General Biology 2 PDF

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 includes corals, sea anemones and jellyfish. While most cnidarians are marine, Hydra is unusual in that i...

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 includes corals, sea anemones and jellyfish. While most cnidarians are marine, Hydra is unusual in that it lives exclusively in freshwater. It includes soft-bodied stinging animals such as corals, sea anemones, and jellyfish. Reproduction (Plants, animals and other organisms have the ability to reproduce). Reproduction - Is a biological process in which different organisms have the ability to produce 2. FRAGMENTATION - An organism is produced another of their kind. With this ability, from a detached body part of its parent. organisms are able to improve their species and Example organisms: Some species of sea stars, enhance their physical characteristics. Plants prokaryotic, and invertebrates (animals that do and animals have different types of not have a backbone). reproduction. Different Types of Reproduction Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction does not involve gametes or sex cells (either sperm or egg). This type of reproduction can be observed in some plants and in lower forms of animals. 3. BINARY FISSION -​ A parent organism (unicellular Kinds of Asexual Reproduction: organism) splits into 2 "daughter" organisms. This type of reproduction is 1. BUDDING usually done by prokaryotic and some -​ An organism is reproduced by forming invertebrates. an outgrowth, or a "bud", from a part -​ Example organisms: Cyanobacteria of the parent organism's body. -​ Cyanobacteria is a division of -​ Example organism: Hydra, Bacteria, microorganisms that are related to the yeast, corals, flatworms, Jellyfish and bacteria but are capable of sea anemones. photosynthesis. They are prokaryotic -​ The hydra is a multicellular, and represent the earliest known form microscopic animal that lives in of life on the earth. freshwater. Hydra is a member of the animal phylum Cnidaria. This phylum 4. VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - A plant part is Reproductive Traits in Organisms used to reproduce another plant. This is also -​ There are a lot of physical differences known as propagation. Example organism: in the reproductive systems of plants Some Plants. and animals. -​ Plants and animals both use color displays for reproduction. -​ Plants use their physical characteristics to attract pollinators -​ Some animals also use color displays to attract a mate. -​ The reproduction of different organisms plays a vital role in the continuation of their species, as well as 5. SPORE FORMATION - This involves the their survival. production of spores, which are specialized -​ Example of animals that use color asexual reproductive cells. Example organisms: display is peacock during courtship. It Ferns. attracts the peahen. Sexual Reproduction Nutrition Involves the union of gametes (sperm and egg ​ Nutrition is the process of providing or cell) inside or outside the body of an organism. obtaining food necessary for health, survival, and growth of an organism. ​ In this process, an organism takes in, digests, and uses different substances obtained from various food sources. ​ These substances, called nutrients, provide energy for the organism's metabolic processes such as growth, This type of reproduction is exhibited only by maintenance, reproduction, and even higher forms of organisms, including humans. In immunity. this process, the sperm and the egg fuse to -​ All organisms need energy to perform create a fertilized egg known as zygote, which various life processes. Energy is will eventually become the embryo. necessary because it allows organisms to move, respire, and digest, to name a few body processes. Modes of Nutrition 1. AUTOTROPHIC -​ Organisms can manufacture their own nutrients by synthesizing inorganic materials. Depending on the energy source, autotrophs are of 2 types. -​ Organisms have different modes of include hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, and nutrition. Thus, they can be classified ammonia. based on how they obtain food. a.​ Photoautotrophic 2. HETEROTROPHIC - Organisms, which are -​ Photoautotrophic organisms directly called heterotrophs, cannot make their own use the energy from the sun and other food, and thus obtain energy by digesting inorganic substances such CO2, and organic matter. Heterotrophs include all H20 to form organic food. Organisms animals, fungi, and some bacteria. The that have this type of nutrition are heterotrophic mode of nutrition can be called photoautotrophs. classified into: -​ Example: Plants, Algae, and some forms of bacteria and protists. b.​ Chemoautotrophic a.​ Saprophytic or Saprotrophic Nutrition -​ organisms use chemicals to create -​ In this type of nutrition, organisms simpler organic substances important obtain their nutrients from dead for their survival. Such organisms are organic matter. These organisms called chemoautotrophs. Most secrete digestive juices to the bacteria and members of the group surroundings, which will be later Archaea that live in extreme absorbed through their body surface. environments such as volcanoes and Such organisms are called deep-sea vents are classified in this saprophytes, and they include molds, group. fungi and bacteria. -​ Common inorganic substances synthesized by the chemoautotrophs b.​ Parasitic subdivided based on the type of -​ In this type of nutrition, an organism organic matter ingested. We have takes food from another organism. different types of holozoic: Parasitic nutrition is exhibited by some -​ Herbivorous - Organisms that take in plants and animals. The organism that only plants as source of their energy takes food is called a parasite, and the are classified as herbivores. Examples: organism from where the food is taken Sheep, rabbits, and cows are examples called the host. The parasite can be of herbivorous animals. either outside or inside the host. -​ Carnivorous - Organisms that eat other animals are carnivores. Examples: Lions, tigers, and sharks. -​ Omnivorous - Organisms that take in both plants and animals are called omnivores. Examples: Pigs, hens, and bears. -​ Ectoparasitism - This type of parasitism happens when the parasite is outside the body of the host. Some examples are fleas in dogs and head lice in humans. -​ Endoparasitism - This type of parasitism involves parasites that live inside the body of the host. Some endoparasites include roundworms and hookworms. Both worms negatively affect the health of humans. Guide Questions: 1.​ Which of the organism/s listed is/are considered as a plant? 2.​ Which of the organism/s listed is/are c.​ Holozoic not considered as a plant or an -​ In this mode of nutrition, organisms animal? ingest solid or liquid food. The food is 3.​ What is the difference between then digested and absorbed by the photoautotrophic and body. This type of nutrition is chemoautotrophic type of nutrition? GAS EXCHANGE directly pass Involves the use of oxygen produced by through the cell photosynthetic organisms and the release of membrane carbon dioxide to the environment as a waste through diffusion. product for respiration. Gases are important because they are required for different Body It is a respiratory Flatworm metabolic reactions to proceed. Thus, gas Surface / surface covered and frogs exchange is also an important biological process Skin with thin and that allows organisms to survive. moist epithelial cells that allow Through this process, different gases are oxygen and carbon transferred in opposite directions across a dioxide exchange. respiratory surface. The frog uses its skin for gas Gases can only exchange. This is why the skin of a frog has to cross the cell be kept moist at all times. Different organisms membrane when have various ways of exchanging gases inside they are dissolved and outside their bodies. It varies from the in an aqueous simplest to the most complex respiratory solution, and thus system. the surface should be moist. Gas Exchange in Animals Gills They greatly External Gills increase the - Axolotl (an surface area for amphibian) gas exchange in aquatic organisms. Internal Gills Gills are - Fish convoluted outgrowths containing blood vessels covered by a thin layer of Different structures used by animals for gas epithelial cells. exchange: They can be found either externally or internally. Structure Description Example Tracheal They are Grasshoppers System composed of a and Cell It is a structure Bacteria series of cockroaches; Membrane used by unicellular respiratory tubes Insects / organisms for gas that carry the Crustaceans exchange. Gases gases directly to  exchange in plants. In photosynthesis, plants the cells for gas take in carbon dioxide from the air to make exchange. Gases food; during the process, oxygen is released as a enter and exit by-product. At the same time, plants take in through the oxygen to be used in cellular respiration, openings at the releasing energy and carbon dioxide as by body surface products. called spiracles. Plants have different mechanisms for gas Spiracles are small exchange compared to animals. Plants are able openings or pores to perform this process using the structures found in the present in the leaves. exoskeletons of many arthropods Creatine is used by the body for energy, (such as insects especially in muscles, while creatinine is a and some byproduct of this process that is excreted by the crustaceans) and kidneys. Elevated levels of creatinine in the certain other blood can indicate potential kidney problems, organisms, like while creatine supplementation is often used to some fish and improve athletic performance. amphibians. Lungs These are Humans ingrowths of the body wall that connect to the outside environment by a series of respiratory tubes and small openings. The lungs are one of the most complex respiratory organs Transport Circulation of animals These circulatory systems allow important biological fluids to be transported around the Gas Exchange in Plants organism, so that the organism can breathe, gain nutrition, and maintain its internal In plants, gas exchange mainly occurs in the environment for survival. leaves. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are 2 biological processes involved in gas  All organisms should be able to transport and other important particles or molecules into their metabolic - Carries wastes bodies. At the same time, they should be able products from out of the body; to remove wastes and other unwanted the leaves to the substances from them. This is why plants and rest of the plant. - Regulates the animals have various types of circulatory organism's body systems. Plants also have temp. and oH the following (level of acidity): supporting organs: - Helps in healing prevention of Tracheids: further damage Elongated cells in (through platelet the xylem that formation); and help in the transport of - Plays an water and important role in nutrients. the immune system. Sieve Tubes: Differences in the circulatory systems of plants Elongated cells in Most and animals: the phloem that invertebrates serve as conduits such as mollusks Transports in Transport in of sugar transport and arthropods Plants Animals (more have focused on hemolymph mammals) instead of blood. Organs Plants have 2 Animals have the Blood vessels: associated / main circulatory following Tubular Medium organs: circulatory structures used for organs and carrying blood circulation 1.​ Xylem: tissues: Transports water Heart: Hollow and nutrients Blood: muscular organ from the roots to Has the following that pumps the different functions: parts of the plant. -​ Transports gases and Circulation Fluids circulate Blood is forcefully 2.​ Phloem: nutrients in the Process through pumped Transports sugars animal's body; transpiration pull, throughout the  Circulatory System of Plants (Structures) or the evaporation body by the of water from heart. plant's leaves. Water Water is About 90% of Transport transported water is through the transported xylem. through the blood plasma. Food Food (sugars and Food in the form Circulatory System of Humans (Structures) Transport other metabolic of glucose is nutrients) are present in blood transported plasma. through the phloem. Gas Gases are diffused In mammals, exchange through the air oxygen is taken (involves spaces, such as into the oxygen the stomate and bloodstream by and the lenticels. combining with carbon the blood protein dioxide called Regulation of Fluids transport) hemoglobin. This ​ In plants, the most important fluid is enables the water. Water is one of the main oxygen to be substances needed by plants to circulated survive. In photosynthesis, water is throughout the used in photolysis, a photochemical body. CO2, on the process that allows water molecules to other hand, is split in the presence of light. also taken into ​ Plants have several different ways of the bloodstream regulating the amount of water that by combining comes in and out of their bodies. with hemoglobin, -​ Both plants and animals need to so it can be regulate the fluids inside their bodies. transported out This is because body fluids are of the body. essential for carrying out the different bodily functions in organisms. However, there are certain differences that can be observed between plants and animals. Fluid Regulation in Plants ​ Adhesion-Cohesion Property of ​ Osmosis - This is the tendency of water Water- This also allows the water to to pass through the semipermeable move up through a roD plant. As the membrane of plant cells. In this water and nutrients get inside the process, water movement is from an xylem, adhesion occurs because the area with low solute concentration. water molecules cling to the xylem The solute concentration inside the tissue. At the same time, cohesion plant cell is higher than that of the soil. occurs because the water molecules ​ Transpiration - This is the process stick to one another. wherein water exits the plant through -​ When this happens, the water the stomate of the leaves because of molecules may form a huge chain that evaporation. Plants do not have any fills up an entire column on the xylem. specialized organs that transport water -​ Cohesion: Water is attracted to water. throughout the parts. -​ Adhesion: Water is attracted to other substances. The following processes that play a role in water regulation: ​ Capillary Action - This refers to the movement of liquid across a solid -​ Transpiration allows the water to surface, which is caused by adhesion. travel from the soil throughout the The narrow xylem tubes allow the plants because it basically pulls the water molecules to climb up on their water up the bodies of the plants. As own because the water molecules water evaporates through stomata, it adhere to the surface of the xylem creates a negative pressure, exerting a tubes. pulling force that draws the water -​ Plants use capillary action to bring upward. water up the roots and stems to the -​ (What is stomata?) - Its prime function rest of the plant. The molecules of the is to exchange the gases by closing and water (the liquid) are attracted to the opening the pores in the leaves. It molecules of the inside of the stem assists in eradicating excess water from (the solid). This attraction is used to the leaves. It removes oxygen and help force the water up from the takes in carbon dioxide at the time of ground and disperse it throughout the photosynthesis. plant. Fluid Regulation in Animals this reason, ​ Fluid regulation in animals depends on seawater may be their excretory systems. It also toxic to them. depends on the concentration of water However, marine and mineral ions such as sodium, invertebrates have a chlorine, and potassium. On high concentration ​ Water and minerals enter the body of of urea in their the animals when they drink and eat blood, which food. However, most of the water and matches the tonicity the minerals are lost by evaporation of the water. This from the skin and lungs, as well by allows the animals to excretion survive in their ​ To maintain homeostasis in animals, environment. the amount of water acquired by the body should be equal to the amount of Examples: sponges, water lost. Terrestrial and aquatic corals, worms, animals have different ways of shells, sea urchins, regulating their body fluids. starfish, crustaceans, -​ Body fluids are vital to animals. and sea cucumbers. Different animals exert various ways of regulating their internal body fluids. Urea is the chief -​ The main excretory organs include nitrogenous end kidney, ureter, urinary bladder and product of the urethra. The excretory system is a vital metabolic biological system that removes excess breakdown of and waste products from the body to proteins in all maintain homeostasis. Most of these mammals and some products are in fact used and broken fishes. It occurs not down components of metabolism that only in the urine of leave the body in the form of urine, mammals but also in sweat, or feces. their blood, bile, milk, and Different mechanisms of fluid regulation in perspiration. animals: Marine The body fluids of Vertebrates marine vertebrates AQUATIC Marine The marine are at a lower ANIMALS Invertebrates environment has a concentration than greater solute that of seawater, concentration than which is why marine that of the body of vertebrates must marine reabsorb the water invertebrates. For  for them to remain Sliders), Ducks, in a healthy state. swans They excrete ions such as sodium and chloride at a minimal rate because a high TERRESTRIAL Body fluids are regulated by the amount of water ANIMALS excretory system. The excretory must be retained system removes the metabolic inside them. wastes and retains proper amounts of water, salts, and nutrients. Examples: Sea lions, Terrestrial animals have various fish, sharks, ways of reducing water loss. Some dolphins, whales live in moist environments, develop impermeable covering, and even produce concentrated Freshwater The body of urine. The excretory system of Vertebrates freshwater terrestrial animals serves to collect vertebrates is water and filter body fluids, and it hypertonic, as eliminates excretory wastes from compared to their the body. environment. This allows water to -​ The main difference between continue to diffuse freshwater and marine environments into the body of the lies in the salinity. fish. The kidneys, -​ Plants and animals need to maintain an which deal with optimum water concentration in their water uptake, allow internal environment so they can still large amounts of function normally and optimally. ions such as sodium and chloride to go Chemical and Nervous Control out of their bloodstream. However, these ANIMALS PLANTS organisms need to Main The brain is the Plants have a reabsorb some organ for main organ used serial nervous important ions via nervous by vertebrates for system. The root active transport. control nervous control. It tip or apex serves controls all the as a unit of its Amphibians (e.g., activities of the nervous system. Frogs, Salamanders, body. On the Numerous apices Newts), Freshwater other hand, some in the plant body Turtles (e.g., Painted Turtles, Red-Eared invertebrates do connect to the  ​ Nerve nets consist of individual nerve not have a main vascular strands, cells that form a netlike arrangement organ for nervous which are throughout the animal’s body. More control. Instead, classified as plant complex nervous systems can be found they have a nerves. These with more enhanced sense organs. simple kind of interconnections nervous system form the serial known as nerve nervous system in nets. plants. Channel Animals have Vascular strands or nerves that carry serve as the medium information from nerves in plants. wherein the brain and The leaves contain informati spinal cord to the stands that on muscles and combine to form travels glands. the vascular bundles of the Immune Systems stem and the vascular cylinder of the roots. The roots contain vascular tissues and its strands are supported by numerous cells forming the vascular cylinder. Chemical Chemical control Chemical control Control in animals in plants also involves involves The role of the immune system is to protect the hormones that hormones needed organism from diseases or other potentially are important for for certain growth and physiological damaging foreign bodies. It identifies threats survival. processes in the and finds ways to fight them. Animals have the body. ability to become immune when they are exposed to infection, but plants cannot do so. -​ Higher forms of animals have complex forms of nervous control. Plants may A complex network of cells, tissues, organs, and not have such organ systems, but they the substances they make that helps the body don't have parts that may be likened to fight infections and other diseases. The immune system includes white blood cells and organs certain nervous control mechanisms in and tissues of the lymph system, such as the animals. thymus, spleen, tonsils, lymph nodes, lymph Characteristics: They have a multi-lobed vessels, and bone marrow. nucleus and cytoplasm filled with granules. ​ Animals have multifaceted and Lymphocytes complex immune systems capable of Function: Lymphocytes are crucial for adaptive protecting them against invasive immunity and can be divided into three main pathogens or disease-causing types: organisms. Their immune system is T cells: They help regulate the immune composed of complex interactions that response and directly attack infected cells. allow the organisms to distinguish their B cells: They produce antibodies that target own cells from foreign cells, as well as specific pathogens. remember specific features or foreign Natural Killer (NK) cells: These cells can destroy bodies. infected or cancerous cells. ​ As the body recognizes foreign bodies, Characteristics: They have a large, round specialized blood cells called nucleus and little cytoplasm. lymphocytes travel through the circulatory system to destroy them. -​ White blood cells (WBCs), also known -​ All animals possess a primitive system as leukocytes, are a crucial part of the of defense against the pathogens to immune system. Their primary which they are susceptible. This function is to protect the body against defense is called innate or natural infection, foreign substances, and immunity and includes two parts. One pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, part, called humoral innate immunity, and fungi. Unlike red blood cells, white involves a variety of substances found blood cells have a nucleus and can in the humors, or body fluids. move through blood vessels to sites of -​ Ostriches have the most powerful infection or injury. immune system of any land animal. -​ Pathogens are microorganisms or Monocytes agents that cause diseases in their Function: Monocytes are large white blood cells host, such as humans, animals, plants, that differentiate into macrophages or dendritic or other organisms. These harmful cells when they move into tissues. They are microorganisms can invade the body, involved in phagocytosis and help activate other disrupt normal bodily functions, and parts of the immune system. lead to illness or infection. Characteristics: They have a large, kidney-shaped nucleus and abundant Neutrophils cytoplasm. Function: Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell. They are the first Eosinophils responders to bacterial infections and are Function: Eosinophils are involved in combating involved in phagocytosis, which is the process of parasitic infections and modulating allergic engulfing and digesting pathogens. reactions. They also help with the inflammation process. Characteristics: They have a bilobed nucleus viruses, and even herbivores. These and cytoplasm filled with large, red-staining substances are synthesized in response granules. to stress, injury, or infection, and they help protect plants by inhibiting the Basophils growth of harmful microorganisms. Function: Basophils release histamine during Phytoalexins act like the plant's allergic reactions and inflammation, playing a immune response, much like how the role in conditions like asthma and hay fever. human immune system defends Characteristics: They have a bilobed nucleus against disease. and dark-staining granules in the cytoplasm. Sensory and Motor Mechanisms -​ Plants have various ways of adapting to ​ Plants have sensory and motor harsh environments. They are not mechanisms that give them the ability motile, but they have mechanisms to to sense and respond to their protect themselves. On the other environments. hand, our body has complex ways of ​ Plants react to light, chemicals, gravity, protecting itself from pain, harm,or water, and even touch. danger. Learn to appreciate your body ​ The ability of plants to respond to a by taking care of it. certain stimulus is known as tropism. IMMUNE SYSTEMS Phototropism ​ Plants cannot defend themselves A movement of the plant in response to light, against pathogens such as bacteria, usually in the direction toward the light. viruses, and fungi. Plants also do not Examples: Sunflower, Pea Plants (Pisum have a circulatory system. sativum), Lettuce (Lactuca sativa), Tree ​ This is why plants have cells that are Seedlings, grass. able to respond to pathogens independently. Each plant cell contains receptors that recognize pathogen molecules. When an invader is identified by the receptor, it triggers defense responses. ​ Such responses include cell wall production and thickening, as well as production of antimicrobial Geotropism compounds such as phytoalexins and ​ A movement of the plant in response enzymes. to gravitational force. -​ Plants, on the other hand, do not have ​ Negative Geotropism - When the plant a structural immune system. part moves away from Earth. -​ Phytoalexins are natural, antimicrobial ​ Positive Geotropism- When the plant compounds produced by plants as part part moves toward Earth. of their defense mechanism against ​ Ex: Carrot, Radish pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, Hydrotropism A movement of the plant in response to water. Examples: Corn, Wheat, Rice, Tomato, sunflower. Thigmotropism A movement of the plant in response to mechanical stimulation. Examples: Climbing plants, Cucumber, Mimosa Pudica (makahiya), Venus Flytrap