General Chemistry PDF

Module 1 GENERAL CHEMISTRY Course audit 1  TABLE OF CONTENTS Topic 1: Matter 1 Topic 2: Atoms 5 Topic 3: Fundamental Chemistry Laws 7...

Module 1 GENERAL CHEMISTRY Course audit 1  TABLE OF CONTENTS Topic 1: Matter 1 Topic 2: Atoms 5 Topic 3: Fundamental Chemistry Laws 7 Topic 4: The Periodic Table of Elements 8 Topic 5: Kinetic Molecular Theory 10 Topic 6: Acids and Bases 14 TOTAL = 15 PAGES (TO REVIEW) TOPIC 1: matter ❗ MATTER GENERAL CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY BEQ Anything that occupies SPACE and has MASS Study of Matter Deals with: 1. Composition MASS 2. Structure Amount of matter present in a material 3. Changes that matter undergoes 4. Energy involved in such changes/interaction MASS VS WEIGHT CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER QS: IS MASS & WEIGHT THE SAME? NO 1. ELEMENT MASS simplest form of matter ➔ Measures quantity of particles such as atoms and Made up of 1 element/component/material/atom only Single molecules in one object ➔ Unit: kilogram (kg) or gram (g) 2. COMPOUND WEIGHT 2 or more elements combined chemically in definite proportions ➔ Force exerted in an object due to gravity. ➔ Depends both on the mass and strength of the 3. MIXTURE gravitational field where the object is located. 2 or more substances, which are not chemically combined FORMULA Wt = M x acceleration due to gravity STATES OF MATTER VECTOR QUANTITY MEASURED IN UNITS Newtons (N) or pounds (lb) ❗ BEQ: 2-3 qs PULL OF GRAVITY IN 9.81 m/s 2 STATES SOLID LIQUID GAS EARTH Definite Indefinite Indefinite SHAPE (non- (assumes (compressible) compressible) container shape) Definite Q1: If on earth the weight is 65 kg which is coordinated VOLUME with the acceleration due to gravity (60kg), is the weight Vibration Gliding Constant MOLECULAR similar to earth? MOTION (ex: 2 stones) (ex: waterfalls) random ➔ A No, different weights in earth and moon due to Pencil, stones Tumbler (cylinder Balloons EXAMPLES the varying pull of gravity shape) Shape & Vol cannot Shape and NOTES Q2: If mass or number of particles in the body (100 volume cannot change, Max volume depend be changed capacity of on the container atoms on earth), is it the same on the moon? not unless container / volume ➔ Location does not affect mass. Thus, there are force is given exactly 100 atoms in both earth and moon. to break it Has Space and can flow freely No motion SUMMARY MOON & EARTH WT Different MASS Same (location is not affected) 1  OTHER STATE 2. EXTRINSIC PLASMA 4th state of Matter Aka EXTENSIVE PROPERTY AKA IONIZED GAS dependent on Mass Most abundant state of matter in the universe 🧠 MEMORIZE 🧠 Distinct EXAMPLES ➔ has charge (proton / electron) ➔ Greatly affected by the magnetic field a. Weight f. Mass b. Volume g. enTROpy EXAMPLES: c. Pressure h. enTHALpy 1. Neon lights d. Heat content i. Electrical resistance 2. Northern lights (Aurora Borealis) e. Length 3. Stars 4. Sun CHANGES THAT MATTER UNDERGOES ❗ BEQ IFA STRENGTH = S > L > G > P 1. PHYSICAL CHANGE Change in Phase ENTHALPY = P > G > L > S ➔ heat reaction energy MELTING Solid → Liquid FREEZING Liquid → Solid UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS EVAPORATION Liquid → Gas LENGTH Meter (m) CONDENSATION Gas → Liquid MASS Kilogram (Kg) SUBLIMATION Solid → Gas TIME Seconds (sec) DEPOSITION Gas → Solid ❗ TEMPERATURE Kelvin (K) IONIZATION Gas → Plasma BEQ RECOMBINATION/ Plasma → Gas KELVIN (K) K = C + 273 DEIONIZATION C→F 9 ( 5 x C) + 32 F→C 5 (F - 32) 9 9C = 5F - 160 PROPERTIES OF MATTER ❗ BEQ 1. INTRINSIC Aka INTENSIVE PROPERTY Independent - solely relies on its own mass/amount 🧠 MEMORIZE 🧠 EXAMPLES ❗ BEQ SUBLIMATION Solid → Gas a. Density e. Velocity Naphthalene balls (moth balls) stored in cabinets b. Sp gravity, f. Temperature or drawers c. Melting point g. Color d. Viscosity DEPOSITION Gas → Solid Production of dry Ice (Cardice) 2 2. CHEMICAL CHANGE 5. SAPONIFICATION Change in BOTH INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC Aka SOAP PRODUCTION properties Alkaline + fat → soap + glycerol ✏️ Ex. Green soap tincture EVIDENCE OF CHEMICAL CHANGE FAMILIARIZE 1. Evolution of gas 6. FERMENTATION 2. Formation of precipitate Organic substances + microbes → alcohol 3. Emission of light 4. Generation of electricity 5. Production of mechanical energy 6. Absorption (absorb)/ Liberation of heat (release) 3. NUCLEAR CHANGE TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS Change in structure, properties, and composition of 1. DIRECT UNION nucleus Happens in the transmutation of the element Aka COMBINATION / SYNTHESIS A + B → AB NUCLEAR FISSION Si A at B nagligawan → naging sila, may chemistry SPLITTING of a heavy atom 2. DECOMPOSITION / ANALYSIS AB → A + B Narealize na may repulsion instead of attraction → naghiwalay si A at B 3. SINGLE REPLACEMENT Aka SINGLE DISPLACEMENT AB + C → AC + B Magjowa (AB), Third Wheel - BFF (C) → naghiwalay si A at B, sumama si A kay C (BFF) NUCLEAR FUSION 4. DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT UNION of 2 light atoms from a bigger molecules Aka METATHESIS / EXCHANGE AB + CD → AC + BD Nagdouble date sina AB at CD → nagkapalitan (AC at BD) NEUTRALIZATION ➔ most common double disp ➔ Acid + Base → Salt + Water ❗ BEQ What type of reaction does double displacement have? NEUTRALIZATION PROCESSES INVOLVED 1. OXIDATION Add oxygen (+O) 2. REDUCTION Remove oxygen (-O) Add hydrogen (+H) 3. NEUTRALIZATION Acid + Base → Salt + H2O 4. HYDROLYSIS H2O + Salt → Acid + Base 3  CLASSIFICATION OF MIXTURE 3. EVAPORATION 1. ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF PARTICLES Common in Boiling water 1L water when boiled will evaporate HOMOGENOUS 1 phase MIXTURE Ex: solutions HETEROGENOUS 2 phase 4. MAGNETIC SEPARATION MIXTURE Ex: suspension, Colloids , Milk A specialized process that uses specialized equipment such as MAGNET 2. ACCORDING TO THE SIZE OF PARTICLES SOLUTION Uniform mixture (homogenous) 5. FILTRATION Solute (soluble) + Solvent (water) Uses filter paper Ex: Powdered juice + water = solution SUSPENSION Coarse mixture 6. SORTING Finely divided solid materials Almost the same with filtration distributed in liquid wherein solid Sort out or separate the components of mixtures is insoluble. from its solution COLLOID Particles of solute which is not Uses filter paper broken down to the size of molecules but are small enough to remain suspended and evenly 7. CENTRIFUGATION disperse throughout the medium Speeds up the settling process of a precipitate PROCESS OF SEPARATING COMPONENTS OF Machine: CENTRIFUGE Note: In using a centrifuge, ensure that it is MIXTURE balanced by the means of adding a sample directly across the other tube. 1. DECANTATION Common process Principle: difference in the specific gravity/density Example: Precipitates (a test tube with floating articles) → stand for several hours → floating precipitates will be placed at the bottom → poured out the supernatant liquid to place the precipitates in the test tube (uses pull of 8. FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLIZATION gravity) The process of pouring out the supernatant Lowers the temperature so that the more liquid insoluble components crystallizes first 9. CHROMATOGRAPHY Difference in solvent affinity Most Common: PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY 2. DISTILLATION Combination of evaporation and condensation Common in pharmacognosy lab when isolating constituent from plant material Distillation set up: to remove the constituents from the solvents 4 TOPIC 2: Atoms ATOMIC STRUCTURE BEQ ✏️ REMEMBER PROTONS Always equal to electron and atomic # NEUTRONS Mass # - Atomic # ELECTRONS Protons - Charge of particle MASS NUMBER Protons + Neutrons ATOMIC NUMBER 11 ATOMIC STRUCTURE MASS NUMBER 23 PROTONS 11 ELECTRONS 11 NEUTRONS 12 CHARGE 0 Protons ➔ 11 - 0 ➔ Na is a neutral atom ➔ balance positive charge Neutrons ➔ 11 - 23 ELECTRON CLOUD Ideal structure of atom SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES A. NEUTRON & PROTON 1. ISOTOPE Element Mass Number 2. ISOTONE Neutrons Protons Middle portion of electron cloud Aka NUCLEONS (both are located inside the 3. ISOBAR Mass number Element nucleus) 4. ISOMER Molecules / Structure Molecular formula B. ELECTRON Outside the nucleus that rotates in the clouds ❗ BEQ: Same element but different in mass number MNEMONICS ISOTOPE → Proton ISOTONE → Neutron ISOBAR → mass numBAR ISOMER → Molecule 5  SCIENTIST & THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS 1. DEMOCRITUS ALLOTROPISM 1. ALLOTROPE Discovered that matter is made up of small indivisible Composed of atoms of different elements that can particles linked together in different ways to form substances Coined the term “ATOMOS” (indivisible / cannot divide with different properties particles) While on his way to school, has a rock on his hand and ❗ asked the teacher (Socrates or Plato) what it was 2. ALLOTROPES OF CARBON made of? Examples: Diamond & Graphite BEQ ➔ Pounded until gray sand texture to determine it as ❗ “atomos” 3. ALLOTROPES OF OXYGEN Father of Aristotle Depending on how many molecules BEQ 2. JOHN DALTON NASCENT Single molecule [O] Atoms can be combined into a simple numerical MOLECULAR 2 molecules [O2] ratios OZONE 3 molecules [O3] Disproved subatomic particles QUANTUM NUMBERS 1. “BILLIARD BALL MODEL” Atom is hard and indestructible sphere SYMBOL VALUES FUNCTION ❗ BEQ 1. PRINCIPAL n 1, 2, 3 Determine the size QUANTUM of the particle 2. DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY NUMBER Matter is made up of atoms ➔ Main energy All atoms of a given element are alike level Atoms enter into a combination with other atoms to form compounds but remained unchanged during 2. AZIMUTHAL OR l 0 to (n-1) Subshell or ANGULAR sublevel ordinary reactions 3. J.J. THOMPSON ❗ MOMENTUM BEQ determines the shape (s, p, d, f) “RAISIN BREAD MODEL” 3. MAGNETIC M or 𝑚𝑙 -l to +l Orbitals 4. RUTHERFORD QUANTUM Discovered protons NUMBER determine the orientation GOLD FOIL / FILM EXPERIMENT 4. SPIN QUANTUM s or m -½ or +1½ Direction of the ➔ Atom is mostly an empty space NUMBER spin or rotation 5. NIEL BOHR Symbol (R) PLANETARY MODEL ❗ Values - not in BEQ BEQ: Function 6. ERWIN SCHRODINGER QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL ELECTRON CLOUD ➔ Electrons (e-) move in 3D structure (orbitals) 7. JAMES CHADWICK Discovered neutrons 6 TOPIC 3: FUNDAMENTAL CHEMISTRY LAWS F FUNDAMENTAL CHEMISTRY LAWS 1. FUNDAMENTAL CHEMISTRY LAWS ANTOINE LAVOISIER Mass/ Matter is always constant (neither created nor destroyed 2. DEFINITE/ CONSTANT PROPORTIONS JOSEPH PROUST (PROUST’S LAW) Chemical compounds always contain the exact proportion of element in fixed ratio (by mass) 3. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION JOHN DALTON When 2 elements form more than 1 compounds, it can be expressed in a fixed whole number (by mass) 4. LAW OF COMBINING WEIGHTS Proportions by weight when chemical reaction takes place can be expressed in small integral unit WHOLE Ex. MgO → 40g/mole COMPOUND (100%) ➔ Magnesium Oxide INTEGRAL UNIT Mg = 24g/mole (60%) (MW) O = 16g/mole (40%) 7 TOPIC 4: THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN ELECTRON THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS CONFIGURATION SCIENTIST / LAW AND CONTRIBUTIONS / DETAILS 1. PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE ❗ 1. ANTOINE LAVOISIER BEQ 1st extensive list of elements (33) No. 2 electrons shall have the same set of quantum Metals vs Nonmetals numbers Each atomic orbital can only accommodate 2 electrons (e-) 2. JOHN WOLFGANG DOBEREINER Law of Triads 2. HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ❗ BEQ Impossible to determine simultaneously the electron 3. JOHN NEWLANDS Law of Octaves (e-) momentum and position Periods 3. AUFBAU'S BUILDING UP PRINCIPLE 4. DMITRI MENDELEEV Lower energy levels are filled up first Father of Modern Periodic Table 4. HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY Orbitals are filled singly before pairing up LOTHAR MEYER ➔ Atomic Mass/Weight ➔ Arranged periodic table 5. HENRY MOSELEY Created Modern Periodic Table Property varies with increasing atomic number 6. GLENN SEABORG Discovered transuranic elements TRIVIA Uranium actinides below lanthanides (exhibit ❗ USEFUL TRIVIAS SA BEQ 3 MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENTS radioactivity; unstable proton-to-neutron ratio) 1. Oxygen (O) 7. JACOB BERZELIUS 2. Silicon (Si) Developed a table of atomic weights and introduced 3. Aluminum (Al) letters to symbolize elements 1ST ELEMENT PRODUCED ARTIFICIALLY Technetium (Tc) 8. LAW OF OCTAVES ➔ From the word “technetos” meaning technology Every 8th element similar physicochemical property RAREST ELEMENT when arranged according to increasing atomic Astatine (At) weight (Ex. H, F, CI) ➔ Gold (Au) - meaning ➔ Astatin - panliligaw 9. OCTET RULE ❗ LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE Elements (Atomic nos. 1-20) with