General Anatomy PDF

NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT...

NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT GENERAL ANATOMY Prepared by: Vincent Raphael V. Manarang MAN, RN(PH,UK) I. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM - Keratin layer - consists of cornified cells, which are dead cells, Skin with a hard protein envelope, filled with the It is the largest single organ of the body, typically protein keratin. accounting for 15–20% of total body weight. - The type of keratin found in the skin is soft Also known as the integument or cutaneous keratin. layer. Melanin – group of pigments responsible for skin, Functions: “Protect VETS” hair, and eye color — Protection Melanocytes – a specialized cell of the epidermis — Vitamin D Production that produce melanin. (neural crest derivatives) — Excretion — Temperature Regulation Langerhans Cells — Sensation — Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) which are usually most clearly seen in the spinous layer. 3 Main Layers of Skin — Epidermis Merkel Cells — Dermis — epithelial tactile cells that are sensitive — Hypodermis or subcutis mechanoreceptors essential for light touch sensation. Epidermis It consists mainly of a stratified squamous keratinized Neuronal Endings of Skin epithelium composed of: “KeMe Lang Merk” Free nerve endings: Detect touch, - Keratinocytes temperature, pain - Pigment-producing Melanocytes Pacinian corpuscles: Pressure and vibration - antigen-presenting Langerhans cells receptors. - and tactile epithelial cells called Merkel cells Meissner’s corpuscles: Touch receptors Ruffini endings: Mechanoreceptors Strata of Epidermis 1. Stratum Basale / Germinativum Hair - Basal Layer - elongated keratinized structures derived from - Cells are arranged as a single layer of cuboidal invaginations of the epidermal epithelium or low columnar cells Hair follicles – produce long thin cylindrical - Keratinocyte stem cells undergo mitotic divisions structures (hair shafts) composed largely of keratin. approximately every 19 days. Hair shafts – composed of central medulla 2. Stratum Spinosum surrounded by a cortex with a surface cuticle composed - Prickle cell layer/ Spinous layer of single layer of flattened scales. - Normally the thickest Hair Growth Cycle “AnCaTe” - Composed of polyhedral keratinocytes with (Makati pag tumutubo ang buhok!) active protein synthetic function. — Anagen 3. Stratum Granulosum — Catagen - Granular layer — Telogen - Contains keratohyaline granules (not membrane bound) Nail - Contains lamellar granules (membrane bound) - hard, flexible plates of keratin on the dorsal surface of 4. Stratum Lucidum each distal phalanx - thin, clear zone that consists of several layers of *Nail Body/ plate – dense keratinized plate dead cells *Cuticle or eponychium – formed by the - Keratin fibers are present, but the keratohyalin epidermal stratum corneum extending from has dispersed around the keratin fibers the proximal nail fold - Cells appear somewhat transparent. 5. Stratum Corneum 1 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT *Nail root – proximal part covered by the MUSCLES OF THE PECTORAL REGION proximal skin fold which is thin and lacks } Pectoralis major both hair and glands } Pectoralis minor *Nail bed – stratified squamous epithelium } Subclavius muscles where the plate rests *All originate from the anterior thoracic wall and insert into bones of the upper limb. Glands of the Skin — Sebaceous – branched acinar glands with MUSCLES OF THE THORAX several acini (holocrine type) } External Intercostals — Sweat glands } Internal Intercostals a. Merocrine/ eccrine } Inner Intercostals Composed of: } Transversus thoracis - clear cells - dark cells MUSCLES OF ABDOMINAL WALL - myoepithelial cells } Rectus Abdominis b. Apocrine – produce a thick secretion rich in } External Abdominal oblique organic substances (odorless) } Internal Abdominal oblique - open into follicles but only in axilla and } Transversus Abdominis genitalia. } Pyramidalis II. MUSCULAR SYSTEM POSTERIOR ABDOMINAL MUSCLES } Psoas Major and minor (medial) Functions: } Quadratus lumborum (lateral) } Body Movement } Iliacus muscle (inferior) } Maintenance of Posture } Diaphragm (superior) } Respiration } Production of Body Heat BACK MUSCLES } Communication } Trapezius } Constriction of Organs and Vessels } Latissimus Dorsi } Heart beat } Levator Scapulae } Rhomboideus *Some skeletal muscles are not attached to bone at both ends UPPER ARM MUSCLES eg. Facial muscles } Deltoid *Tendons } Biceps brachii - connects the muscle to the bone } Triceps brachii *Origin (head) } Brachialis - most stationary end of the muscle } Brachioradialis *Insertion } Supraspinatus -end of the muscle attached to the bone } Infraspinatus undergoing the greatest movement } Subscapularis *Belly } Teres Major -part of muscle between origin and insertion } Teres Minor Muscle Nomenclature: Rotator cuff Muscles “SITS” Muscles may be named according to: Supraspinatus: Abduction of arm at } Location – Pectoralis (Chest) shoulder } Origin and Insertion – Brachioradialis (which Infraspinatus: External rotation of arm at extends from brachio meaning arm to the shoulder. radius) Teres minor: External rotation of arm at } Number of heads – biceps (“bi”, two + “ceps”, shoulder. head) Subscapularis: Internal rotation of arm at } Function – flexor digitorum (flexes the digits) shoulder. } Size – Vastus (means large) } Shape – Deltoid (means triangular) } Orientation of fasciculi – Rectus (means straight) 2 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT } Adductor Magnus } Gracilis } Pectineus } Obturator Externus LEG MUSCLES (Anterior Compartment) } Tibialis Anterior } Extensor Digitorum Longus } Fibularis Tertius LEG MUSCLES (Posterior Compartment) } Tibialis Posterior } Plantaris } Soleus } Gastrocnemius } Flexor Digitorum Longus MUSCLES OF GLUTEAL REGION } Gluteus minimus } Gluteus medius } Gluteus maximus MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC FLOOR AND PERINEUM } Bulbospongiosus } Coccygeus Movement of the Arm at the Elbow } Ischiocavernosus Flexion: Biceps, Brachialis, } Levator ani Coracobrachialis } External anal sphincter Extension: Triceps, Anconeus } External urethral sphincter } Deep Transverse perinei LOWER ARM MUSCLES } Superficial transverse perinei } Flexors } Extensors III. SKELETAL SYSTEM } Palmaris longus } Pronators Functions: } Supinators 1. Support 2. Protection Movement of the Hands 3. Movement Pronation: Pronator quadratus, pronator teres 4. Storage Supination: Supinator, biceps 5. Blood cell production THIGH MUSCLES (Anterior Compartment) Types of Bone based on Location: } Rectus Femoris Ø Axial } Vastus Lateralis Ø Appendicular } Vastus Medialis } Vastus Intermedius Types of Bone based on their Shape } Sartorius — Long Bones – longer than they are wide ex. Upper and lower limbs THIGH MUSCLES (Posterior Compartment) — Short Bones – approximately as broad as they } Biceps Femoris are long } Semimembranosus ex. Wrist and ankle } Semitendinosus — Flat Bones – relatively thin, flattened shape ex. Ribs, scapulae THIGH MUSCLES (Medial Compartment) — Irregular Bones – with shapes that do not fit } Adductor Longus into the other three ex. Vertebrae and facial bones 3 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT Vertebral prominence – most prominent spinous Anatomy of Long bones process a. Diaphysis—the shaft (midportion) of the bone. Thoracic Vertebrae b. Epiphysis—the ends of the bone. If the - Possess long processes epiphysis articulates with another bone, it will likely be - First 10 Thoracic Vertebrae have articular facets surrounded by articular cartilage. on their transverse processes, where they c. Metaphysis—the area where the bone articulate with the tubercles of the ribs. narrows between the epiphysis and diaphysis. Lumbar Vertebrae Common Terms in Bone Anatomy - Vertebral Foramen is triangular, larger than — Foramen – hole in a bone thoracic but smaller than cervical. — Canal or meatus – elongated hole which is a - The body is wider transversely and deeper in tunnel-like passage through the bone. front. — Fossa – depression on a bone - Pedicles are short. — Tubercle or tuberosity – lump on a bone - With mammillary process — Process – projection from a bone Sacral Vertebrae Skull - 5 vertebrae fused into a single bone called *Please refer to Gen. Ana 2 notes* Sacrum. Alae - Wing-shaped areas on the superior surfaces Vertebral Column of the lateral parts. - It is the central axis of the skeleton. - The spinous process on the 5th does not form, - Has a normal curvature thereby leaving a sacral hiatus. Coccyx - Tailbone - Most inferior portion that usually consists of three to five semi- fused vertebrae that form a triangle, with the apex directed inferiorly. - NO vertebral foramina nor well- developed processes Cervical Vertebrae - Have very small bodies Rib Cage - Most have bifid spinous processes - Thoracic cage - The only vertebrae that has a transverse foramina C1, C2, C7 = Atypical C3, C4, C5, C6 = Typical Ribs C1 = Atlas (Holds up the head) - 12 pairs § No body and no spinous process § Has large superior facets, where it articulates Classified as either: with the occipital condyles on the base of the - TRUE RIBS/ Vertebrosternal skull - FALSE RIBS C2 = Axis a. Vertebrochondral § Has DENS b. Floating/ Vertebral § The dens fits into the enlarged vertebral foramen of the atlas, and the atlas rotates Sternum around this process. - Breastbone; Sword-shaped - Composed of three parts: C7 § Manubrium § The spine is not bifid § Gladiolus/ Body § It resembles the 1st Thoracic Vertebra § Xiphoid Process Jugular notch (suprasternal notch). 4 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT - Superior border of manubrium. § Styloid Process – located at the posteromedial Angle of Louis (sternal angle). side of head to which ligaments of wrist are - Articulation of manubrium and body at second attached rib. Radius Scapula § Head – Proximal end of the radius; concave and - Coracoid process provides attachments for articulates with the capitulum of the humerus. some shoulder and arm muscles. § Radial Tuberosity – Point of attachment of - Glenoid Cavity – located in the superior biceps brachii. lateral portion of the bone, articulates with the § Styloid Process – Located at the lateral side head of the humerus. of the distal radius in which wrist ligaments are attached. Clavicle - Collar bone Carpals - S-shaped bone - Wrist bones - forms by membranous bone formation - Composed of eight bones arranged into two Parts: Acromial End, Shaft, Sternal End rows of four each. “She Looks Too Pretty Long bones of Upper Appendicular: Try To Catch Her” - Humerus - Radius Metacarpals - Ulna - Five metacarpal bones are attached to the carpal bones and constitute the bony framework Humerus of the hand. § Head – articulates with the glenoid cavity - Five digits of each hand include one thumb and § Anatomical neck – distal to the head; almost four fingers. non-existent - Each digit consists of small long bones called § Surgical neck – common fracture site that Phalanges often requires surgical repair § Greater tubercle – located at lateral surface Thumb – has two phalanges (proximal and § Lesser Tubercle – located at the anterior distal) surface of the proximal end of the humerus. Four Fingers – have three phalanges § Deltoid Tuberosity – Located on the lateral (Proximal, Middle and Distal) surface of the humerus a little more than a third of the way along its length. Pelvic Girdle § Capitulum – Very rounded; located at the - Right and left coxal bones join each other lateral portion that articulates with the radius. anteriorly and the sacrum posteriorly to form § Trochlea – located at the medial portion; ring of bone called pelvic girdle. articulates with the ulna. Pelvis = Pelvic Girdle and Coccyx. § Medial and Lateral Epicondyles – Proximal to the capitulum and trochlea which are points Femur of attachment for the muscles of the forearm. - Has a prominent, rounded head, where it articulates with the acetabulum Ulna - Neck is located at an oblique angle to the shaft § Trochlear Notch (Semilunar Notch) – C- of the femur. shaped articular surface located at the proximal end of the ulna. Proximal shaft exhibits two projections: Trochlear notch is bounded by two processes: § Greater Trochanter – Lateral to the neck § Olecranon Process – Larger, posterior § Lesser Trochanter – Small and located on the process; “the elbow” inferior and posterior to the neck § Coronoid Process - Smaller, anterior process § Both trochanters are attachment sites for § Head – Small head of ulna which articulates muscles that fasten the hip to the thigh. both the radius and the wrist bones; located at the posterior, medial (ulnar) side of the distal Patella forearm. 5 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT - Is a large sesamoid bone located within the – freely movable joint tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle group According to Structure: (major muscle group of the anterior thigh). Ò Fibrous – united by fibrous tissues that exhibit - It articulates with the patellar groove of the little or no movement femur to create a smooth articular surface over Ò Cartilaginous – united by cartilage with slight the distal end of the femur. movement. Ò Synovial – freely movable joints that contain Tibia and Fibula synovial fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of § Intercondylar Eminence – Located between the bones the condyles; a ridge between the two articular surfaces of the proximal tibia Fibrous Joints § Medial Malleolus – Enlarged; Located at the Ò Sutures distal end of the tibia; helps to form the medial - joints between bones of the skull side of the ankle joint *Fontanels – sutures in new-born which are § Lateral Malleolus – Slightly enlarged; creates quite wide the lateral wall of the ankle joint Ò Syndesmoses *Fibula does not articulate with the femur but has a - joints in which bones are separated by some small head where it articulates with the tibia. distance and are held together by ligaments Ò Gomphoses Tarsals - pegs fitted into sockets held by ligaments - Consist of 7 bones: Proximal in the Foot: Cartilaginous joints § Talus (Ankle bone) – Articulates with the tibia Ò Synchondroses and the fibula to form the ankle joint Ò Symphyses § Calcaneus (Heel bone) – Largest and strongest bone in the foot; located inferior to Synovial Joints the talus and supports the bone Structure: § Navicular (Boat-shaped) – Lies between the Ò Articular or hyaline cartilage – caps the ends of talus posteriorly and the cuneiforms anteriorly. 2 bones in this joint. It has neither blood vessels Distal Four Bones in a row: nor lymphatics. § Medial, wedge-shaped bone: Ò Articular capsule – made up of fibrous tissue § Medial Cuneiform encloses ends of 2 bones making the joint. § Intermediate Cuneiform Ò Synovial membrane – thin sheet of connective § Lateral Cuneiform tissues and epithelial cells. § Cuboid (Cube-shaped) – Most lateral of the Ò Synovial fluid – slippery like egg white fluid distal row 4 functions: “Try Catching Naughty Cute Chicks” - lubricates the intracapsular joint structures. - nourishes the structures within the joint cavity. Metatarsals - maintains joint stability - Arranged in a manner very similar to that of the - phagocytes present in it remove microbes and metacarpal bones and phalanges of the hand. cellular debris from the joint cavity. IV. ARTICULAR SYSTEM Types of Synovial joints (accdg to shape of adjoining articular surfaces) Ò Joint or articulation is a place where two bones come together. Ò Plane/ Gliding – 2 opposed flat surfaces that *A joint is usually considered movable but that glide over each other. is not always the case. eg. Articular facets between vertebrae. Ò Saddle – 2 saddle-shaped articulating surfaces Types of Joint: oriented at right angles to each other. According to Function: - movement can occur in 2 planes. Ò Synarthroses eg. Metacarpals and trapezium – non-movable joint Ò Hinge – consist of a convex cylinder of one Ò Amphiarthroses bone applied to corresponding concavity of the – slightly movable joint other bone and can permit movement in 1 plane Ò Diarthroses only. 6 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT eg. Elbow joints Ò Pivot – cylindrical bony process that rotates PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM within a ring composed partly of bone and part Main components: of ligament ´ Nerves -restrict movement to rotation around a single ´ Ganglia axis. ´ Nerve endings eg. Radioulnar joint 2 types of nerve fibers in PNS: Ò Ball-and-socket – ball at the end of one bone - Myelinated and a socket in an adjacent bone into which a - Unmyelinated portion of ball fits. -allows a wide range of movement in almost any Consists of: direction. ´ Cranial nerves (12): Leave the brain and pass eg. Head of humerus to glenoid cavity out the skull foramina. Ò Ellipsoid/ condyloid – elongated ball-and- ´ Spinal nerves (31): Leave the spinal cord and socket, limits its ROM in almost any direction. pass out via the intervertebral foramina. eg. Skull and atlas 8 cervical spinal nerves 12 thoracic. V. NERVOUS SYSTEM 5 lumbar. 5 sacral. 2 Division accdg to Location: 1 coccygeal. - CNS - PNS *Cranial Nerves are discussed in General Anatomy 2* 2 Functional Division of the PNS: ´ Sensory (Afferent) Division – transmits signals Spinal nerves from the sensory receptors to the CNS - Comprise dorsal + ventral rami. ´ Motor (Efferent) Division – transmits signals - Mixed nerves (motor + sensory). from the CNS to the effector organs - After they join as spinal nerve, they split into Dorsal (posterior) rami. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Ventral (anterior) rami. - Brain + Spinal Cord SPINAL NERVE ----- ROOT *Brain is discussed in General Anatomy 2* Motor nerve ------- Anterior Root Sensory Nerve ----- Posterior Root Spinal Cord “AMPS” - located in Spinal Canal - continuation of medulla oblongata and exits the Plexuses foramen magnum - Interdigitations of nerves (nerves joining neighboring - meninges are same with brain nerves). Contains: Four major plexuses: Gray matter ´ Cervical plexus (C1–C4) ´ Located centrally; H-shaped. ´ Brachial plexus (C5–T1). ´ Consists of unmyelinated nerve cell bodies. ´ Lumbar plexus (L1–L4). ´ Anterior/ventral horn ´ Sacral plexus (L4–L5 and S1–S4) Motor (efferent). ´ Posterior/dorsal horn VI. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Sensory (afferent). Dorsal root ganglion (cell bodies). 2 Functional Components ´ Intermediolateral horn u Blood Vascular System Autonomic. u Lymph Vascular System Blood Vascular System Composition White matter. u Heart ´ Surrounds the gray matter peripherally. u Arteries ´ Myelinated axons. u Capillaries Central canal u Veins ´ Filled with CSF. 7 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT Common Basic Structure - Incoming blood from pulmonary veins. u Tunica Intima –called the endothelium 3. Ventricles supported by a thin subendothelial layer of loose > RIGHT VENTRICLE connective tissue with occasional smooth muscle - Responsible for the pulmonic circulation. cells. - Pumps deoxygenated blood through the u Tunica Media – consists chiefly of concentric pulmonic valve to pulmonary artery and lungs layers of helically arranged smooth muscle cells for oxygenation. u Tunica Adventitia/externa – an outer Trabeculae carnae principally supporting tissue layer consisting - Ridges of cardiac muscle in the ventricles. principally of type I collagen and elastic fibers Chordae tendinae. - Thin tendinous cords passing from valve cusps Heart Wall to papillary muscles. u Endocardium – tunica intima equivalent Papillary muscles. u Myocardium – tunica media equivalent - Anchor chordae tendinae to heart wall. u Epicardium (visceral pericardium) - tunica >LEFT VENTRICLE adventitia equivalent and in some areas Apex of the heart. containing adipose tissue Responsible for the systemic circulation Parts of the Heart Blood Circulatory/Vascular System 1. Valves u Arterial System – distribute blood from the > SEMILUNAR heart to capillary beds throughout the body. - Each has three semilunar cusps *Walls of arterial vessels have elastin - No chordae tendineae or papillary muscles are and the smooth muscle wall is thick.* associated with semilunar valves. Elastic arteries – major distribution a. Pulmonic valve vessels b. Aortic valve Muscular arteries – main distributing > ATRIOVENTRICULAR branches of the arterial tree a. Tricuspid valve Arterioles – terminal branches of the b. Mitral valve arterial tree which supply the capillary 2. Atria beds. >RIGHT ATRIUM Main Arteries: Fossa ovalis } Aorta - Depression remnant of the foramen ovale. Ascending – dividing into: - Lies on atrial septum (interatrial); dividing the - Right coronary artery left and right atria. - Left coronary artery - Anulis ovalis is the upper margin of the fossa. Arch of aorta – dividing into 3 Crista terminalis branches: - Vertical ridge between vena cavae orifices. - Brachiocephalic - Sinoatrial (SA) node is located here. - Left common carotid - Junction of sinus venosus and the heart in the - Left subclavian developing embryo. Descending aorta – dividing into: Sulcus terminalis - right and left iliac arteries - Vertical groove on external heart represents - a small midline median sacral crista terminalis (internally). arteries Pectinate muscles *Descending aorta reaches lower 8th thoracic - Radiate from crista terminalis to atrial vertebral bodies before reaching midline appendage. Branches of aorta in thorax: Right auricle Intercostal arteries - Appendage of right atrium. Bronchial arteries Conduction system Diaphragmatic arteries SA node. Branches of aorta in abdomen: AV node. Lumbar arteries Both nodes innervated by Celiac arteries parasympathetic fibers from CN X and Superior mesenteric sympathetic fibers from T1–T4. Suprarenal > LEFT ATRIUM Renal 8 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT Gonadal Pelvis. Inferior mesenteric Inguinal region. Common iliac Lower extremities. External iliac Continuous superiorly with the thoracic duct. Internal iliac Thoracic duct u Microcirculation/ Microvasculature - Continuation of the dilated cisterna chyli. concerned with the exchange of gases, fluids, Located in posterior and superior mediastinum. nutrients and metabolic waste products. Drains lymph from Capillaries – extremely thin-walled Lower limbs vessels forming an interconnected Abdomen network where the exchange occurs. Chest wall Types of Capillaries Empties into venous system at junction of the Continuous capillaries—the endothelia subclavian and internal jugular vein (on the left contain no pores. They are the most common side only). type of capillary. Right lymphatic duct Fenestrated capillaries—the endothelia Drains contain a large number of pores. Right arm. Discontinuous capillaries (sinusoids)—consist Right side of chest. of a large lumen and with discontinuous Right side of head. endothelia. Empties into the junction of the right internal *Sinusoids are fenestrated or discontinuous jugular vein and right subclavian veins capillaries in the liver, spleen, and endocrine glands. (formation of the right brachiocephalic vein). They are larger and more irregularly shaped than capillaries to accommodate phagocytic cells of the VII. IMMUNE SYSTEM reticuloendothelial system u Venous System – a low-pressure component 2 Lines of Defense in Immunity responsible for carrying blood from the capillary ™ Innate Immunity networks to the right atrium of the heart. - Physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes) Venules - collect blood from the - Leukocytes capillaries, and they gradually combine ™ Adaptive Immunity into progressively larger veins. - Lymphocytes Veins – transport blood from the - APCs venules back to the heart; they serve as - antibody a major reservoir of extra blood Valves – prevents backflow of blood Antibody - A glycoprotein of immunoglobulin family particularly in small and medium-sized that interacts specifically with antigens. veins ™ IgG Lymphatic Vascular System ™ IgA u a system of thin-walled endothelial channels that ™ IgM collect excess interstitial fluid called lymph ™ IgE * Unlike the blood, lymph flows in only one ™ IgD direction, toward the heart. Lymphatic capillaries Thymus - Lymphatic vessels begin as small, dead-end tubes ™ primary or central lymphoid organ in which T called lymphatic capillaries. Fluids tend to move out cells are produced of blood capillaries into tissue spaces ™ most active during childhood and at puberty it *Unlike blood capillaries, they lack a basement undergoes slow involution. membrane, and the cells of the simple squamous 2 Parts of Thymus epithelium slightly overlap and are loosely attached ™ Thymic cortex - site of T-cell maturation to one another ™ Thymic medulla - Contain Hassall’s corpuscles, Lymphatic Ducts which consist of epithelial cells with Cisterna chyli keratohyaline granules. Located in the para-aortic region below the diaphragm at level of T12. * All lymphoid organs are derived exclusively from Drains lymph from mesenchyme except for the thymus. Abdomen. 9 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT Remember: The thymus has a double embryologic 2. GALT (Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue) origin: a. Peyer Patches - Large aggregates of Lymphocytes (hematopoietic stem cells) are lymphoid nodule in the mucosa and from Mesenchyme submucosa of the ileum Hassall’s corpuscles (epithelium) are from b. Appendix- short, small-diameter Endoderm (third pharyngeal pouch) projection from the cecum, mucosa is almost completely filled with lymphoid Bone Marrow tissue. The lumen contains the normal ™ Site of B-cell development bacterial flora of the large intestine ™ Primarily located in ribs, vertebrae, sternum and pelvis. ™ Does not undergo involution unlike thymus Lymph Nodes ™ Provides perfect location for lymphocytes to be exposed to a wide variety of antigens and to undergo stimulation. Parts: ™ Outer cortex receiving lymph from the afferent lymphatics ™ An inner paracortex where most lymphocytes enter via high endothelial VIII. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM venules (HeVs), and ™ A central medulla with sinuses converging General Structure at the efferent lymphatic The GI tract is a hollow tube with a lumen of variable diameter and a wall made up of four main layers: Spleen — Mucosa ™ contains the largest single accumulation of — Submucosa lymphoid tissue in the body and is the only — Muscularis and lymphoid organ involved in filtration of blood — Serosa ™ main site of old erythrocyte destruction. Splenic Pulp Mucosa (mucous membrane) 2 Components: It consists of: – White pulp – composed of lymphoid — an epithelial lining; nodules (Site of activation and clonal — an underlying lamina propria of loose connective expansion lymphocytes) tissue – Red pulp – composed of blood-filled — and a thin layer of smooth muscle called the sinusoids (site of blood filtration) muscularis mucosae - Consists of cords (Billroth’s cords) containing numerous macrophages that Submucosa lie between the venous sinusoids. — contains denser connective tissue with larger blood and lymph vessels and the submucosal MALT (Meissner) plexus of autonomic nerves. – Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue – The total mass of lymphoid tissues in the Muscularis (muscularis externa) gastrointestinal, respiratory and genitourinary composed of smooth muscle cells organized as tracts two or more sublayers. 1. Waldeyer’s ring — In the internal sublayer (closer to the lumen), Formed by the tonsils the fiber orientation is generally circular; in the a. Palatine tonsils (covered by stratified external sublayer it is longitudinal. squamous epithelium) b. Lingual tonsils/ faucial tonsils Serosa (covered by stratified squamous) — a thin layer of loose connective tissue, rich in c. Pharyngeal tonsils/ adenoids blood vessels, lymphatics, and adipose tissue, (covered by pseudostratified ciliated with a simple squamous covering epithelium or columnar epithelium) mesothelium. 10 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT — In the abdominal cavity, the serosa is — Hard palate: anterior part which continuous with mesenteries covered by contains bone mesothelium on both sides that support the — Soft palate: posterior portion which intestines. consists of skeletal muscle and connective tissue Divided by Segments: 1. Foregut – Esophagus, Stomach, 1st part of Uvula Duodenum, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas Posterior extension from soft palate. 2. Midgut – 2nd to 4th part of Duodenum, Jejunum, *Bifid uvula results from incomplete fusion of palatine Ileum, Appendix, Ascending colon, Transverse Colon (to shelves. splenic flexure) *Unilateral damaged pharyngeal plexus causes uvula to 3. Hindgut – Transverse Colon (distal to splenic deviate to contralateral side. Contraction on intact side flexure), Descending colon, Sigmoid colon, Rectum pulls it to functional side. Lips Pharynx — muscular structures, formed mostly by the — Consists of three parts: orbicularis oris muscle. - nasopharynx — The keratinized stratified epithelium of the skin - oropharynx, becomes thin at the margin of the lips - laryngopharynx. Epiglottis Oral Cavity - covers the opening of the larynx and keeps — lined with stratified squamous epithelium, which food and drink from entering the larynx may be keratinized, partially keratinized, or nonkeratinized depending on the location. Esophagus — It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long in adults Tongue — Mucosa has nonkeratinized stratified squamous A mass of striated muscle covered by mucosa epithelium, and the submucosa contains small Major sensory organ for taste and one of the mucus-secreting glands, the esophageal glands, major organs of speech. which lubricate and protect the mucosa. Frenulum - anterior attachment to the floor of Upper and lower esophageal sphincter - the mouth regulate the movement of materials into and out of the esophagus. Lingual Papillae - elevations of the mucous membrane of Stomach the tongue that assume various forms and It is a muscular dilation of the digestive tract functions where mechanical and chemical digestion occurs. 4 Types: Major stomach regions are: — Filiform - Rough texture of tongue; found in - cardia rows; avascular; most numerous papillae of - fundus tongue; do not contain taste buds. - body, and — Fungiform - Mushroom-shaped; scattered - pylorus among filiform papillae; usually contain taste *All these regions have longitudinal gastric folds, called buds. rugae. — Foliate - On lateral surface of tongue in ridges; Cells in the Gastric Mucosa rudimentary and nonfunctional. 1. Surface Mucous Cell — Vallate – 7 to 9 (First Aid)/ 12 to 13 (Mosby) 2. Mucous Neck Cell large circular structures with taste buds; serous- 3. Parietal Cell only salivary glands within (von Ebner’s glands). 4. Chief Cell 5. G cell *All taste buds except filiform are vascular. Liver Palate Functions: A B C D E F G H Roof of oral cavity, floor of nasal cavity. - Albumin Synthesis - Bile Production — It consists of two parts: - Cholesterol Metabolism - Detoxification of Drugs and Alcohol 11 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT - Excretion — its lining shows a series of permanent circular or - Factors for Clotting semilunar folds (plicae circulares). - Glycogen storage Villi - short mucosal outgrowths that project - Hormone production “BATH” into the lumen Hepatocytes – major cell Cell Types in the Small Intestine Kupffer cells - Mononuclear macrophages — Enterocytes Ito cells - Adipocytes in the space of Disse; — Goblet cells store vitamin A — Paneth cells — Enteroendocrine cells (APUD) Parts of the Liver — M (microfold) cells 2 Major Lobes - Right Large Intestine - Left — Also called bowel, which absorbs water and 2 Minor Lobes electrolytes and forms indigestible material into - Caudate and Quadrate feces, has the following regions: Porta - cecum - Hepatic Duct (right and left) - colon (ascending, transverse, descending) - hepatic portal vein - rectum - hepatic artery Colonocytes - columnar absorptive cells Gallbladder Teniae coli - Three longitudinal bands of - Stores and concentrates bile. muscle used for peristalsis Common bile duct formed by: Haustra - Individual segments that allow for Cystic duct (from gallbladder). independent contraction Hepatic duct (from liver). crypts of Lieberkühn – intestinal glands Common bile duct empties into duodenum. * At the rectoanal junction, the simple columnar mucosal Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses: Deep diverticula lining of the rectum is replaced by stratified squamous of gallbladder mucosa epithelium. * The gallbladder does not contain a submucosa (the IX. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM stomach and small and large bowel do). Functions: “PRO-VAPE” Pancreas Pulmonary Ventilation - lobulated gland Regulation of pH Parts: Head, Body & Tail Olfaction Ducts: Voice Production Duct of Wirsung (main pancreatic duct) ACE production Santorini’s duct (accessory pancreatic duct) Protection Exchange of Gases Exocrine part Functions: Produces digestive enzyme precursors 2 Structural Divisions: (proenzymes) Upper Components: Pancreatic acini Lower Cell types: Centroacinar cells 2 Functional Components Small Intestine — Conducting portion Site where the digestive processes are — Respiratory portion completed and where nutrients are absorbed 2 Types of Epithelium: 3 Segments: Respiratory Epithelium — Duodenum 5 Major cell types: — Jejunum - Ciliated columnar cells — Ileum - Goblet cells - Brush cells 12 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT - Small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) cartilage to form a complete ring around the - Basal cells airway. Olfactory Epithelium 2) Thyroid cartilage = largest; “Adam’s apple 3 Major cell types: 3) Epiglottis = leaf-shaped; flapping - Olfactory neurons Paired: - Supporting cells 4) Arytenoid cartilage = pyramid-shaped - Basal Cells 5) Corniculate cartilage = conical shaped 6) Cuneiform cartilage = club-shaped Nose Also called “Nasus” Muscles of Larynx It consists of: Extrinsic Muscles ü External nose – It is a visible structure that - Suprahyoids forms a prominent feature of the face - Stylopharyngeus ü Nasal cavity – It extends form nares to - Infrahyoids choanae. Intrinsic Muscles ü Nasal septum – Partition dividing the nasal - Cricothyroid cavity into right and left parts. - Posterior cricoarytenoid ü Conchae – composed of three bony ridges - Lateral cricoarytenoid ü Meatus – located beneath each conchae - Transverse arytenoid - Oblique arytenoid Pharynx - Thyro-arytenoid Nasopharynx - Vocalis — first part lined with respiratory epithelium — Two auditory tubes from the middle ear open Trachea into the nasopharynx. Wind pipe Oropharynx — lined with typical respiratory epithelium. Extends from soft palate to epiglottis — A series with about a dozen C-shaped rings of Laryngopharynx hyaline cartilage in the submucosa reinforces the It extends from the tip of the epiglottis to the wall and keeps the tracheal lumen open. esophagus and passes posterior to the larynx. Trachealis muscle. It relaxes during swallowing and strongly contracts in the cough reflex Larynx *The trachea enters the inlet of the thorax, deep to the — “Voice box” sternum, and at vertebral level T5 it bifurcates at a — Its rigid wall is reinforced by hyaline cartilage midline cartilaginous ring called the carina into the right (thyroid, cricoid, and the inferior arytenoid and left primary bronchus. cartilages) and smaller elastic cartilages (epiglottis, cuneiform, corniculate, and the Tracheobronchial Tree superior arytenoid cartilages), all of which are 1. trachea connected by ligaments. 2. Main or primary bronchi — It is both a valve to close the respiratory tract, 3. lobar or secondary bronchi and an instrument to produce sound. 4. segmental or tertiary bronchi. *Motor and sensory innervation of the larynx is provided 5. bronchioles by the CN X. 6. terminal bronchioles Ligaments of the larynx: 7. Respiratory bronchioles 1) Vestibular folds = superior (false) 2) Vocal folds = inferior (true) Clara Cells — Non-ciliated cells that are numerous in the Glottis (rima glottidis) = opening between vocal folds cuboidal epithelium of terminal bronchioles Rima vestibuli = space in the laryngeal cavity; opening which are also called exocrine bronchiolar of vestibular folds cells. Functions: Laryngeal cartilages Secretion of surfactant lipoproteins and mucins Unpaired: Detoxification of inhaled xenobiotic compounds by 1) Cricoid cartilage = most inferior; the only enzymes of the SER Secretion of antimicrobial peptides and cytokines 13 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT injury-induced mitosis for replacement of the other 2 basic components: bronchiolar cell types. 1. renal corpuscle - glomerulus Alveoli - bowman’s capsule Alveoli are saclike evaginations from the 2. renal tubules respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and - proximal convoluted tubule alveolar sacs. - loop of Henle Site for Gas exchange - distal convoluted tubule 2 Types of Alveolar Cells 2 Types of Nephron — Type I pneumocytes 1. Cortical — Type II pneumocytes/ greater alveolar cells 2. Juxtamedullary Alveolar macrophages—called dust cells are derived Renal Corpuscle (malpighian) from monocytes. They migrate from capillaries in the - small mass of capillaries called the glomerulus interalveolar septa and ingest bacteria and other inhaled housed within a bowman’s capsule. substances on the alveolar surface. *Mesangial cells are located around glomerular capillaries. These cells are phagocytic and help support Lungs capillary loops. Principal organs of respiration 2 layers of Bowman’s Capsule: Largest organs of the body (volume basis) Visceral - composed of podocytes, which Hilum – a region on the medial surface of the lung cover each capillary, forming slit-like spaces where structures, such as the main bronchus, between interdigitating processes called pulmonary artery, 2 pulmonary veins, blood vessels, pedicels. nerves and lymphatic vessels, enter or exit the lung. Parietal – composed of simple squamous cells that surrounds the glomerulus. X. URINARY SYSTEM Renal Tubules: Functions of Kidney: “A WET BED” 1. Proximal Convoluted Tubules Acid-Base Balance - Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Water Removal - with long microvilli that form a prominent Erythropoiesis brush border in the lumen that facilitates Toxin Removal reabsorption Blood Pressure Control 2. Loop of Henle Electrolyte Balance Thin Limbs – Simple squamous epithelium D (Vitamin) Activation Thick Ascending Limb – Simple cuboidal epithelium, no microvilli Kidneys 3. Distal Convoluted Tubule Bean-shaped, about the size of a tightly - simple cuboidal epithelium, clenched fist. - cells smaller than in proximal convoluted Renal Sinus - cavity filled with adipose tissue tubule and connective tissue. - with short microvilli *Structures that enter and leave the kidney pass through the renal sinus. Ureters - tubes through which urine flows from the kidneys to the urinary bladder and extend inferiorly and medially from the renal pelvis at the renal hilum of each kidney to the urinary bladder 2 Major Regions of Kidneys: ¡ Outer Cortex Urinary bladder - a hollow, muscular container that ¡ Inner Medulla lies in the pelvic cavity just posterior to the symphysis pubis that stores urine. Nephron - The histological and functional unit of the Urethra - transports urine to the outside of the body, kidney. exits the urinary bladder inferiorly and anteriorly. 14 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT Trigone - triangular area of the urethra’s wall between Ò comma-shaped structure on the posterior side of the two ureters posteriorly and the urethra anteriorly. the testis. Ò Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Detrusor Muscle – smooth muscle that forms the wall of the urinary bladder which is much thicker than the Composed of: wall of a ureter. Contraction of this smooth muscle 1. Principal cells - columnar cells with forces urine out of the urinary bladder. characteristic long stereocilia 2. Stem cells Internal urinary sphincter – elastic tissue and 3. Smooth muscle cells smooth muscle that contracts to keep semen from entering the urinary bladder during sexual intercourse. 3 parts: 1. Head *There is no functional internal urinary sphincter in 2. Body females. 3. Tail External urinary sphincter - composed of skeletal Ductus Deferens/ Vas Deferens muscle that surrounds the urethra as the urethra Ò emerges from the tail of the epididymis extends through the pelvic floor. This sphincter acts as a Ò contains many elastic fibers valve that controls the flow of urine through the urethra. Ò the epithelial lining is pseudostratified with some cells having sparse stereocilia. Umbrella Cells Ò With very thick muscularis - very large, bulbous cells of the superficial layer Ampulla of ureter, bladder and urethra - enlarged end of the ductus deferens - bi- or multinucleated cells - highly differentiated to protect underlying cells Spermatic cord against the cytotoxic effects of hypertonic urine. - blood vessels + nerves + ductus deferens XI. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Ejaculatory Duct Ò Formed by the short duct from the seminal Testes vesicle and the ampulla of the ductus deferens. Ò small, ovoid organs within the scrotum These ducts project into the prostate gland and Tunica albuginea - white capsule consisting dense end by opening into the urethra. connective tissue that covers the testis Ò Pseudostratified and simple columnar Septa - divide each testis into cone-shaped testicular lobules. Accessory glands Lobules – contain seminiferous tubules 1. Seminal Vesicle Seminiferous Tubules – site of sperm cell - exocrine glands in which production of their development. viscid, yellowish secretion depends on Leydig/ interstitial cells - secrete testosterone testosterone triggered by LH or Interstitial Cell Stimulating - lined with simple or pseudostratified Hormone. columnar epithelial cells rich in secretory granules. Cells in the Seminiferous Tubules Components of Seminal Fluid: 1. Germ/ Sex cells - Fructose 2. Sertoli/ Nurse/ Sustentacular Cells - Prostaglandin 3. Myoid cells - Fibrinogen 2. Prostate Gland Intratesticular Ducts - dense organ that resembles a walnut in shape - Straight tubules (simple cuboidal and Sertoli and size. cells) - Secretes prostatic fluid - Rete testis (simple cuboidal) 3. Bulbourethral Gland - Efferent ductules (alternating simple cuboidal - Pair of tubuloacinar glands non-ciliated and simple columnar ciliated) - Secretory units are surrounded by smooth muscle cells and lined by a mucus-secreting Epididymis simple columnar epithelium 15 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT Urethra Ò extends from the urinary bladder to the distal Uterus end of the penis and is a passageway for both ž A pear-shaped organ with thick, muscular walls. urine and male reproductive fluids. Parts: 3 Parts: 1. Fundus - Prostatic 2. Body - Membranous 3. Isthmus - Spongy / penile urethra 4. Cervix Layers: Penis ž Perimetrium Ò male organ of copulation ž Myometrium Ò Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium. ž Endometrium Ò consists of three cylindrical masses of erectile - Functional Layer tissue, plus the penile urethra, surrounded by - Basal Layer skin. Vagina 3 Columns of erectile tissue: ž female organ of copulation - 2 Corpora cavernosa (dorsum and side) Layers: - 1 Corpus spongiosum (ventral) ž Mucosa - stratified squamous epithelium Tunica albuginea – covers the corpora cavernosa ž Muscular layer – smooth muscle Glans Penis - cap formed from expansion of corpus ž Adventitia – dense elastic connective tissue spongiosum. Rugae - ridges Fornix – superior, domed-part External Genitalia Hymen - covers the vaginal opening, or orifice. Prepuce/ foreskin- loose fold of skin that Bartholin’s gland covers the glans penis. - Provides lubricating mucus during sexual Scrotum – Saclike structure that contains the arousal, also called greater vestibular glands testes; male homologue of labia majora in female. which are homologous to the male Raphe – an irregular ridge that marks the bulbourethral glands. midline of the external part of the scrotum that extends from the anus, over the scrotal sac, and onto the inferior External Genitalia aspect of the body of the penis - all covered by stratified squamous epithelium: ž Vestibule XII. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ž Labia minora ž Labia majora Ovaries ž Clitoris ž Almond-shaped bodies producing the oocytes. Ovarian/ germinal epithelium (simple cuboidal) - Clitoris -- - continuous with the mesothelium and - Composed of two corpora cavernosa and overlying a layer of dense connective tissue capsule, glans clitoris. the tunica albuginea, like that of the testis. - It has root and body 2 Parts Root of the clitoris – It consists of two crura. Ø Cortex - the denser, outer part of the ovary, Body of the clitoris – Formed by the Ø Medulla - the looser, inner part of the ovary unattached parts of the two corpora cavernosa. Uterine/ Fallopian Tubes Mammary Gland ž Also called oviducts ž Compound tubuloalveolar glands of the Regions: breasts that resembles highly modified apocrine 1. Infundibulum sweat glands 2. Ampulla 3. Isthmus Areola 4. Uterine or intramural part ž Thin skin covering the nipple Histology: ž Contains sebaceous glands and abundant Mucosa is lined by simple columnar epithelium on a sensory nerves lamina propria of loose connective tissue. 16 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT *Connective tissue of the nipple is rich in smooth muscle fibers that run parallel to the lactiferous sinuses and produce nipple erection when they contract. Lactiferous ducts – excretory ducts that emerge independently in the nipples Myoepithelial cells - surround the alveoli and contract to expel milk. - star-shaped Suspensory ligaments (Cooper’s ligaments) - Strong fibrous processes that support the breasts. Thyroid Gland ž composed of two lobes connected by a narrow XIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM band of thyroid tissue called isthmus. ž contains numerous follicular cells called Pituitary Gland thyrocytes which are rounded epithelial cells. ž Also called Hypophysis The center of each thyroid follicle is filled with a ž It lies below the brain in a small cavity on the gelatinous material called colloid. sphenoid bone, the sella turcica. ž Scattered parafollicular cells lie between the ž Formed in the embryo partly from the follicles and among the cells that make up the developing brain and partly from the developing walls of the follicle. oral cavity ž Largest endocrine gland. 2 Glands/ Parts: 1. Posterior Pituitary or neurohypophysis 2. Anterior Pituitary or adenohypophysis Anterior Pituitary ž Also called adenohypophysis and is derived from the oral ectoderm. ž 3 parts: - a large pars distalis or anterior lobe; - the pars tuberalis - and the thin pars intermedia *T3 is about 20 times more potent than T4 at increasing cellular metabolism. Parathyroid gland ž Four small ovoid masses are usually embedded in the posterior part of each lobe of the thyroid gland. ž The endocrine cells of the parathyroid glands, called principal (chief) cells, are small polygonal cells with round nuclei. * Two superior parathyroids develop from the 4th pharyngeal pouch. Two inferior parathyroids develop from the 3rd pharyngeal pouch. Posterior Pituitary Parathyroid Hormone ž Also called the neurohypophysis and consists of: Regulates Blood Ca levels by: - a large part, the pars nervosa and - Increase rate of breakdown of bone by - the smaller infundibulum stalk attached osteoclasts to the hypothalamus at the median - Increase reabsorption of Ca in kidneys eminence. - Increased absorption of Ca from small intestine by increased vitamin D synthesis 17 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE  NURSING*RADTECH*DENTISTRY*CRIMINOLOGY*MIDWIFERY*MEDTECH LET*PSYCHOMET*RESPIRATORY THERAPY*CIVIL SERVICE*NAPOLCOM NCLEX*DHA*HAAD* PROMETRIC* UK-CBT Adrenal Gland Response: Aids in spermatogenesis, dev’t of ž also called the suprarenal glands, are paired genitalia, maintenance of functional reproductive organs lying near the superior poles of the organs, secondary sex characteristics, sexual kidneys behavior ž composed of an inner medulla and an outer ž Inhibin cortex. Target tissue: Anterior Pituitary Gland *During embryogenesis, medulla is derived from neural Response: Inhibits FSH secretion crest and cortex is from mesoderm. Ovaries Adrenal Cortex Hormones: Divided into 3 Zones: ž Estrogen/ Progesterone 1. Zona Glomerulosa – produces the steroid Target tissue: Most cells mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) Response: Aids in uterine and mammary gland 2. Zona Fasciculata – produces glucocorticoid dev’t and function, maturation of genitalia, (cortisol) secondary sex characteristics, sexual behavior, 3. Zona reticularis – produces weak androgens menstrual cycle Adrenal Medulla ž Inhibin ž Medullary parenchymal cells, known as Target tissue: Anterior pituitary gland chromaffin cells, arise from neural crest cells Response: Inhibits FSH secretion and is responsible for storage and secretion of ž Relaxin catecholamines Target tissue: Connective tissue cells Response: Increases the flexibility of connective tissue in the pelvic area, especially the symphysis pubis Thymus It is a bilobed gland located in the superior mediastinum, the partition dividing the thoracic cavity into the left and right parts. The site for the maturation of T cells. Thymosin - a hormone secreted by the thymus, is important in the T-cell maturation process. Pancreas Pineal Gland ž Both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland. ž It is in the epithalamus of the brain and also *exocrine – acini - produce pancreatic juice known as the epiphysis cerebri *endocrine - consisting of pancreatic islets ž Prominent and abundant secretory cells called (islets of Langerhans) secretes hormones that pinealocytes that produce melatonin, a low enter the circulatory system. molecular-weight tryptophan derivative. ž acts as a neuroendocrine transducer, converting sensory input regarding light and darkness into variations in many hormonal functions. Melatonin - circadian (24 hours, day/night) rhythm of physiological functions and behaviors. Dream Gonads Act Testes Believe Hormones: ž Testosterone What is your Goal? Target tissue: Most Cells TO TOP THE BOARD EXAM! 18 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY- DENTISTRY MODULE