwick]** (1891-1974) using the beryllium foil experiment - Chadwick observed that there was less deflection of particles, implying the existence of neutral particles in the nucleus together with the proton. Thus, the **mass of the protons and neutrons** account for the [atomic mass]  **ATOMIC AND MASS NUMBER** - **Atomic number -- represents the [no. of protons] in its nucleus** - **Mass number -- indicates the [total no. of protons and neutrons]** p^+^ = atomic number e^-^ = number of protons (differ in charge) mass number = protons + neutrons n = protons -- mass number **LESSON VII: IONS AND MOLECULES** **IONS** - **When a neutral atom gains or loses one or more electrons, it becomes electrically charged particle called *[ion.]*** **TYPES OF IONS** 1. **Anion** - **atom that gains electron becomes [negatively charged.]** - **Na^+^ Cl^-^** 2. **Cation** - **when atoms gives off an electron, its charge becomes [positive].** - **Monoatomic ions** -- ion that consists of only [one] atom. **Example:** Na^+^, Mg^2+,^ Fe^3+,^ S^2-^, Cl^-^ - **Polyatomic ions** -- an ion that contains [more than one atom.] **Example:** PO₄⁻³, OH⁻, NH₄⁺ **Rules in naming ions**  **TRANSITION METALS** - ends with ***[--ous]*** (ion with the lower charge) - ends with ***[--ic]*** (ion with higher charge) 3. **NONMETALS** Nonmetals take a different nomenclature. The monoatomic anions are named by attaching the suffix ***[-- ide]*** to the first few letters(root) of the nonmetal name. Ex. **Br ^-^ brom[ide]** **S^2-^ sulf[ide]** 4. **Nonmetals (polyatomic ions with oxygen)** - Ends with ***[--ite]*** (the anion with **lesser oxygen**) - Ends with ***[--ate]*** (the anion with **more oxygen**) - Example: NO~2~^-^ nitr[ite] NO~3~^-^ nitr[ate] 5. **HALOGENS** **4 O atoms: CIO~4~^-^ [per]chlor[ate]** **NAMING IONIC & MOLECULAR COMPOUND** **IONIC COMPOUND** - A compound consist of: - **1 metal (+)** - **1 nonmetal (-)**  **IONIC COMPOUND (WITH A TRANSITION METALS)** - Name of Transition Metal - (Roman Numeral) -- **oxidation number** - Nonmetal ending in ***[--ide ]*** **POLYATOMIC ION**  **Ionic compounds with a transition metal & polyatomic atom** - Name of Transition Metal - (Roman Numeral) -- oxidation number - Polyatomic atom **MOLECULAR COMPOUND** - Refers to **[covalent compound].** - **Covalent compound**: 2 nonmetals (-)  **NAMING COVALENT COMPOUND** - **The [first element] is *prefixed* and *name in full*.** - The [**second element**] is named using its ***[first few syllables]* and suffixed with *--ide*.** - Letter "a" in the prefix is usually [dropped] when [followed by vowel]. - Example: N~2~O~4~ [di]nitrogen [tetra]ox[ide] (or [tetr]ox[ide]) **POLYATOMIC IONS** **OTHER COMPOUNDS** **HYDRATED SALTS** - Ionic compounds **with [water molecules] (H~2~O)** - *Greek prefix + hydrate* Example: CuSO~4~ 5H~2~O copper (II) sulfate *[pentahydrate]* **ACIDS** - Compounds that [give off hydrogen ions] when [dissolved in water] *(aqueous).* - Anion name is prefixed with ***[hydro-] ,*** suffixed with ***[--ic]*** and added with the term ***[acid]***. - Example: HCl*~(g)~* hydrogen chloride H~2~O HCl*~(aq)~* [hydro]chlor[ic] [acid] **TERNARY ACIDS** - **A ternary acid forms from a *polyatomic ions*.** - **Contain H and O combined with another element** - ***[-ite]* is replaced with *[--ous ]*** - ***[-ate]* is replaced with *[--ic ]*** - **Example:** **NO~2~^-^ nitr[ite] H~2~O HNO~2~ nitr[ous] acid** **NO~3~^-^ nitr[ate] H~2~O HNO~3~ nitr[ic] acid**